103-625: Pici ( Italian: [ˈpiːtʃi] , locally [ˈpiːʃi] ) is thick, hand-rolled pasta , like fat spaghetti . It originates in the province of Siena , in Tuscany ; in the Montalcino area they are also referred to as pinci ( Italian: [ˈpintʃi] ). The dough is typically made from flour and water only. The addition of egg is optional, being determined by family traditions. Alternatively, finely chopped or shredded spinach can be used in place of water. The dough
206-401: A covalent bond known as a glycosidic linkage formed via a dehydration reaction , resulting in the loss of a hydrogen atom from one monosaccharide and a hydroxyl group from the other. The formula of unmodified disaccharides is C 12 H 22 O 11 . Although there are numerous kinds of disaccharides, a handful of disaccharides are particularly notable. Sucrose , pictured to the right,
309-413: A balanced diet that includes six one-ounce servings of grain foods each day, at least half from whole grain sources and the rest are from enriched . The glycemic index (GI) and glycemic load concepts have been developed to characterize food behavior during human digestion. They rank carbohydrate-rich foods based on the rapidity and magnitude of their effect on blood glucose levels. Glycemic index
412-517: A component of DNA , is a modified version of ribose ; chitin is composed of repeating units of N-acetyl glucosamine , a nitrogen -containing form of glucose. Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, acids, their simple derivatives and their polymers having linkages of the acetal type. They may be classified according to their degree of polymerization , and may be divided initially into three principal groups, namely sugars, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides are
515-399: A form of carbohydrate storage in animal livers, was discovered by French physiologist Claude Bernard . Formerly the name "carbohydrate" was used in chemistry for any compound with the formula C m (H 2 O) n . Following this definition, some chemists considered formaldehyde (CH 2 O) to be the simplest carbohydrate, while others claimed that title for glycolaldehyde . Today,
618-467: A goal of 55–75% of total energy from carbohydrates, but only 10% directly from sugars (their term for simple carbohydrates). A 2017 Cochrane Systematic Review concluded that there was insufficient evidence to support the claim that whole grain diets can affect cardiovascular disease. Nutritionists often refer to carbohydrates as either simple or complex. However, the exact distinction between these groups can be ambiguous. The term complex carbohydrate
721-591: A hydrogen–oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water) and thus with the empirical formula C m (H 2 O) n (where m may or may not be different from n ), which does not mean the H has covalent bonds with O (for example with CH 2 O , H has a covalent bond with C but not with O). However, not all carbohydrates conform to this precise stoichiometric definition (e.g., uronic acids , deoxy-sugars such as fucose ), nor are all chemicals that do conform to this definition automatically classified as carbohydrates (e.g., formaldehyde and acetic acid ). The term
824-648: A kind of boiled dough, was common in Palestine from the 3rd to 5th centuries AD. A dictionary compiled by the 9th century Arab physician and lexicographer Isho bar Ali defines itriyya , the Arabic cognate, as string-like shapes made of semolina and dried before cooking. The geographical text of Muhammad al-Idrisi , compiled for the Norman King of Sicily Roger II in 1154 mentions itriyya manufactured and exported from Norman Sicily: West of Termini there
927-409: A low amount of thermal energy, they become embedded within the protein matrix and align along the direction of the shear caused by the extrusion process. Starch gelatinization and protein coagulation are the major changes that take place when pasta is cooked in boiling water. Protein and starch competing for water within the pasta cause a constant change in structure as the pasta cooks. In 2015–16,
1030-407: A low temperature for several days to evaporate all the moisture allowing it to be stored for a longer period. Dried pastas are best served in hearty dishes, such as ragù sauces, soups, and casseroles. Once it is cooked, the dried pasta will usually grow to twice its original size. Therefore, approximately 0.5 kg (1 lb) of dried pasta serves up to four people. Pasta, whether dry or fresh,
1133-462: A lower glycemic index than many other staple foods in Western culture, such as bread, potatoes, and rice. As pasta was introduced elsewhere in the world, it became incorporated into a number of local cuisines, which often have significantly different ways of preparation from those of Italy. When pasta was introduced to different nations, each culture would adopt a different style of preparation. In
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#17327805298261236-847: A mixture of carbon dioxide and nitrogen that inhibits microbial growth and prolongs the product's shelf life; dried pastas are sealed in clear plastic or cardboard packages. Gluten , the protein found in grains such as wheat, rye, spelt, and barley, contributes to protein aggregation and firm texture of a normally cooked pasta. Gluten-free pasta is produced with wheat flour substitutes, such as vegetable powders, rice, corn, quinoa, amaranth, oats and buckwheat flours. Other possible gluten-free pasta ingredients may include hydrocolloids to improve cooking pasta with high heat resistance, xanthan gum to retain moisture during storage, or hydrothermally-treated polysaccharide mixtures to produce textures similar to those of wheat pasta. The storage of pasta depends on its processing and extent of drying. Uncooked pasta
1339-479: A monosaccharide often coexists with a closed ring form where the aldehyde / ketone carbonyl group carbon (C=O) and hydroxyl group (–OH) react forming a hemiacetal with a new C–O–C bridge. Monosaccharides can be linked together into what are called polysaccharides (or oligosaccharides ) in a large variety of ways. Many carbohydrates contain one or more modified monosaccharide units that have had one or more groups replaced or removed. For example, deoxyribose ,
