The Pixie-bob is a breed of domestic cat claimed to be the progeny of naturally occurring bobcat hybrids . However, DNA testing has failed to detect bobcat marker genes, and Pixie-bobs are considered wholly domestic for the purposes of ownership, cat fancy registration, and import and export. They were, however, selected and bred to look like American bobcats.
113-480: In the spring of 1985, Carol Ann Brewer purchased near Mount Baker , Washington , a unique male cat with a spotted coat, a short tail, and polydactyl paws. In January 1986, she rescued another male cat named Keba, which was very large, had a bobbed tail, and was reported to have been sired by a bobcat. While this cat was starving, it still weighed 17 pounds, and was so tall it reached up to Brewer's knees. Shortly after she had acquired this large male, it mated with
226-455: A population bottleneck caused by purposeful ( assortative ) breeding or natural environmental factors, the deleterious inherited traits are culled. Island species are often very inbred, as their isolation from the larger group on a mainland allows natural selection to work on their population. This type of isolation may result in the formation of race or even speciation , as the inbreeding first removes many deleterious genes, and permits
339-450: A species may not be able to adapt to changes in environmental conditions. Each individual will have similar immune systems, as immune systems are genetically based. When a species becomes endangered , the population may fall below a minimum whereby the forced interbreeding between the remaining animals will result in extinction . Natural breedings include inbreeding by necessity, and most animals only migrate when necessary. In many cases,
452-420: A confirmed VEI level had a VEI of 2 but two possible eruptions had a VEI of 3. In 1843, explorers reported a widespread layer of newly fallen rock fragments "like a snowfall" and that the forest was "on fire for miles around". These fires were unlikely to have been caused by ashfall, however, as charred material is not found with deposits of this fine-grained volcanic ash , which was almost certainly cooled in
565-436: A consistent and uniform animal model for experimental purposes and enables genetic studies in congenic and knock-out animals. In order to achieve a mouse strain that is considered inbred, a minimum of 20 sequential generations of sibling matings must occur. With each successive generation of breeding, homozygosity in the entire genome increases, eliminating heterozygous loci. With 20 generations of sibling matings, homozygosity
678-467: A form of distant linebreeding occurs. Again it is up to the assortative breeder to know what sort of traits, both positive and negative, exist within the diversity of one breeding. This diversity of genetic expression, within even close relatives, increases the variability and diversity of viable stock. Systematic inbreeding and maintenance of inbred strains of laboratory mice and rats is of great importance for biomedical research. The inbreeding guarantees
791-554: A large one occurred on July 27, 2007. In early March 1975, a dramatic increase in fumarolic activity and snow melt in the Sherman Crater area raised concern that an eruption might be imminent. Heat flow increased more than tenfold. Additional monitoring equipment was installed and several geophysical surveys were conducted to try to detect the movement of magma. The increased thermal activity prompted public officials and Puget Power to temporarily close public access to
904-555: A naturally occurring population indigenous to a particular geographic region" but it is now classified as an established breed. Frank Ditto attempted to patent the Pixie-bob in 1999, but his application was rejected by the United States Patent and Trademark Office . Successive litigation upheld the rejection. Pixie-bobs are a fully- domesticated , selectively-bred breed of cat ( Felis cattus ) intended to resemble
1017-479: A next door neighbor's brown spotted female cat. In April 1986, a litter was born from this mating. Brewer eventually kept one of the female kittens, named "Pixie", and after a year started a breeding program with Pixie as the foundation cat. Over the next couple of years, Brewer introduced into her program 23 cats from around the nearby Cascade Range , that were believed by her to be born from naturally occurring matings between bobcats and domestic cats. She coined
1130-404: A particular recessive genetic mutation . Except in certain rare circumstances, such as new mutations or uniparental disomy , both parents of an individual with such a disorder will be carriers of the gene. These carriers do not display any signs of the mutation and may be unaware that they carry the mutated gene. Since relatives share a higher proportion of their genes than do unrelated people, it
1243-470: A population through purifying selection . Inbreeding is a technique used in selective breeding . For example, in livestock breeding , breeders may use inbreeding when trying to establish a new and desirable trait in the stock and for producing distinct families within a breed, but will need to watch for undesirable characteristics in offspring, which can then be eliminated through further selective breeding or culling . Inbreeding also helps to ascertain
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#17327981765871356-524: A population to become fixed for certain traits, like having too many bones in an area, like the vertebral column of wolves on Isle Royale or having cranial abnormalities, such as in Northern elephant seals , where their cranial bone length in the lower mandibular tooth row has changed. Having a high homozygosity rate is problematic for a population because it will unmask recessive deleterious alleles generated by mutations, reduce heterozygote advantage, and it
1469-462: A severe winter weather related population crash. These studies show that inbreeding depression and ecological factors have an influence on survival. The Florida panther population was reduced to about 30 animals, so inbreeding became a problem. Several females were imported from Texas and now the population is better off genetically. A measure of inbreeding of an individual A is the probability F (A) that both alleles in one locus are derived from
