Misplaced Pages

#732267

137-590: The town was founded in the 14th century C.E. and has been the seat of local government since at least the Qin . By the 16th century, it was a regional financial hub; some consider it to have been the financial centre of the Qing Empire in the late 19th century. Pingyao Ancient City is located in Pingyao County, Shanxi Province. The ancient city was built during the reign of King Xuan of Zhou (827-782 BC) and has

274-539: A barbican ( Chinese : 瓮城 ; pinyin : wèngchéng ). In its final form during the Ming and Qing dynasties, the archery tower was an elaborate construction, of comparable height to the main gatehouse, which stands some distance in front of the main gatehouse. At its base was a gate. The archery tower is so-named because of its rows of archery (and later cannon) placements, from which defenders could fire projectiles on attackers. Auxiliary walls, running perpendicularly to

411-417: A moat surrounded the wall. This could be connected to canals or rivers both in the city and outside, thus providing both a defense and a convenient transportation route. Nearby waterways might be adopted or altered to connect to, or form part of, the moat. Before the introduction of modern artillery, city walls were almost indestructible. Their solidity made any attempt to breach them by mining or bombardment

548-551: A series of wars conquering each of the rival states that had previously pledged fealty to the Zhou. This culminated in 221 BC with the successful unification of China under Qin, which then assumed an imperial prerogative—with Ying Zheng declaring himself to be Qin Shi Huang , the first emperor of China . This state of affairs lasted until 206 BC, when the dynasty collapsed in the years following Qin Shi Huang's death. Qin

685-504: A bit more than a third the width of a major wall in China. According to Philo the width of a wall had to be 4.5 metres (15 ft) thick to be able to withstand artillery. European walls of the 1200s and 1300s could reach the Roman equivalents but rarely exceeded them in length, width, and height, remaining around 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) thick. It is apt to note that when referring to

822-468: A canal to the south, which they used heavily for supplying and reinforcing their troops during their second attack to the south. Building on these gains, the Qin armies conquered the coastal lands surrounding Guangzhou , and took the provinces of Fuzhou and Guilin . They may have struck as far south as Hanoi . After these victories in the south, Qin Shi Huang moved over 100,000 prisoners and exiles to colonise

959-490: A cost benefit hypothesis, where the Ming recognized the highly resistant nature of their walls to structural damage, and could not imagine any affordable development of the guns available to them at the time to be capable of breaching said walls. Even as late as the 1490s a Florentine diplomat considered the French claim that "their artillery is capable of creating a breach in a wall of eight feet in thickness" to be ridiculous and

1096-444: A couple kilograms at most for the small ones during the early Ming era. Guns themselves had proliferated throughout China and become a common sight during sieges, so the question has arisen then why large guns were not first developed in China. According to Tonio Andrade , this was not a matter of metallurgy, which was sophisticated in China, and the Ming dynasty did construct large guns in the 1370s, but never followed up afterwards. Nor

1233-446: A difficult task. Their height, ranging mostly from five to fifteen meters, made an escalade difficult and hazardous, even though the escalade for military use had been invented as early as the fourth century BCE. A city resolutely defended could withstand attack from the largest armies, and Chinese history includes many tales of famous sieges and heroic defenses. To raze the walls of a city was considered such an exhaustive task that even if

1370-483: A favorite of the Empress Dowager Cixi . Other local products are Changshengyuan rice wine ( 长升源 黄酒 ), bean flour Minjian ( 豆面抿尖 ), and Jiupian ( 揪片 ). The silver merchants of Pingyao in the early 20th century were the subject of the 2009 film Empire of Silver . There is currently an ongoing effort to conserve and revitalize the ancient city in terms of preserving the long standing heritage of

1507-518: A future sage of "benevolence and righteous", which the First Emperor declares himself to be. Regardless, in the Qin and early Han, criminals may be given amnesties, and then only punished if they did it again. While Dong Zhongshu claimed that Qin officials and taxes were harsh, he did't specifically claim that punishments were harsh for their time: in fact he claimed that the Qin failed to punish criminals. Penal law actually develops more in