1442-570: A period called "The Industry of Pasta". In 1884, the Zátka Brothers's plant in Boršov nad Vltavou was founded, making it Bohemia's first pasta factory. The art of pasta making and the devotion to the food as a whole has evolved since pasta was first conceptualized. In 2008, it was estimated that Italians ate over 27 kg (60 lb) of pasta per person, per year, easily beating Americans, who ate about 9 kg (20 lb) per person. Pasta
1545-1107: A small amount of tomato concentrate and a green sauce called pesto originates from Genoa. In central Italy , there are sauces such as tomato sauce , amatriciana , arrabbiata , and the egg-based carbonara . Tomato sauces are also present in southern Italian cuisine, where they originated. In southern Italy more complex variations include pasta paired with fresh vegetables, olives, capers or seafood. Varieties include puttanesca , pasta alla Norma (tomatoes, eggplant and fresh or baked cheese), pasta con le sarde (fresh sardines, pine nuts, fennel and olive oil), spaghetti aglio, olio e peperoncino ( lit. ' spaghetti with garlic, [olive] oil and hot chili peppers ' ), pasta con i peperoni cruschi (crispy peppers and breadcrumbs). Pasta can be served also in broth ( pastina , or stuffed pasta, such as tortellini , cappelletti and agnolini ) or in vegetable soup, typically minestrone or bean soup ( pasta e fagioli ). Ingredients to make pasta dough include semolina flour, egg, salt and water. Flour
1648-488: A small first course or for light lunches, such as pasta salads . Other dishes may be portioned larger and used for dinner. Pasta sauces similarly may vary in taste, color and texture. In terms of nutrition , cooked plain pasta is 31% carbohydrates (mostly starch ), 6% protein, and low in fat, with moderate amounts of manganese , but pasta generally has low micronutrient content. Pasta may be enriched or fortified , or made from whole grains . Earliest appearances in
1751-435: A steamer to kill any bacteria it may contain. The dough is then ready to be shaped into different types of pasta. Depending on the type of pasta to be made, the dough can either be cut or extruded through dies. The pasta is set in a drying tank under specific conditions of heat, moisture, and time depending on the type of pasta. The dried pasta is then packaged: Fresh pasta is sealed in a clear, airtight plastic container with
1854-468: A symmetric molecule with no stereo centers. The assignment of D or L is made according to the orientation of the asymmetric carbon furthest from the carbonyl group: in a standard Fischer projection if the hydroxyl group is on the right the molecule is a D sugar, otherwise it is an L sugar. The "D-" and "L-" prefixes should not be confused with "d-" or "l-", which indicate the direction that the sugar rotates plane polarized light . This usage of "d-" and "l-"
1957-453: A very refined flavor and texture. This pasta is often served simply with butter sauce and thinly sliced truffles that are native to this region. In other areas, such as Apulia , fresh pasta can be made without eggs. The only ingredients needed to make the pasta dough are semolina flour and water, which is often shaped into orecchiette or cavatelli . Fresh pasta for cavatelli is also popular in other places including Sicily . However,
2060-421: A wide variety of metabolic pathways across species: plants synthesize carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis storing the absorbed energy internally, often in the form of starch or lipids . Plant components are consumed by animals and fungi , and used as fuel for cellular respiration . Oxidation of one gram of carbohydrate yields approximately 16 kJ (4 kcal) of energy , while
2163-471: A wide variety of natural and processed foods. Starch is a polysaccharide and is abundant in cereals (wheat, maize, rice), potatoes, and processed food based on cereal flour , such as bread , pizza or pasta. Sugars appear in human diet mainly as table sugar (sucrose, extracted from sugarcane or sugar beets ), lactose (abundant in milk), glucose and fructose, both of which occur naturally in honey , many fruits , and some vegetables. Table sugar, milk, or honey
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#17327805298262266-691: Is O -β-D-galactopyranosyl-(1→4)-D-glucopyranose. Other notable disaccharides include maltose (two D-glucoses linked α-1,4) and cellobiose (two D-glucoses linked β-1,4). Disaccharides can be classified into two types: reducing and non-reducing disaccharides. If the functional group is present in bonding with another sugar unit, it is called a reducing disaccharide or biose. Oligosaccharides are saccharide polymers composed of three to ten units of monosaccharides, connected via glycosidic linkages , similar to disaccharides . They are usually linked to lipids or amino acids glycosic linkage with oxygen or nitrogen to form glygolipids and glycoproteins , though some, like
2369-580: Is a delightful settlement called Trabia [along the Sicilian coast east of Palermo ]. Its ever-flowing streams propel a number of mills. Here there are huge buildings in the countryside where they make vast quantities of itriyya which is exported everywhere: to Calabria , to Muslim and Christian countries. Very many shiploads are sent. One form of itriyya with a long history is lagana , which in Latin refers to thin sheets of dough, and gave rise to
2472-624: Is a measure of how quickly food glucose is absorbed, while glycemic load is a measure of the total absorbable glucose in foods. The insulin index is a similar, more recent classification method that ranks foods based on their effects on blood insulin levels, which are caused by glucose (or starch) and some amino acids in food. Low-carbohydrate diets may miss the health advantages – such as increased intake of dietary fiber – afforded by high-quality carbohydrates found in legumes and pulses , whole grains , fruits, and vegetables. A "meta-analysis, of moderate quality," included as adverse effects of