1582-566: A significantly higher chance of reaching repeated results with future offspring. Additionally, consanguineous parents possess a high risk of premature birth and producing underweight and undersized infants. Viable inbred offspring are also likely to be inflicted with physical deformities and genetically inherited diseases. Studies have confirmed an increase in several genetic disorders due to inbreeding such as blindness, hearing loss, neonatal diabetes, limb malformations, disorders of sex development , schizophrenia and several others. Moreover, there
1695-499: A small colony was discovered in the Point Sur region in the 1930s. Since then, the population has grown and spread along the central Californian coast to around 2,000 individuals, a level that has remained stable for over a decade. Population growth is limited by the fact that all Californian sea otters are descended from the isolated colony, resulting in inbreeding. Cheetahs are another example of inbreeding. Thousands of years ago,
1808-594: A small hydrovolcanic eruption occurred at Sherman Crater, triggering a second collapse of the flank just east of the Roman Wall. That collapse also became a lahar that mainly followed the course of the first lahar for at least 20 mi (32 km), and also spilled into tributaries of the Baker River. Finally, an eruption cloud deposited ash as far as 40 mi (64 km) downwind to the northeast and east. Several eruptions occurred from Sherman Crater during
1921-478: A small population for a period of time can lead to inbreeding within that population, resulting in increased genetic relatedness between breeding individuals. Inbreeding depression can also occur in a large population if individuals tend to mate with their relatives, instead of mating randomly. Due to higher prenatal and postnatal mortality rates, some individuals in the first generation of inbreeding will not live on to reproduce. Over time, with isolation, such as
2034-432: A very high conspicuous craggy mountain ... presented itself, towering above the clouds: as low down as they allowed it to be visible it was covered with snow; and south of it, was a long ridge of very rugged snowy mountains, much less elevated, which seemed to stretch to a considerable distance ... the high distant land formed, as already observed, like detached islands, amongst which the lofty mountain, discovered in
2147-679: Is a 10,781 ft (3,286 m) active glacier -covered andesitic stratovolcano in the Cascade Volcanic Arc and the North Cascades of Washington State in the United States. Mount Baker has the second-most thermally active crater in the Cascade Range after Mount St. Helens . About 30 miles (48 km) due east of the city of Bellingham , Whatcom County , Mount Baker is the youngest volcano in
2260-406: Is a common mineral around these fumaroles. At Sherman Crater, collapses of this weakened rock generated lahars in the 1840s. Around 6,600 years ago, a series of discrete events culminated in the largest tephra-producing eruption in postglacial time at Mount Baker. This is the last episode of undoubted magmatic activity preserved in the geologic record. First, the largest collapse in the history of
2373-488: Is also denoted as the kinship coefficient between A and B. A particular case is the self-coancestry of individual A with itself, f(A,A), which is the probability that taking one random allele from A and then, independently and with replacement, another random allele also from A, both are identical by descent. Since they can be identical by descent by sampling the same allele or by sampling both alleles that happen to be identical by descent, we have f(A,A) = 1/2 + F(A)/2. Both
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#17327981765872486-576: Is an increased risk for congenital heart disease depending on the inbreeding coefficient (See coefficient of inbreeding ) of the offspring, with significant risk accompanied by an F =.125 or higher. The general negative outlook and eschewal of inbreeding that is prevalent in the Western world today has roots from over 2000 years ago. Specifically, written documents such as the Bible illustrate that there have been laws and social customs that have called for
2599-473: Is detrimental to the survival of small, endangered animal populations. When deleterious recessive alleles are unmasked due to the increased homozygosity generated by inbreeding, this can cause inbreeding depression. There may also be other deleterious effects besides those caused by recessive diseases. Thus, similar immune systems may be more vulnerable to infectious diseases (see Major histocompatibility complex and sexual selection ). Inbreeding history of
2712-613: Is discussed in the following quotation on cattle: Meanwhile, milk production per cow per lactation increased from 17,444 lbs to 25,013 lbs from 1978 to 1998 for the Holstein breed. Mean breeding values for milk of Holstein cows increased by 4,829 lbs during this period. High producing cows are increasingly difficult to breed and are subject to higher health costs than cows of lower genetic merit for production (Cassell, 2001). Intensive selection for higher yield has increased relationships among animals within breed and increased
2825-644: Is drained on the north by streams that flow into the North Fork Nooksack River , on the west by the Middle Fork Nooksack River , and on the southeast and east by tributaries of the Baker River. Lake Shannon and Baker Lake are the largest nearby bodies of water, formed by two dams on the Baker River. Two ammunition ships of the United States Navy (traditionally named for volcanoes) have been named after
2938-443: Is expected to increase the number of spontaneous abortions of zygotes, perinatal deaths, and postnatal offspring with birth defects. The advantages of inbreeding may be the result of a tendency to preserve the structures of alleles interacting at different loci that have been adapted together by a common selective history. Malformations or harmful traits can stay within a population due to a high homozygosity rate, and this will cause
3051-466: Is greater than that of all the other Cascades volcanoes (except Rainier) combined. It is also one of the snowiest places in the world; in 1999, Mount Baker Ski Area , located 9 mi (14.5 km) to the northeast, set the world record for recorded snowfall in a single season—1,140 in (29 m; 95 ft). Mount Baker is the third-highest mountain in Washington and the fifth-highest in
3164-576: Is involved. A considerable amount of research has been done at Mount Baker over the past decade, and it is now among the most-studied of the Cascade Volcanoes . Recent and ongoing projects include gravimetric and GPS-based geodetic monitoring, fumarole gas sampling, tephra distribution mapping, new interpretations of the Schriebers Meadow lava flow, and hazards analyses. Mapping of Carmelo and Sherman craters, and interpretations of