SECTION 10

#1732765733733

1644-460: A hammer blow could make a depression in them an inch deep, he would have the responsible worker killed. He also had the earth used to make the wall boiled with rice to harden it. While Chinese city walls always had an earthen core, the outer facings could be of either baked bricks laid in lime mortar, or stone where it was commonly available, such as in Sichuan . Bricks were also used for constructing

1781-417: A hierarchy of officials, all serving the First Emperor. The Qin put into practice the teachings of Han Fei , allowing the First Emperor to control all of his territories, including those recently conquered. All aspects of life were standardised, from measurements and language to more practical details, such as the length of chariot axles. The states made by the emperor were assigned to officials dedicated to

1918-593: A highly compact state, and once that was completed the frameworks were removed for use in the next wall section. During certain time periods such as the Song dynasty and later, rammed earth walls were covered with an outer layer of bricks or stone to prevent erosion, and during the Ming, earthworks were interspersed with stone and rubble. Most Chinese walls were also sloped, which better deflected projectile energy, rather than vertical. The defensive response to cannon in Europe

2055-567: A history of more than 2800 years.It is a AAAAA-rated tourist attraction , and the settlement and the outlying Zhenguo Temple and Shuanglin Temple became a World Heritage Site in 1997. There was already a settlement in place at Pingyao by the reign of the Xuan King ( r .   c.  827  – c.  782   BC), when the Zhou raised earthen ramparts around the site. In

2192-426: A large military supported by a stable economy. The central government moved to undercut aristocrats and landowners to gain direct administrative control over the peasantry, who comprised the overwhelming majority of the population and labour force. This allowed ambitious projects involving three hundred thousand peasants and convicts: projects such as connecting walls along the northern border, eventually developing into

2329-442: A permanent system of ranks and rewards, consisting of twenty ranks based on the number of enemies killed in battle or commanding victorious units. Ranks were not hereditary unless a soldier died heroically in battle, whereby the soldier's rank will be inherited by his family. Each rank was assigned a specified number of dwellings, slaves and land, and ranks could be used to remit judicial punishments. The form of government created by

2466-399: A result of their art – Luan Da , a Han dynasty medium, was granted rule over 2,000 households. Han historian Sima Qian was scornful of such practices, dismissing them as foolish trickery. Divinations to predict or influence the future were another form of religious practice during the Qin, including the ancient practice of cracking bones or turtle shells to gain knowledge of

2603-485: A result, men from all over China revolted, attacking officials, raising armies, and declaring themselves kings of seized territories. During this time, Li Si and Zhao Gao fell out, and Li Si was executed. Zhao Gao decided to force Qin Er Shi to commit suicide due to Qin Er Shi's incompetence. Upon this, Ziying , a nephew of Qin Er Shi, ascended the throne, and immediately executed Zhao Gao. Increasing unrest spread amongst

2740-450: A revulsion against the Qin developed over the course of the Han dynasty, centring on Shang Yang and Han Fei as espousing rigorous law and punishment. While Shang Yang, and maybe Han Fei , may have been influential for Qin administration, the Qin otherwise abandoned the harsh penal policy of Shang Yang before its founding. The Qin government was highly bureaucratic , and was administered by

2877-412: A sacrifice to further blur his senses and increase the likelihood of perceiving otherworldly phenomena. Other participants were similarly prepared, though not as rigorously. Such blurring of the senses was also a factor in the practice of spirit intermediaries, or mediumship . Practitioners of the art would fall into trances or dance to perform supernatural tasks. These people would often rise to power as