2575-483: Is a structural component of the cell wall of plants and many forms of algae. Ribose is a component of RNA . Deoxyribose is a component of DNA . Lyxose is a component of lyxoflavin found in the human heart. Ribulose and xylulose occur in the pentose phosphate pathway . Galactose , a component of milk sugar lactose , is found in galactolipids in plant cell membranes and in glycoproteins in many tissues . Mannose occurs in human metabolism, especially in
2678-428: Is an aldopentose (a five-carbon aldehyde), and fructose is a ketohexose (a six-carbon ketone). Each carbon atom bearing a hydroxyl group (-OH), with the exception of the first and last carbons, are asymmetric , making them stereo centers with two possible configurations each (R or S). Because of this asymmetry, a number of isomers may exist for any given monosaccharide formula. Using Le Bel-van't Hoff rule ,
2781-441: Is an important component of coenzymes (e.g., ATP , FAD and NAD ) and the backbone of the genetic molecule known as RNA . The related deoxyribose is a component of DNA. Saccharides and their derivatives include many other important biomolecules that play key roles in the immune system , fertilization , preventing pathogenesis , blood clotting , and development . Carbohydrates are central to nutrition and are found in
2884-530: Is calculated in the USDA database and does not always correspond to the sum of the sugars, the starch, and the "dietary fiber". Carbohydrate metabolism is the series of biochemical processes responsible for the formation , breakdown and interconversion of carbohydrates in living organisms . The most important carbohydrate is glucose , a simple sugar ( monosaccharide ) that is metabolized by nearly all known organisms. Glucose and other carbohydrates are part of
2987-410: Is cooked at a lower or a higher temperature, although lower temperatures require more stirring to avoid sticking, and certain stuffed pasta, such as tortellini, break up in higher temperatures. It also does not matter whether salt is added before or after bringing the water to a boil. The amount of salt has no influence on cooking speed. Pasta is generally served with some type of sauce; the sauce and
3090-403: Is crafted by hand. Since at least the time of Cato 's De Agri Cultura , basic pasta dough has been made mostly of wheat flour or semolina , with durum wheat used predominantly in the south of Italy and soft wheat in the north. Regionally other grains have been used, including those from barley, buckwheat, rye, rice, and maize, as well as chestnut and chickpea flours. Liquid, often in
3193-540: Is eaten after cooking it in hot water. For Italian pasta, which is unsalted, salt is added to the cooking water. This is not the case for Asian wheat noodles, such as udon and lo mein , which are made from salty dough. In Italy, pasta is often cooked to be al dente , such that it is still firm to the bite. This is because it is then often cooked in the sauce for a short time, which makes it soften further. There are number of urban myths about how pasta should be cooked. In fact, it does not generally matter whether pasta
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3296-435: Is eaten with a variety of sauces and meats, particularly: Pasta Pasta ( UK : / ˈ p æ s t ə / , US : / ˈ p ɑː s t ə / ; Italian: [ˈpasta] ) is a type of food typically made from an unleavened dough of wheat flour mixed with water or eggs , and formed into sheets or other shapes, then cooked by boiling or baking . Pasta was traditionally only made with durum , although
3399-479: Is first mounded on a flat surface and then a well in the pile of flour is created. Egg is then poured into the well and a fork is used to mix the egg and flour. There are a variety of ways to shape the sheets of pasta depending on the type required. The most popular types include penne , spaghetti , and macaroni . Kitchen pasta machines , also called pasta makers, are popular with cooks who make large amounts of fresh pasta. The cook feeds sheets of pasta dough into
3502-499: Is generally cut into strands of various widths and thicknesses depending on which pasta is to be made (e.g., fettuccine, pappardelle, and lasagne). It is best served with meat, cheese, or vegetables to create filled pastas such as ravioli , tortellini , and cannelloni . Fresh egg pasta is well known in the Piedmont and Emilia-Romagna regions of northern Italy. In this area, dough is only made out of egg yolk and flour resulting in
3605-429: Is ground into semolina flour which is sorted by optical scanners and cleaned. Pipes allow the flour to move to a mixing machine where it is mixed with warm water by rotating blades. When the mixture is of a lumpy consistency, the mixture is pressed into sheets or extruded . Varieties of pasta such as spaghetti and linguine are cut by rotating blades, while pasta such as penne and fusilli are extruded. The size and shape of
3708-407: Is kept dry and can sit in the cupboard for a year if airtight and stored in a cool, dry area. Cooked pasta is stored in the refrigerator for a maximum of five days in an airtight container. Adding a couple teaspoons of oil helps keep the food from sticking to itself and the container. Cooked pasta may be frozen for up to two or three months. Should the pasta be dried completely, it can be placed back in
3811-449: Is limited evidence to support routine use of low-carbohydrate dieting in managing type 1 diabetes . The American Diabetes Association recommends that people with diabetes should adopt a generally healthy diet, rather than a diet focused on carbohydrate or other macronutrients. An extreme form of low-carbohydrate diet – the ketogenic diet – is established as a medical diet for treating epilepsy . Through celebrity endorsement during
3914-474: Is most common in biochemistry , where it is a synonym of saccharide (from Ancient Greek σάκχαρον ( sákkharon ) 'sugar' ), a group that includes sugars , starch , and cellulose . The saccharides are divided into four chemical groups: monosaccharides , disaccharides , oligosaccharides , and polysaccharides . Monosaccharides and disaccharides, the smallest (lower molecular weight ) carbohydrates, are commonly referred to as sugars. While