3277-469: Is more likely that related parents will both be carriers of the same recessive allele, and therefore their children are at a higher risk of inheriting an autosomal recessive genetic disorder. The extent to which the risk increases depends on the degree of genetic relationship between the parents; the risk is greater when the parents are close relatives and lower for relationships between more distant relatives, such as second cousins, though still greater than for
3390-404: Is not as effective. Fixation of alleles most likely occurs through Muller's ratchet , when an asexual population's genome accumulates deleterious mutations that are irreversible. Despite all its disadvantages, inbreeding can also have a variety of advantages, such as ensuring a child produced from the mating contains, and will pass on, a higher percentage of its mother/father's genetics, reducing
3503-409: Is occurring at roughly 98.7% of all loci in the genome, allowing for these offspring to serve as animal models for genetic studies. The use of inbred strains is also important for genetic studies in animal models, for example to distinguish genetic from environmental effects. The mice that are inbred typically show considerably lower survival rates. Inbreeding increases homozygosity, which can increase
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3616-551: Is primarily assortative breeding (see selective breeding ). Without the sorting of individuals by trait, a breed could not be established, nor could poor genetic material be removed. Homozygosity is the case where similar or identical alleles combine to express a trait that is not otherwise expressed (recessiveness). Inbreeding exposes recessive alleles through increasing homozygosity. Breeders must avoid breeding from individuals that demonstrate either homozygosity or heterozygosity for disease causing alleles. The goal of preventing
3729-441: Is south of the summit, and its ice-covered floor is 1,000 ft (300 m) below the summit ice dome. This crater is the site of all Holocene eruptive activity. Hundreds of fumaroles vent gases, primarily H 2 O , CO 2 , and H 2 S . Lava flows from the summit vent erupted between 30,000 and 10,000 years ago, and during the final stages of edifice construction, blocky pyroclastic flows entered
3842-431: Is the largest; it has a surface area of 1,285 acres (5.2 km ). The other large glaciers—which have areas greater than 625 acres (2.5 km )—are Roosevelt Glacier , Mazama Glacier , Park Glacier , Boulder Glacier , Easton Glacier , and Deming Glacier . All retreated during the first half of the century, advanced from 1950 to 1975 and have been retreating with increasing rapidity since 1980. Mount Baker
3955-460: Is the main selective reason for outcrossing. Crossbreeding between populations sometimes has positive effects on fitness-related traits, but also sometimes leads to negative effects known as outbreeding depression . However, increased homozygosity increases the probability of fixing beneficial alleles and also slightly decreases the probability of fixing deleterious alleles in a population. Inbreeding can result in purging of deleterious alleles from
4068-448: Is unlikely that two unrelated partners will both be carriers of the same deleterious allele; however, because close relatives share a large fraction of their alleles, the probability that any such deleterious allele is inherited from the common ancestor through both parents is increased dramatically. For each homozygous recessive individual formed there is an equal chance of producing a homozygous dominant individual — one completely devoid of
4181-574: The Crater lions, it is known that a population bottleneck has occurred. Researchers found far greater genetic heterozygosity than expected. In fact, predators are known for low genetic variance, along with most of the top portion of the trophic levels of an ecosystem . Additionally, the alpha males of two neighboring prides can be from the same litter; one brother may come to acquire leadership over another's pride, and subsequently mate with his 'nieces' or cousins. However, killing another male's cubs, upon
4294-520: The Lummi or Halkomelem-speaking peoples , use names for the mountain borrowed from the Nooksack term, as, due to the distance to the mountain from the core homelands of those peoples, only those closely related to the Nooksack might travel to hunt and gather with them at Kwelshán . Thus, the names for Mount Baker in Lummi and Halkomelem are Kwelshan and Kwelxá:lxw respectively. In
4407-478: The Manx , American Bobtail , and Japanese Bobtail . Pixie-bobs are said to be highly intelligent, social, active, bold, and enjoy playing with other animals. They are also known for their "chirps", chatters, and growls; most meow scarcely if at all. Most Pixie-bobs are highly sociable around both their owners and strangers. Almost all Pixie-bobs like to be in the same room as their owners, and will follow them around
4520-786: The Mount Meager massif , nor has it erupted frequently. During this period, four episodes of magmatic eruptive activity have been recently recognized. Magmatic eruptions have produced tephra , pyroclastic flows , and lava flows from summit vents and the Schriebers Meadow Cone . The most destructive and most frequent events at Mount Baker have been lahars or debris flows and debris avalanches. Many, if not most, of these were not related to magmatic eruptions, but may have been induced by magma intrusion , steam eruptions, earthquakes , gravitational instability, or possibly even heavy rainfall. Research beginning in
4633-560: The Nooksack and Upper Skagit peoples hunted and gathered on the north and south faces of the mountain. For the Nooksack, Mount Baker is extremely important in traditional religious beliefs, and was historically a great source of wealth (in the form of mountain goat wool, a highly prized commodity) and food. Nooksack families would travel via the North Fork ( Nooksack : Chuw7álich ) or Middle Fork ( Nooksack : Nuxwt'íqw'em ) of
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4746-468: The Nooksack River to the alpine meadows where they would set up temporary summer camps to dry picked berries and meat. From those camps, people would disperse across the mountain to pick berries or hunt. The high slopes of the mountain were prime territory for hunting deer, elk, mountain goat, bear, marmot, and grouse. Nooksack families held almost exclusive usage rights to the northwestern areas of