SECTION 20

#1732765733733

3014-621: A settlement may be; if not properly defined and enclosed by walls, it is not a city in the traditional Chinese sense. Thus, for instance, Shanghai (outside the "native town"), the most important commercial centre of modern China, is, to the old-fashioned Chinaman, not a real city, only a settlement or a huge trading centre, grown out of a fishing village. And the same is true of several other comparatively modern commercial centres without encircling walls; they are not ch'engs, or cities, according to traditional Chinese conception, whatever modern republican officials may choose to call them. The invention of

3151-586: A state in such turmoil could not hold for long. Ziying was defeated near the Wei River in 207, and surrendered shortly after; he was executed by the Chu leader Xiang Yu . The Qin capital was destroyed the next year, and this is considered by historians to be the end of the Qin Empire. Liu Bang then betrayed and defeated Xiang Yu, and on 28 February 202 BC declared himself Emperor Gaozu ("High Progenitor") of

3288-437: A trip to the eastern frontiers in 210 BC, Qin Shi Huang died in an attempt to procure an elixir of immortality from Taoist magicians, who claimed the elixir was stuck on an island guarded by a sea monster. The chief eunuch , Zhao Gao , and the prime minister, Li Si , hid the news of his death upon their return until they were able to alter his will to place on the throne the dead emperor's most pliable son, Huhai, who took

3425-477: A very thick wall in medieval Europe, what is usually meant is a wall of 2.5 metres (8 ft 2 in) in width, which would have been considered thin in a Chinese context. There are some exceptions such as the Hillfort of Otzenhausen , a Celtic ringfort with a thickness of 40 metres (130 ft) in some parts, but Celtic fort-building practices died out in the early medieval period. Andrade goes on to note that

3562-525: A wall at a Liangzhu culture site, a stone wall at Sanxingdui , and several tamped earthen walls at the Longshan culture site. In 15th century BC the Shang dynasty constructed large walls around the site of Ao with dimensions of 20 metres (66 ft) in width at the base and enclosed an area of some 2,100 yards (1,900 m) squared. Walls of similar dimensions were also found at the ancient capital of

3699-402: A working crossbow. The Qin also used improved methods of transportation and tactics. The state of Zhao had first replaced chariots with cavalry in 307 BC, but the change was swiftly adopted by the other states because cavalry had greater mobility over the terrain of China. The First Emperor developed plans to fortify his northern border, to protect against nomadic invasions. The result

3836-540: Is 10.2 °C, and the annual precipitation is about 540 millimeters, with most of the precipitation concentrated in summer.The climate of Pingyao is temperate. It is cold in winter, often having northwestern winds with little snow and severe fog. In the spring, the temperature varies greatly between day and night, with a little rain and some winds. Summertime is often hot, humid and rainy. Autumn days have falling temperatures with little rain and are cool and clear with abundant sunshine. Pingyao still retains its urban layout from

3973-529: Is an extensive courtyard complex. The 8,000+ square meter courtyard complex, meant to resemble the Chinese figure Xi (translates to "pleasure") when viewed from above, features 6 large yards with 20 smaller courtyards within them. In total, the courtyards alone are surrounded by 313 rooms with several connective alleys making patrol easy for the guards working within the complex for the Qiao family's protection. As for

4110-473: Is approximately 100 km (62 mi) south of central Taiyuan and 715 km (444 mi) southwest of Beijing , the national capital. Pingyao County is adjacent to Qi County , whose seat is also a protected historical and cultural city. Pingyao County belongs to a temperate continental climate, characterized by a mild and dry climate, large temperature differences between winter and summer, and strong sandstorms in winter. The annual average temperature

4247-486: Is on increased mechanization and working the available land intensively. The area is well known for its beef and also produces grain and cotton .The rest of the workforce is divided between industry and the service sector, particularly tourism. Industry produced 840m   RMB and was focused on improving the energy efficiency of its practices. A local specialty is lacquerware .The service sector, including tourism, produced less income than industry—790m   RMB –but