4017-421: Is no longer followed in carbohydrate chemistry. The aldehyde or ketone group of a straight-chain monosaccharide will react reversibly with a hydroxyl group on a different carbon atom to form a hemiacetal or hemiketal , forming a heterocyclic ring with an oxygen bridge between two carbon atoms. Rings with five and six atoms are called furanose and pyranose forms, respectively, and exist in equilibrium with
4120-454: Is not clear how low-carbohydrate dieting affects cardiovascular health , although two reviews showed that carbohydrate restriction may improve lipid markers of cardiovascular disease risk. Carbohydrate-restricted diets are no more effective than a conventional healthy diet in preventing the onset of type 2 diabetes , but for people with type 2 diabetes, they are a viable option for losing weight or helping with glycemic control . There
4223-496: Is often added to drinks and many prepared foods such as jam, biscuits and cakes. Cellulose , a polysaccharide found in the cell walls of all plants, is one of the main components of insoluble dietary fiber . Although it is not digestible by humans, cellulose and insoluble dietary fiber generally help maintain a healthy digestive system by facilitating bowel movements . Other polysaccharides contained in dietary fiber include resistant starch and inulin , which feed some bacteria in
Pici - Misplaced Pages Continue
4326-416: Is plated and served with a complementary sauce or condiment; a second classification of pasta dishes is pasta in brodo , in which the pasta is part of a soup -type dish. A third category is pasta al forno , in which the pasta is incorporated into a dish that is subsequently baked in the oven. Pasta dishes are generally simple, but individual dishes vary in preparation. Some pasta dishes are served as
4429-464: Is prepared, individual differences in metabolism, and the chemistry of the carbohydrate. Carbohydrates are sometimes divided into "available carbohydrates", which are absorbed in the small intestine and "unavailable carbohydrates", which pass to the large intestine , where they are subject to fermentation by the gastrointestinal microbiota . The USDA's Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2010 call for moderate- to high-carbohydrate consumption from
4532-417: Is produced commercially via an extrusion process, although it can be produced at home. Fresh pasta is traditionally produced by hand, sometimes with the aid of simple machines. Fresh pastas available in grocery stores are produced commercially by large-scale machines. Both dried and fresh pastas come in a number of shapes and varieties, with 310 specific forms known by over 1,300 documented names. In Italy,
4635-400: Is protein which plays a large role in pasta dough rheology. Gluten proteins, which include monomeric gliadins and polymeric glutenin, make up the major protein component of durum wheat (about 75–80%). As more water is added and shear stress is applied, gluten proteins take on an elastic characteristic and begin to form strands and sheets. The gluten matrix that results during forming of
4738-463: Is required in the early steps of glycolysis to phosphorylate Glucose to Glucose 6-Phosphate ( G6P ) and Fructose 6-Phosphate ( F6P ) to Fructose 1,6-biphosphate ( FBP ), thereby pushing the reaction forward irreversibly. In some cases, as with humans, not all carbohydrate types are usable as the digestive and metabolic enzymes necessary are not present. Carbohydrate chemistry is a large and economically important branch of organic chemistry. Some of
4841-450: Is rolled out in a thick flat sheet, then cut into strips. In some families, the strip of dough is rolled between one palm and the table, while the other hand is wrapped with the rest of the strip. It can also be formed by rolling the strip between the palms. Either method forms a thick pasta, slightly thinner than a common pencil. Due to its handmade nature, this pasta is not uniform in size and has variations of thickness along its length. It
4944-455: Is so beloved in Italy that individual consumption exceeds the average production of wheat of the country; thus, Italy frequently imports wheat for pasta making. In contemporary society, pasta is ubiquitous and there is a variety of types in local supermarkets, in many countries. With the worldwide demand for this staple food, pasta is now largely mass-produced in factories and only a tiny proportion
5047-438: Is the metabolic reaction which cells undergo to break down larger molecules, extracting energy. There are two major metabolic pathways of monosaccharide catabolism : glycolysis and the citric acid cycle . In glycolysis, oligo- and polysaccharides are cleaved first to smaller monosaccharides by enzymes called glycoside hydrolases . The monosaccharide units can then enter into monosaccharide catabolism. A 2 ATP investment
5150-450: Is the most abundant disaccharide, and the main form in which carbohydrates are transported in plants. It is composed of one D-glucose molecule and one D-fructose molecule. The systematic name for sucrose, O -α-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→2)-D-fructofuranoside, indicates four things: Lactose , a disaccharide composed of one D-galactose molecule and one D-glucose molecule, occurs naturally in mammalian milk. The systematic name for lactose
5253-699: Is three or more. A typical monosaccharide has the structure H–(CHOH) x (C=O)–(CHOH) y –H, that is, an aldehyde or ketone with many hydroxyl groups added, usually one on each carbon atom that is not part of the aldehyde or ketone functional group . Examples of monosaccharides are glucose , fructose , and glyceraldehydes . However, some biological substances commonly called "monosaccharides" do not conform to this formula (e.g., uronic acids and deoxy-sugars such as fucose ) and there are many chemicals that do conform to this formula but are not considered to be monosaccharides (e.g., formaldehyde CH 2 O and inositol (CH 2 O) 6 ). The open-chain form of
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#17327805298265356-702: The Macaroni Journal , published by an association of food industries with the goal of promoting pasta in the United States. Rustichello da Pisa writes in his Travels that Marco Polo described a food similar to lagana . The way pasta reached Europe is unknown, however there are many theories, Jeffrey Steingarten asserts that Moors introduced pasta in the Emirate of Sicily in the ninth century, mentioning also that traces of pasta have been found in ancient Greece and that Jane Grigson believed