4859-629: The South American sea lion , there was concern that recent population crashes would reduce genetic diversity. Historical analysis indicated that a population expansion from just two matrilineal lines was responsible for most of the individuals within the population. Even so, the diversity within the lines allowed great variation in the gene pool that may help to protect the South American sea lion from extinction. In lions, prides are often followed by related males in bachelor groups. When
4972-498: The Spanish Navy set sail from Nootka , a temporary settlement on Vancouver Island , with orders to explore the newly discovered Strait of Juan de Fuca . Accompanying Quimper was first-pilot Gonzalo Lopez de Haro , who drew detailed charts during the six-week expedition. Although Quimper's journal of the voyage does not refer to the mountain, one of Haro's manuscript charts includes a sketch of Mount Baker. The Spanish named
5085-428: The last ice age (which culminated 15,000–20,000 years ago), by thick ice sheets that filled the valleys and surrounded the volcano. In the last 14,000 years, the area around the mountain has been largely ice-free, but the mountain itself remains heavily covered with snow and ice. Isolated ridges of lava and hydrothermally altered rock, especially in the area of Sherman Crater, are exposed between glaciers on
5198-456: The mating or breeding of individuals or organisms that are closely related genetically . By analogy, the term is used in human reproduction , but more commonly refers to the genetic disorders and other consequences that may arise from expression of deleterious recessive traits resulting from incestuous sexual relationships and consanguinity . Animals avoid inbreeding only rarely. Inbreeding results in homozygosity which can increase
5311-569: The recombination load , and allowing the expression of recessive advantageous phenotypes. Some species with a Haplodiploidy mating system depend on the ability to produce sons to mate with as a means of ensuring a mate can be found if no other male is available. It has been proposed that under circumstances when the advantages of inbreeding outweigh the disadvantages, preferential breeding within small groups could be promoted, potentially leading to speciation . Autosomal recessive disorders occur in individuals who have two copies of an allele for
5424-761: The 19th century; they were witnessed from the Bellingham area. A possible eruption was seen in June 1792 during the Spanish expedition of Dionisio Alcalá Galiano and Cayetano Valdés . Their report read, in part: During the night [while anchored in Bellingham Bay] we constantly saw light to the south and east of the mountain of Carmelo [Baker] and even at times some bursts of flame, signs which left no doubt that there are volcanoes with strong eruptions in those mountains. Most of Mount Baker's eruptions that have
5537-408: The 19th-century lake is now covered by waters of the modern dam-impounded Baker Lake . Similar but lower-level hydrovolcanic activity at Sherman Crater continued intermittently for several decades afterward. On 26 November 1860, passengers who were traveling by steamer from New Westminster to Victoria reported that Mount Baker was "puffing out large volumes of smoke, which upon breaking, rolled down
5650-478: The American Cat Fancier's Association (ACFA). The Pixie-bob was accepted into the "Exhibition" category by TICA in 1993, promoted to "New Breed and Color" status in 1996 and eventually gained Championship status in 1998. The Pixie-bob was classified by TICA initially as a "Native New Breed", defined as "A new breed which has been identified through selection of phenotypically similar individuals from
5763-556: The British Queen Victoria or King Christian IX of Denmark . The House of Habsburg was known for its intermarriages; the Habsburg lip often cited as an ill-effect. The closely related houses of Habsburg, Bourbon , Braganza and Wittelsbach also frequently engaged in first-cousin unions as well as the occasional double-cousin and uncle–niece marriages. In ancient Egypt , royal women were believed to carry
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#17327981765875876-634: The Cascade Range, if Little Tahoma Peak , a subpeak of Mount Rainier, and Shastina , a subpeak of Mount Shasta , are not counted. Located in the Mount Baker Wilderness , it is visible from much of Greater Victoria , Nanaimo , and Greater Vancouver in British Columbia , and to the south, from Seattle (and on clear days Tacoma ) in Washington. Indigenous peoples have known the mountain for thousands of years, but
5989-514: The Mount Baker volcanic field. While volcanism has persisted here for some 1.5 million years, the current volcanic cone is likely no more than 140,000 years old, and possibly no older than 80–90,000 years. Older volcanic edifices have mostly eroded away due to glaciation. After Mount Rainier , Mount Baker has the heaviest glacier cover of the Cascade Range volcanoes; the volume of snow and ice on Mount Baker, 0.43 cu mi (1.79 km )
6102-638: The North American bobcat ( Lynx rufus ). While the average domestic cat breed weighs about 8 lb (4 kg), Pixie-bobs can be somewhat larger, but (on average) usually do not exceed 11 lb (5 kg), similar to a medium- to large-sized domestic cat. Only very few breeders are regularly producing larger cats, which are generally large-boned, muscular and massive in form. Male Pixie-bobs are, most times, larger than females. Pixie-bobs grow for up to four years, instead of one year, like most domestic breeds. Most Pixie-bobs have black fur and skin on
6215-546: The Puget Sound region. Isaac I. Stevens , the first governor of Washington Territory , wrote about Mount Baker in 1853: Mount Baker ... is one of the loftiest and most conspicuous peaks of the northern Cascade range; it is nearly as high as Mount Rainier, and like that mountain, its snow-covered pyramid has the form of a sugar-loaf. It is visible from all the water and islands ... [in Puget Sound] and from
6328-479: The Qatari population suffered from hereditary hearing loss; most were descendants of a consanguineous relationship. Inter-nobility marriage was used as a method of forming political alliances among elites. These ties were often sealed only upon the birth of progeny within the arranged marriage . Thus marriage was seen as a union of lines of nobility and not as a contract between individuals. Royal intermarriage
6441-425: The abstention from inbreeding. Along with cultural taboos, parental education and awareness of inbreeding consequences have played large roles in minimizing inbreeding frequencies in areas like Europe. That being so, there are less urbanized and less populated regions across the world that have shown continuity in the practice of inbreeding. The continuity of inbreeding is often either by choice or unavoidably due to
6554-573: The act of going hunting up on the slopes. The third main name for the mountain is Spelhpálhx̠en , meaning "many meadows," refers to the sheltered meadows below around 5,500 feet. The Upper Skagit peoples , who live in the closest proximity to the south face of the mountain along the Skagit River watershed, call the mountain təqʷubəʔ in Lushootseed , which means "permanently snow-covered mountain." Other Indigenous peoples, such as
6667-415: The afternoon by the third lieutenant, and in compliment to him called by me Mount Baker, rose a very conspicuous object ... apparently at a very remote distance. Six years later, the official narrative of this voyage was published, including the first printed reference to the mountain. By the mid-1850s, Mount Baker was a well-known feature on the horizon to the explorers and fur traders who traveled in
6780-479: The atmosphere before falling. Rivers south of the volcano were reportedly clogged with ash, and Native Americans reported that many salmon perished. Reports of flooding on the Skagit River from the eruption are, however, probably greatly exaggerated. A short time later, two collapses of the east side of Sherman Crater produced two lahars, the first and larger of which flowed into the natural Baker Lake, increasing its level by at least 10 feet (3.0 m). The location of
6893-532: The bloodlines and so it was advantageous for a pharaoh to marry his sister or half-sister; in such cases a special combination between endogamy and polygamy is found. Normally, the old ruler's eldest son and daughter (who could be either siblings or half-siblings) became the new rulers. All rulers of the Ptolemaic dynasty uninterruptedly from Ptolemy IV ( Ptolemy II married his sister but had no issue) were married to their brothers and sisters, so as to keep
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#17327981765877006-538: The bottom of their paws, with tipped ears, heavy ear-hair, black lips, and white fur around the eyes (but with black eye-skin). Their muzzle is large, with rounded whisker pads and a red nose-leather. Their chins have white fur, but often have black skin underwear. Some of their whiskers change from black (root – about 25%) to white (to the tip – about 75% of the whisker). Their bobcat-like fur pattern often has reddish, apricot, and peach tones mixed-in. Most are short-haired, but some are long-haired. The brow should be heavy and
7119-517: The chance for these recessive alleles to pair and become homozygous greatly increases, leading to offspring with autosomal recessive disorders. However, these deleterious effects are common for very close relatives but not for those related on the 3rd cousin or greater level, who exhibit increased fitness. Inbreeding is especially problematic in small populations where the genetic variation is already limited. By inbreeding, individuals are further decreasing genetic variation by increasing homozygosity in
7232-477: The chances of offspring being affected by recessive traits . In extreme cases, this usually leads to at least temporarily decreased biological fitness of a population (called inbreeding depression ), which is its ability to survive and reproduce. An individual who inherits such deleterious traits is colloquially referred to as inbred . The avoidance of expression of such deleterious recessive alleles caused by inbreeding, via inbreeding avoidance mechanisms,
7345-472: The chances of the expression of deleterious or beneficial recessive alleles and therefore has the potential to either decrease or increase the fitness of the offspring. Depending on the rate of inbreeding, natural selection may still be able to eliminate deleterious alleles. With continuous inbreeding, genetic variation is lost and homozygosity is increased, enabling the expression of recessive deleterious alleles in homozygotes. The coefficient of inbreeding , or
7458-439: The cheetah went through a population bottleneck that reduced its population dramatically so the animals that are alive today are all related to one another. A consequence from inbreeding for this species has been high juvenile mortality, low fecundity, and poor breeding success. In a study on an island population of song sparrows, individuals that were inbred showed significantly lower survival rates than outbred individuals during
7571-444: The closest available mate is a mother, sister, grandmother, father, brother, or grandfather. In all cases, the environment presents stresses to remove from the population those individuals who cannot survive because of illness. There was an assumption that wild populations do not inbreed; this is not what is observed in some cases in the wild. However, in species such as horses , animals in wild or feral conditions often drive off
7684-405: The closest proximity to the north face of the mountain, have multiple names for different areas of the mountain. The name Kweq' Smánit , meaning "white mountain," refers to Mount Baker as a whole, and specifically, to the glacier-covered summit above 7,000 feet. The open slopes of Mt. Baker, between about 5,000 feet and 7,000 feet, are known as Kwelshán , meaning "shooting place," referring to
7797-424: The degree of inbreeding in an individual, is an estimate of the percent of homozygous alleles in the overall genome. The more biologically related the parents are, the greater the coefficient of inbreeding, since their genomes have many similarities already. This overall homozygosity becomes an issue when there are deleterious recessive alleles in the gene pool of the family. By pairing chromosomes of similar genomes,
7910-399: The dominant male is killed or driven off by one of these bachelors, a father may be replaced by his son. There is no mechanism for preventing inbreeding or to ensure outcrossing. In the prides, most lionesses are related to one another. If there is more than one dominant male, the group of alpha males are usually related. Two lines are then being "line bred". Also, in some populations, such as