5459-535: The glycosylation of certain proteins. Fructose , or fruit sugar, is found in many plants and humans, it is metabolized in the liver, absorbed directly into the intestines during digestion , and found in semen . Trehalose , a major sugar of insects, is rapidly hydrolyzed into two glucose molecules to support continuous flight. Two joined monosaccharides are called a disaccharide , the simplest kind of polysaccharide. Examples include sucrose and lactose . They are composed of two monosaccharide units bound together by
5562-1078: The lac operon will express enzymes for the digestion of lactose when it is present, but if both lactose and glucose are present the lac operon is repressed, resulting in the glucose being used first (see: Diauxie ). Polysaccharides are also common sources of energy. Many organisms can easily break down starches into glucose; most organisms, however, cannot metabolize cellulose or other polysaccharides like chitin and arabinoxylans . These carbohydrate types can be metabolized by some bacteria and protists. Ruminants and termites , for example, use microorganisms to process cellulose. Even though these complex carbohydrates are not very digestible, they represent an important dietary element for humans, called dietary fiber . Fiber enhances digestion, among other benefits. The Institute of Medicine recommends that American and Canadian adults get between 45 and 65% of dietary energy from whole-grain carbohydrates. The Food and Agriculture Organization and World Health Organization jointly recommend that national dietary guidelines set
5665-486: The microbiota of the large intestine , and are metabolized by these bacteria to yield short-chain fatty acids . In scientific literature , the term "carbohydrate" has many synonyms, like "sugar" (in the broad sense), "saccharide", "ose", "glucide", "hydrate of carbon" or " polyhydroxy compounds with aldehyde or ketone ". Some of these terms, especially "carbohydrate" and "sugar", are also used with other meanings. In food science and in many informal contexts,
5768-769: The raffinose series and the fructooligosaccharides , do not. They have roles in cell recognition and cell adhesion . Carbohydrate consumed in food yields 3.87 kilocalories of energy per gram for simple sugars, and 3.57 to 4.12 kilocalories per gram for complex carbohydrate in most other foods. Relatively high levels of carbohydrate are associated with processed foods or refined foods made from plants, including sweets, cookies and candy, table sugar, honey, soft drinks, breads and crackers, jams and fruit products, pastas and breakfast cereals. Lower amounts of digestible carbohydrate are usually associated with unrefined foods as these foods have more fiber, including beans, tubers, rice, and unrefined fruit . Animal-based foods generally have
5871-687: The scientific nomenclature of carbohydrates is complex, the names of the monosaccharides and disaccharides very often end in the suffix -ose , which was originally taken from the word glucose (from Ancient Greek γλεῦκος ( gleûkos ) 'wine, must '), and is used for almost all sugars (e.g., fructose (fruit sugar), sucrose ( cane or beet sugar), ribose , lactose (milk sugar)). Carbohydrates perform numerous roles in living organisms. Polysaccharides serve as an energy store (e.g., starch and glycogen ) and as structural components (e.g., cellulose in plants and chitin in arthropods and fungi). The 5-carbon monosaccharide ribose
5974-448: The -OH substituent on the anomeric carbon rests on the opposite side ( trans ) of the ring from the CH 2 OH side branch. The alternative form, in which the CH 2 OH substituent and the anomeric hydroxyl are on the same side (cis) of the plane of the ring, is called the β anomer . Monosaccharides are the major fuel source for metabolism , being used both as an energy source ( glucose being
6077-476: The 14th-century writer Boccaccio's collection of earthy tales, The Decameron , he recounts a mouthwatering fantasy concerning a mountain of Parmesan cheese down which pasta chefs roll macaroni and ravioli to gluttons waiting below. In the 14th and 15th centuries, dried pasta became popular for its easy storage. This allowed people to store pasta on ships when exploring the New World. A century later, pasta
6180-422: The 2nd century, Athenaeus of Naucratis provides a recipe for lagana which he attributes to the 1st century Chrysippus of Tyana: sheets of dough made of wheat flour and the juice of crushed lettuce, then flavored with spices and deep-fried in oil. An early 5th century cookbook describes a dish called lagana that consisted of layers of dough with meat stuffing, an ancestor of modern-day lasagna . However,
6283-661: The English language are in the 1830s; the word pasta comes from Italian pasta , in turn from Latin pasta , latinisation of the Ancient Greek : παστά . Evidence of Etruscans making pasta dates back to 400 BCE. The first concrete information on pasta products in Italy dates to the 13th or 14th centuries. In the 1st century AD writings of Horace , lagana ( sg. : laganum ) were fine sheets of fried dough and were an everyday foodstuff. Writing in
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#17327805298266386-509: The Italian lasagna . In North Africa , a food similar to pasta, known as couscous , has been eaten for centuries. However, it lacks the distinguishing malleable nature of pasta, couscous being more akin to droplets of dough. At first, dry pasta was a luxury item in Italy because of high labor costs; durum wheat semolina had to be kneaded for a long time. There is a legend of Marco Polo importing pasta from China which originated with
6489-528: The Marco Polo story to have originated in the 1920s or 1930s in an advertisement for a Canadian spaghetti company. Food historians estimate that the dish probably took hold in Italy as a result of extensive Mediterranean trading in the Middle Ages. From the 13th century, references to pasta dishes—macaroni, ravioli, gnocchi, vermicelli—crop up with increasing frequency across the Italian peninsula. In
6592-497: The United States was the largest consumer of pasta with 2.7 million tons . When cooked, plain pasta is composed of 62% water, 31% carbohydrates (26% starch ), 6% protein , and 1% fat . A 100-gram ( 3 + 1 ⁄ 2 oz) portion of unenriched cooked pasta provides 670 kilojoules (160 kcal) of food energy and a moderate level of manganese (15% of the Daily Value ), but few other micronutrients . Pasta has
6695-401: The aldohexose D-glucose, for example, has the formula (C·H 2 O) 6 , of which four of its six carbons atoms are stereogenic, making D-glucose one of 2 =16 possible stereoisomers . In the case of glyceraldehydes , an aldotriose, there is one pair of possible stereoisomers, which are enantiomers and epimers . 1, 3-dihydroxyacetone , the ketose corresponding to the aldose glyceraldehydes, is
6798-419: The amount of fat vs carbohydrate in the diet." In the long term, effective weight loss or maintenance depends on calorie restriction , not the ratio of macronutrients in a diet. The reasoning of diet advocates that carbohydrates cause undue fat accumulation by increasing blood insulin levels, and that low-carbohydrate diets have a "metabolic advantage", is not supported by clinical evidence . Further, it
6901-614: The bran, initiating expansion of the pasta market. In 1859, Joseph Topits (1824−1876) founded Hungary's first pasta factory, in the city of Pest , which worked with steam machines; it was one of the first pasta factories in Central Europe. By 1867, Buitoni Company in Sansepolcro , Tuscany, was an established pasta manufacturer. During the early 1900s, artificial drying and extrusion processes enabled greater variety of pasta preparation and larger volumes for export, beginning
7004-433: The carbonyl group is an aldehyde , the monosaccharide is an aldose ; if the carbonyl group is a ketone , the monosaccharide is a ketose . Monosaccharides with three carbon atoms are called trioses , those with four are called tetroses , five are called pentoses , six are hexoses , and so on. These two systems of classification are often combined. For example, glucose is an aldohexose (a six-carbon aldehyde), ribose
7107-551: The cupboard. Pasta exhibits a random molecular order rather than a crystalline structure. The moisture content of dried pasta is typically around 12%, indicating that dried pasta will remain a brittle solid until it is cooked and becomes malleable. The cooked product is, as a result, softer, more flexible, and chewy. Semolina flour is the ground endosperm of durum wheat, producing granules that absorb water during heating and an increase in viscosity due to semi-reordering of starch molecules. Another major component of durum wheat
7210-467: The definition has been expanded to include alternatives for a gluten-free diet , such as rice flour , or legumes such as beans or lentils . Pasta is believed to have developed independently in Italy and is a staple food of Italian cuisine , with evidence of Etruscans making pasta as early as 400 BCE in Italy. Pastas are divided into two broad categories: dried ( Italian : pasta secca ) and fresh (Italian: pasta fresca ). Most dried pasta
7313-402: The desired shape of the pasta. The desired moisture content of the dough is around 32% wet basis and will vary depending on the shape of pasta being produced. The forming process involves the dough entering an extruder in which the rotation of a single or double screw system pushes the dough toward a die set to a specific shape. As the starch granules swell slightly in the presence of water and
7416-425: The dies in the extruder through which the pasta is pushed determine the shape that results. The pasta is then dried at a high temperature. The ingredients to make dried pasta usually include water and semolina flour; egg for color and richness (in some types of pasta), and possibly vegetable juice (such as spinach, beet, tomato, carrot), herbs or spices for color and flavor. After mixing semolina flour with warm water
7519-401: The diet halitosis , headache and constipation . Carbohydrate-restricted diets can be as effective as low-fat diets in helping achieve weight loss over the short term when overall calorie intake is reduced. An Endocrine Society scientific statement said that "when calorie intake is held constant [...] body-fat accumulation does not appear to be affected by even very pronounced changes in
7622-402: The dough becomes irreversibly associated during drying as the moisture content is lowered to form the dried pasta product. Before the mixing process takes place, semolina particles are irregularly shaped and present in different sizes. Semolina particles become hydrated during mixing. The amount of water added to the semolina is determined based on the initial moisture content of the flour and
7725-401: The dough is kneaded mechanically until it becomes firm and dry. If pasta is to be flavored, eggs, vegetable juices, and herbs are added at this stage. The dough is then passed into the laminator to be flattened into sheets, then compressed by a vacuum mixer-machine to clear out air bubbles and excess water from the dough until the moisture content is reduced to 12%. Next, the dough is processed in
7828-559: The dough is prepared differently: it is made of flour and ricotta cheese instead. Dried pasta can also be defined as factory-made pasta because it is usually produced in large amounts that require large machines with superior processing capabilities to manufacture. Dried pasta can be shipped further and has a longer shelf life. The ingredients required to make dried pasta include semolina flour and water. Eggs can be added for flavor and richness, but are not needed to make dried pasta. In contrast to fresh pasta, dried pasta needs to be dried at
7931-552: The durum wheat endosperm during milling. They are added back to the semolina flour once it is ground, creating enriched flour . Micronutrients added may include niacin (vitamin B3), riboflavin (vitamin B2), folate , thiamine (vitamin B1), and ferrous iron . Fresh pasta is usually locally made with fresh ingredients unless it is destined to be shipped, in which case consideration is given to