8023-441: The eruptive history, continue, as well. The Mount Baker Volcano Research Center maintains an online archive of abstracts of this work, and an extensive references list, as well as photos. Mount Baker has an alpine tundra climate ( ET ) Eleven named glaciers descend from Mount Baker. Two additional glaciers ( Hadley Glacier and Sholes Glacier ) descend from lower slopes detached from the main glacial mass. The Coleman Glacier
8136-405: The expression of genes that allow a population to adapt to an ecosystem . As the adaptation becomes more pronounced, the new species or race radiates from its entrance into the new space, or dies out if it cannot adapt and, most importantly, reproduce. The reduced genetic diversity , for example due to a bottleneck will unavoidably increase inbreeding for the entire population. This may mean that
8249-446: The eyes should have a triangular shape. Eyes are blue when kittens, then change to green or gold when several months old. Tail size can range from 2 inches (approximately 5 cm) to hock length when leg is extended. The head is pear-shaped and is considered to be the most important characteristic. It is not presently known what genetic similarity there may be (or not) between the Pixie-bob and other breeds with suppressed tails, such as
8362-425: The first written record of the mountain is from Spanish explorer Gonzalo Lopez de Haro , who mapped it in 1790 as Gran Montaña del Carmelo . The explorer George Vancouver later named the mountain for 3rd Lieutenant Joseph Baker of HMS Discovery , who saw it on April 30, 1792. Mount Baker is known to the several Indigenous peoples surrounding the mountain by different names. The Nooksack , who live in
8475-400: The general population. Children of parent-child or sibling-sibling unions are at an increased risk compared to cousin-cousin unions. Inbreeding may result in a greater than expected phenotypic expression of deleterious recessive alleles within a population. As a result, first-generation inbred individuals are more likely to show physical and health defects, including: The isolation of
8588-409: The genetic diversity of a population and cause problems related to a too-small gene pool that may include an increased prevalence of genetic disorders and inbreeding depression. Outcrossing is where two unrelated individuals are crossed to produce progeny. In outcrossing, unless there is verifiable genetic information, one may find that all individuals are distantly related to an ancient progenitor. If
8701-411: The genomes of their offspring. Thus, the likelihood of deleterious recessive alleles to pair is significantly higher in a small inbreeding population than in a larger inbreeding population. The fitness consequences of consanguineous mating have been studied since their scientific recognition by Charles Darwin in 1839. Some of the most harmful effects known from such breeding includes its effects on
8814-525: The geophysical surveys, nor were any other precursory activities observed that would indicate that magma was moving up into the volcano. Several small lahars formed from material ejected onto the surrounding glaciers and acidic water was discharged into Baker Lake for many months. Activity gradually declined over the next two years, but stabilized at a higher level than before 1975. The increased level of fumarolic activity has continued at Mount Baker since 1975, but no other changes suggest that magma movement
8927-412: The harmful allele. Contrary to common belief, inbreeding does not in itself alter allele frequencies, but rather increases the relative proportion of homozygotes to heterozygotes; however, because the increased proportion of deleterious homozygotes exposes the allele to natural selection , in the long run its frequency decreases more rapidly in inbred populations. In the short term, incestuous reproduction
9040-532: The house. Other personality characteristics include the following: As the breed is frequently outcrossed to "legend cats", Pixie-bobs are genetically diverse and are not prone to problems caused by inbreeding . Pixie-bob breeders use a disease database, Pawpeds, to ensure that health information can be recorded and monitored. Some genetic conditions include the following: Mount Baker Mount Baker ( Nooksack : Kweq' Smánit ; Lushootseed : təqʷubəʔ ), also known as Koma Kulshan or simply Kulshan ,
9153-506: The inbreeding and the coancestry coefficients can be defined for specific individuals or as average population values. They can be computed from genealogies or estimated from the population size and its breeding properties, but all methods assume no selection and are limited to neutral alleles. There are several methods to compute this percentage. The two main ways are the path method and the tabular method. Typical coancestries between relatives are as follows: Breeding in domestic animals
9266-411: The language of the unidentified "Koma tribe," the name is Tukullum or Nahcullum. The first Europeans to see and name the mountain were the Spanish. Gonzalo Lopez de Haro was the first European to record the mountain, calling it Gran Montaña del Carmelo , meaning "Great Mount Carmel ". The current English name for the mountain, Mount Baker, was chosen by George Vancouver . Vancouver named
9379-465: The late 1990s shows that Mount Baker is the youngest of several volcanic centers in the area and one of the youngest volcanoes in the Cascade Range. The Pliocene Hannegan caldera is preserved 16 miles (25 km) northeast of Mount Baker Volcanic activity in the Mount Baker volcanic field began more than one million years ago, but many of the earliest lava and tephra deposits have been removed by glacial erosion . The pale-colored rocks northeast of
9492-710: The limitations of the geographical area. When by choice, the rate of consanguinity is highly dependent on religion and culture. In the Western world, some Anabaptist groups are highly inbred because they originate from small founder populations that have bred as a closed population. Of the practicing regions, Middle Eastern and northern Africa territories show the greatest frequencies of consanguinity. Among these populations with high levels of inbreeding, researchers have found several disorders prevalent among inbred offspring. In Lebanon , Saudi Arabia , Egypt , and in Israel ,
9605-410: The modern volcano mark the site of the ancient (1.15 million years old) Kulshan caldera that collapsed after an enormous ash eruption one million years ago. Subsequently, eruptions in the Mount Baker area have produced cones and lava flows of andesite , the rock that constitutes much of the other Cascade Range volcanoes such as Rainier, Adams , and Hood . From about 900,000 years ago to
9718-550: The mortality rate as well as on the general health of the offspring. Since the 1960s, there have been many studies to support such debilitating effects on the human organism. Specifically, inbreeding has been found to decrease fertility as a direct result of increasing homozygosity of deleterious recessive alleles. Fetuses produced by inbreeding also face a greater risk of spontaneous abortions due to inherent complications in development. Among mothers who experience stillbirths and early infant deaths, those that are inbreeding have
9831-569: The mountain for 3rd Lieutenant Joseph Baker of HMS Discovery , who saw it on April 30, 1792. Mount Baker is sometimes also known by the alternative English name "Kulshan" which is the Anglicized form of the Nooksack name Kwelshán . The other related name, "Koma Kulshan," is likely the Anglicized version of the Nooksack phrase, Kwóma Kwelshán , meaning "go up into the mountains to Kwelshán ." Prior to European colonization,
9944-548: The mountain, while the usage rights to the southeastern half were held by Skagit families. Certain families of tribes such as the Lummi or Halkomelem-speaking peoples could travel to the mountain if they were intermarried and closely allied with Nooksack families. This meant that some groups which had more hostile relations with the Nooksack, such as the Thompson, were generally barred from the mountain. In 1790, Manuel Quimper of
10057-544: The mountain. After approaching via the North Fork of the Nooksack River, the party navigated through what is now known as Coleman Glacier and ascended to within several hundred feet of the summit before turning back in the face of an "overhanging cornice of ice" and threatening weather. Coleman later returned to the mountain after two years. At 4:00 pm on August 17, 1868, Coleman, Eldridge, Tennant and two new companions (David Ogilvy and Thomas Stratton) scaled
10170-426: The mountain. Ice-filled Carmelo Crater is under the summit ice dome. This crater is the source for the last cone-building eruptions The highest point of Mount Baker, Grant Peak, is on the exposed southeast rim of Carmelo Crater, which is a small pile of andesitic scoria lying on top of a stack of lava flows just below. Carmelo Crater is deeply dissected on its south side by the younger Sherman Crater. This crater
10283-537: The mountain. The first was USS Mount Baker (AE-4) , which was commissioned from 1941 to 1947 and from 1951 to 1969. In 1972, the Navy commissioned USS Mount Baker (AE-34) . She was decommissioned in 1996 and placed in service with the Military Sealift Command as USNS Mount Baker (T-AE-34). She was scrapped in 2012. Inbreeding Inbreeding is the production of offspring from
10396-473: The negative health consequences of excessive inbreeding. Linebreeding is a form of inbreeding. There is no clear distinction between the two terms, but linebreeding may encompass crosses between individuals and their descendants or two cousins. This method can be used to increase a particular animal's contribution to the population. While linebreeding is less likely to cause problems in the first generation than does inbreeding, over time, linebreeding can reduce
10509-568: The offspring of consanguineous relationships have an increased risk of congenital malformations, congenital heart defects, congenital hydrocephalus and neural tube defects . Furthermore, among inbred children in Palestine and Lebanon, there is a positive association between consanguinity and reported cleft lip/palate cases. Historically, populations of Qatar have engaged in consanguineous relationships of all kinds, leading to high risk of inheriting genetic diseases. As of 2014, around 5% of
10622-420: The popular Baker Lake recreation area and to lower the reservoir's water level by 33 feet (10 m). If those actions had not been taken, significant avalanches of debris from the Sherman Crater area could have swept directly into the reservoir, triggering a disastrous wave that could have caused human fatalities and damage to the reservoir. Other than the increased heat flow, few anomalies were recorded during
10735-572: The population should also be considered when discussing the variation in the severity of inbreeding depression between and within species. With persistent inbreeding, there is evidence that shows that inbreeding depression becomes less severe. This is associated with the unmasking and elimination of severely deleterious recessive alleles. However, inbreeding depression is not a temporary phenomenon because this elimination of deleterious recessive alleles will never be complete. Eliminating slightly deleterious mutations through inbreeding under moderate selection
10848-438: The possible effects of inbreeding, such as congenital birth defects . The chances of such disorders are increased when the biological parents are more closely related. This is because such pairings have a 25% probability of producing homozygous zygotes, resulting in offspring with two recessive alleles , which can produce disorders when these alleles are deleterious. Because most recessive alleles are rare in populations, it
10961-504: The present, numerous andesitic volcanic centers in the area have come and disappeared through glacial erosion. The largest of these cones is the Black Buttes edifice, active between 500,000 and 300,000 years ago and formerly bigger than today's Mount Baker. Mount Baker was built from stacks of lava and volcanic breccia prior to the end of the last glacial period , which ended about 15,000 years ago. Two craters are on
11074-440: The rate of casual inbreeding. Many of the traits that affect profitability in crosses of modern dairy breeds have not been studied in designed experiments. Indeed, all crossbreeding research involving North American breeds and strains is very dated (McAllister, 2001) if it exists at all. The BBC produced two documentaries on dog inbreeding titled Pedigree Dogs Exposed and Pedigree Dogs Exposed: Three Years On that document
11187-511: The same allele in an ancestor. These two identical alleles that are both derived from a common ancestor are said to be identical by descent . This probability F(A) is called the " coefficient of inbreeding ". Another useful measure that describes the extent to which two individuals are related (say individuals A and B) is their coancestry coefficient f(A,B), which gives the probability that one randomly selected allele from A and another randomly selected allele from B are identical by descent. This