8034-413: The early 21st century, it became a fad diet as a means of weight loss, but with risks of undesirable side effects , such as low energy levels and increased hunger, insomnia , nausea, and gastrointestinal discomfort. The British Dietetic Association named it one of the "top 5 worst celeb diets to avoid in 2018". Most dietary carbohydrates contain glucose, either as their only building block (as in
8137-734: The form of eggs, is used to turn the flour into a dough. To address the needs of people affected by gluten-related disorders (such as coeliac disease , non-celiac gluten sensitivity and wheat allergy sufferers), some recipes use rice or maize for making pasta. Grain flours may also be supplemented with cooked potatoes . Other additions to the basic flour-liquid mixture may include vegetable purees such as spinach or tomato, mushrooms, cheeses, herbs, spices and other seasonings. While pastas are, most typically, made from unleavened doughs, at least nine different pasta forms are known to use yeast-raised doughs. Additives in dried, commercially sold pasta include vitamins and minerals that are lost from
8240-529: The largest producers of dried pasta were Italy (3.2 million tonnes ), United States (2 million tonnes), Turkey (1.3 million tons), Brazil (1.2 million tonnes), and Russia (1 million tons). In 2018, Italy was the world's largest exporter of pasta, with $ 2.9 billion sold, followed by China with $ 0.9 billion. The largest per capita consumers of pasta in 2015 were Italy (23.5 kg/person), Tunisia (16.0 kg/person), Venezuela (12.0 kg/person) and Greece (11.2 kg/person). In 2017,
8343-409: The lowest carbohydrate levels, although milk does contain a high proportion of lactose . Organisms typically cannot metabolize all types of carbohydrate to yield energy. Glucose is a nearly universal and accessible source of energy. Many organisms also have the ability to metabolize other monosaccharides and disaccharides but glucose is often metabolized first. In Escherichia coli , for example,
8446-465: The machine by hand and, by turning a hand crank , rolls the pasta to thin it incrementally. On the final pass through the pasta machine, the pasta may be directed through a machine 'comb' to shape of the pasta as it emerges. Semolina flour consists of a protein matrix with entrapped starch granules. Upon the addition of water, during mixing, intermolecular forces allow the protein to form a more ordered structure in preparation for cooking. Durum wheat
8549-476: The main organic reactions that involve carbohydrates are: Carbohydrate synthesis is a sub-field of organic chemistry concerned specifically with the generation of natural and unnatural carbohydrate structures. This can include the synthesis of monosaccharide residues or structures containing more than one monosaccharide, known as oligosaccharides . Selective formation of glycosidic linkages and selective reactions of hydroxyl groups are very important, and
8652-501: The method of cooking these sheets of dough does not correspond to the modern definition of either a fresh or dry pasta product, which only had similar basic ingredients and perhaps the shape. Historians have noted several lexical milestones relevant to pasta, none of which changes these basic characteristics. For example, the works of the 2nd century AD Greek physician Galen mention itrion , homogeneous compounds made of flour and water. The Jerusalem Talmud records that itrium ,
8755-459: The most important in nature as it is the product of photosynthesis in plants) and in biosynthesis . When monosaccharides are not immediately needed, they are often converted to more space-efficient (i.e., less water-soluble) forms, often polysaccharides . In many animals, including humans, this storage form is glycogen , especially in liver and muscle cells. In plants, starch is used for the same purpose. The most abundant carbohydrate, cellulose ,
8858-548: The names of specific pasta shapes or types often vary by locale. For example, the pasta form cavatelli is known by 28 different names depending upon the town and region. Common forms of pasta include long and short shapes, tubes, flat shapes or sheets, miniature shapes for soup, those meant to be filled or stuffed, and specialty or decorative shapes. As a category in Italian cuisine, both fresh and dried pastas are classically used in one of three kinds of prepared dishes: as pasta asciutta (or pastasciutta ), cooked pasta
8961-547: The oxidation of one gram of lipids yields about 38 kJ (9 kcal). The human body stores between 300 and 500 g of carbohydrates depending on body weight, with the skeletal muscle contributing to a large portion of the storage. Energy obtained from metabolism (e.g., oxidation of glucose) is usually stored temporarily within cells in the form of ATP . Organisms capable of anaerobic and aerobic respiration metabolize glucose and oxygen (aerobic) to release energy, with carbon dioxide and water as byproducts. Catabolism
9064-400: The past, ancient Romans cooked pasta-like foods by frying rather than boiling. It was also sweetened with honey or tossed with garum . Ancient Romans also enjoyed baking it in rich pies, called timballi. Carbohydrate A carbohydrate ( / ˌ k ɑːr b oʊ ˈ h aɪ d r eɪ t / ) is a biomolecule consisting of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) atoms, usually with
9167-650: The polysaccharides starch and glycogen), or together with another monosaccharide (as in the hetero-polysaccharides sucrose and lactose). Unbound glucose is one of the main ingredients of honey. Glucose is extremely abundant and has been isolated from a variety of natural sources across the world, including male cones of the coniferous tree Wollemia nobilis in Rome, the roots of Ilex asprella plants in China, and straws from rice in California. ^A The carbohydrate value
9270-439: The position of the hydroxyl group (red or green) on the anomeric carbon relative to the CH 2 OH group bound to carbon 5: they either have identical absolute configurations (R,R or S,S) (α), or opposite absolute configurations (R,S or S,R) (β). Monosaccharides are classified according to three different characteristics: the placement of its carbonyl group, the number of carbon atoms it contains, and its chiral handedness. If