11300-483: The snow-covered sides of the mountain, forming a pleasing effect of light and shade." In 1891, about 15 km (3.6 cu mi) of rock fell producing a lahar that traveled more than 6 mi (9.7 km) and covered 1 sq mi (2.6 km ). Activity in the 20th century decreased from the 19th century. Numerous small debris avalanches fell from Sherman Peak and descended the Boulder Glacier;
11413-776: The snowy volcano La Gran Montana del Carmelo , as it reminded them of the white-clad monks of the Carmelite Monastery. The British explorer George Vancouver left England a year later. His mission was to survey the northwest coast of North America. Vancouver and his crew reached the Pacific Northwest coast in 1792. While anchored in Dungeness Bay on the south shore of the Strait of Juan de Fuca, Joseph Baker made an observation of Mount Baker, which Vancouver recorded in his journal: About this time
11526-508: The summit via the Middle Fork Nooksack River, Marmot Ridge, Coleman Glacier, and the north margin of the Roman Wall. The present-day cone of Mount Baker is relatively young, perhaps less than 100,000 years old. The volcano sits atop a similar older volcanic cone called Black Buttes , which was active between 500,000 and 300,000 years ago. Much of Mount Baker's earlier geological record eroded away during
11639-455: The takeover, allows the new selected gene complement of the incoming alpha male to prevail over the previous male. There are genetic assays being scheduled for lions to determine their genetic diversity. The preliminary studies show results inconsistent with the outcrossing paradigm based on individual environments of the studied groups. In Central California, sea otters were thought to have been driven to extinction due to over hunting, until
11752-511: The term "Legend Cat" to refer to such cats and has since registered a trademark in the U.S. to limit the term to describe permitted outcrosses used in her breeding program. At the same time, other breeders in the U.S. were working with distinctly wild looking barn cats and collaborated with Brewer to establish a broad genetic base and to develop the foundation of today's Pixie-bob. Led by Brewer, they succeeded in registering their new breed with The International Cat Association (TICA) and eventually
11865-408: The trait carries throughout a population, all individuals can have this trait. This is called the founder effect . In the well established breeds, that are commonly bred, a large gene pool is present. For example, in 2004, over 18,000 Persian cats were registered. A possibility exists for a complete outcross, if no barriers exist between the individuals to breed. However, it is not always the case, and
11978-425: The transfer of deleterious alleles may be achieved by reproductive isolation, sterilization , or, in the extreme case, culling . Culling is not strictly necessary if genetics are the only issue in hand. Small animals such as cats and dogs may be sterilized, but in the case of large agricultural animals, such as cattle, culling is usually the only economic option. The issue of casual breeders who inbreed irresponsibly
12091-558: The type of gene action affecting a trait. Inbreeding is also used to reveal deleterious recessive alleles, which can then be eliminated through assortative breeding or through culling. In plant breeding , inbred lines are used as stocks for the creation of hybrid lines to make use of the effects of heterosis . Inbreeding in plants also occurs naturally in the form of self-pollination . Inbreeding can significantly influence gene expression which can prevent inbreeding depression. Offspring of biologically related persons are subject to
12204-410: The upper flanks of the volcano; the lower flanks are steep and heavily vegetated . Volcanic rocks of Mount Baker and Black Buttes rest on a foundation of non-volcanic rocks. Deposits recording the last 14,000 years at Mount Baker indicate that Mount Baker has not had highly explosive eruptions like those of other volcanoes in the Cascade Volcanic Arc , such as Mount St. Helens , Glacier Peak , or
12317-546: The volcano occurred from the Roman Wall and transformed into a lahar that was over 300 feet (91 m) deep in the upper reaches of the Middle Fork of the Nooksack River. It was at least 25 ft (7.6 m) deep 30 mi (48 km) downstream from the volcano. At that time, the Nooksack River is believed to have drained north into the Fraser River ; this lahar is unlikely to have reached Bellingham Bay . Next,
12430-433: The volcano's southeastern drainages. An eruption from Sherman Crater 6,600 years ago erupted a blanket of ash that extended more than 40 mi (64 km) to the east. Today, sulfurous gases reach the surface via two fumarole pathways: Dorr Fumarole, northeast of the summit, and Sherman Crater , south of the summit. Both are sites of hydrothermal alteration , converting lavas to weak, white-to-yellow clays ; sulfur
12543-845: The whole southeastern part of the Gulf of Georgia, and likewise from the eastern division of the Strait of Juan de Fuca. It is for this region a natural and important landmark. Edmund Thomas Coleman, an Englishman who resided in Victoria, British Columbia , Canada and a veteran of the Alps , made the first attempt to ascend the mountain in 1866. He chose a route via the Skagit River , but was forced to turn back when local Native Americans refused him passage. Later that same year, Coleman recruited Whatcom County settlers Edward Eldridge, John Bennett, and John Tennant to aid him in his second attempt to scale
12656-439: The young of both sexes, thought to be a mechanism by which the species instinctively avoids some of the genetic consequences of inbreeding. In general, many mammal species, including humanity's closest primate relatives, avoid close inbreeding possibly due to the deleterious effects. Although there are several examples of inbred populations of wild animals, the negative consequences of this inbreeding are poorly documented. In
12769-423: Was often practiced among European royal families, usually for interests of state. Over time, due to the relatively limited number of potential consorts, the gene pool of many ruling families grew progressively smaller, until all European royalty was related. This also resulted in many being descended from a certain person through many lines of descent, such as the numerous European royalty and nobility descended from
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