9373-406: The simple vs. complex chemical distinction has little value for determining the nutritional quality of carbohydrates. Some simple carbohydrates (e.g., fructose ) raise blood glucose rapidly, while some complex carbohydrates (starches), raise blood sugar slowly. The speed of digestion is determined by a variety of factors including which other nutrients are consumed with the carbohydrate, how the food
9476-533: The simplest carbohydrates in that they cannot be hydrolyzed to smaller carbohydrates. They are aldehydes or ketones with two or more hydroxyl groups. The general chemical formula of an unmodified monosaccharide is (C•H 2 O) n , literally a "carbon hydrate". Monosaccharides are important fuel molecules as well as building blocks for nucleic acids. The smallest monosaccharides, for which n=3, are dihydroxyacetone and D- and L-glyceraldehydes. [REDACTED] [REDACTED] The α and β anomers of glucose. Note
9579-541: The spoilage rates of the desired ingredients such as eggs or herbs. Furthermore, fresh pasta is usually made with a mixture of eggs and all-purpose flour or "00" low-gluten flour. Since it contains eggs, it is more tender compared to dried pasta and only takes about half the time to cook. Delicate sauces are preferred for fresh pasta in order to let the pasta take front stage. Fresh pastas do not expand in size after cooking; therefore, 0.7 kg (1.5 lb) of pasta are needed to serve four people generously. Fresh egg pasta
9682-401: The straight-chain form. During the conversion from straight-chain form to the cyclic form, the carbon atom containing the carbonyl oxygen, called the anomeric carbon , becomes a stereogenic center with two possible configurations: The oxygen atom may take a position either above or below the plane of the ring. The resulting possible pair of stereoisomers is called anomers . In the α anomer ,
9785-546: The strict sense, " sugar " is applied for sweet, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in human food. The history of the discovery regarding carbohydrates dates back around 10,000 years ago in Papua New Guinea during the cultivation of sugarcane during the Neolithic agricultural revolution. The term "carbohydrate" was first proposed by German chemist Carl Schmidt (chemist) in 1844. In 1856, glycogen ,
9888-438: The term "carbohydrate" (or "carbohydrate by difference") is used for everything other than water, protein, fat, ash, and ethanol. This includes chemical compounds such as acetic or lactic acid , which are not normally considered carbohydrates. It also includes dietary fiber which is a carbohydrate but which does not contribute food energy in humans, even though it is often included in the calculation of total food energy. In
9991-509: The term "carbohydrate" often means any food that is particularly rich in the complex carbohydrate starch (such as cereals, bread and pasta) or simple carbohydrates, such as sugar (found in candy, jams , and desserts). This informality is sometimes confusing since it confounds chemical structure and digestibility in humans. Often in lists of nutritional information , such as the USDA National Nutrient Database ,
10094-456: The term complex carbohydrate to refer to any sort of digestible saccharide present in a whole food, where fiber, vitamins and minerals are also found (as opposed to processed carbohydrates, which provide energy but few other nutrients). The standard usage, however, is to classify carbohydrates chemically: simple if they are sugars ( monosaccharides and disaccharides ) and complex if they are polysaccharides (or oligosaccharides ). In any case,
10197-714: The term is generally understood in the biochemistry sense, which excludes compounds with only one or two carbons and includes many biological carbohydrates which deviate from this formula. For example, while the above representative formulas would seem to capture the commonly known carbohydrates, ubiquitous and abundant carbohydrates often deviate from this. For example, carbohydrates often display chemical groups such as: N -acetyl (e.g., chitin ), sulfate (e.g., glycosaminoglycans ), carboxylic acid and deoxy modifications (e.g., fucose and sialic acid ). Natural saccharides are generally built of simple carbohydrates called monosaccharides with general formula (CH 2 O) n where n
10300-503: The type of pasta are usually matched based on consistency and ease of eating. Northern Italian cooking uses less tomato sauce, garlic and herbs, and béchamel sauce is more common. However, Italian cuisine is best identified by individual regions. Pasta dishes with lighter use of tomato are found in Trentino-Alto Adige and Emilia-Romagna regions of northern Italy. In Bologna, the meat-based Bolognese sauce incorporates
10403-489: Was first used in the U.S. Senate Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs publication Dietary Goals for the United States (1977) where it was intended to distinguish sugars from other carbohydrates (which were perceived to be nutritionally superior). However, the report put "fruit, vegetables and whole-grains" in the complex carbohydrate column, despite the fact that these may contain sugars as well as polysaccharides. This confusion persists as today some nutritionists use
10506-503: Was introduced, pasta was eaten dry with the fingers; the liquid sauce demanded the use of a fork. At the beginning of the 17th century, Naples had rudimentary machines for producing pasta, later establishing the kneading machine and press, making pasta manufacturing cost-effective. In 1740, a license for the first pasta factory was issued in Venice . During the 1800s, watermills and stone grinders were used to separate semolina from
10609-432: Was present around the globe during the voyages of discovery. Although tomatoes were introduced to Italy in the 16th century and incorporated in Italian cuisine in the 17th century, description of the first Italian tomato sauces dates from the late 18th century: the first written record of pasta with tomato sauce can be found in the 1790 cookbook L'Apicio Moderno by Roman chef Francesco Leonardi . Before tomato sauce
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