Pingyao - Misplaced Pages Continue

4384-548: The Eastern Han dynasty local gentry, clansmen, and villagers built more confined defensive structures in the form of square forts known as wū bì (塢壁). These were erected in remote countrysides and had particularly high walls, cornered watchtowers, and gates to the front and back. According to Stephen Turnbull, the wū bì are the closest approximation to the concept of a European castle that has ever existed in Chinese history. According to Jan van Linschoten, writing in 1596,

4521-579: The Former Han capital of Chang'an , the city wall constructed around 200 BC by Yang Yangcheng was 15m tall and 12m wide. It was also protected by a moat 45m wide with a depth of 4.5m. During the Yuan dynasty , Suzhou 's walls were over 7m tall and, 11m thick at the base, and 5m thick at the top. During the Ming dynasty , prefectural and provincial capital walls were 10 to 20 metres (33 to 66 ft) thick at

4658-568: The Great Wall of China , and a massive new national road system, as well as the city-sized Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor guarded by the life-sized Terracotta Army . The Qin introduced a range of reforms such as standardised currency, weights, measures and a uniform system of writing, which aimed to unify the state and promote commerce. Additionally, its military used the most recent weaponry, transportation and tactics, though

4795-399: The Great Wall of Qi , which was built with a variety of different materials and construction techniques - such as one section being made of stones and another section being made of rammed earth. The walls of Han dynasty Chang'an were completed in 189 BC and covered a perimeter of 25.5 km while the later Eastern Han capital of Luoyang measured 4.3 km by 3.7 km. By the end of

4932-515: The Mandate of Heaven , as the Zhou kings had claimed, nor that he had the right to offer sacrifices; they left this to the Zhou rulers. Before their conquest in the 4th and 3rd centuries BC, the Qin suffered several setbacks. Shang Yang was executed in 338 BC by King Huiwen due to a personal grudge harboured from his youth. There was also internal strife over the Qin succession in 307 BC, which decentralised Qin authority somewhat. Qin

5069-416: The Ming and Qing dynasties, conforming to a typical ba gua pattern. More than 300 sites in or near the city have ancient ruins. The city has over a hundred streets and lanes, lined with close to 4,000 17th–19th century shops and residences. The streets and storefronts still largely retain their historical appearance. In addition, the ancient urban city is still home to 20,000+ people, making Pingyao one of

5206-525: The Spring and Autumn period ( c.  770  – c.  481 BC ), the prevalent philosophy had dictated war as a gentleman's activity; military commanders were instructed to respect what they perceived to be Heaven's laws in battle. For example, when Duke Xiang of the rival state of Song was at war with the state of Chu during the Warring States period, he declined an opportunity to attack

5343-583: The Spring and Autumn period , the county belonged to the kingdom of Jin . It was part of the kingdom of Zhao in the Warring States period . Under the Qin , it was known as Pingtao. During the Han dynasty , it was known as the seat of Zhongdu County. Pingyao served as the financial center of the region from the 16th century and of the entire Qing Empire during the late 19th century. During those times, there were more than 20 financial institutions within

5480-425: The Wei River canal built in 246 BC was particularly significant in this respect. During the Warring States period preceding the Qin dynasty, the major states vying for dominance were Yan , Zhao , Qi , Chu , Han , Wei and Qin. The rulers of these states styled themselves as kings, rather than using the titles of lower nobility they had previously held. However, none elevated himself to believe that he had

5617-585: The Xiongnu tribe living in the Ordos region in northwestern China often raided them instead, prompting the Qin to retaliate. After a military campaign led by General Meng Tian , the region was conquered in 215 BC and agriculture was established; the peasants, however, were discontented and later revolted. The succeeding Han dynasty also expanded into the Ordos due to overpopulation, but depleted their resources in

Pingyao - Misplaced Pages Continue

5754-651: The methods of the Mohists and school of names . Confucius 's school of thought, called Ru ( 儒 ), was also influential beginning in the Warring States period, and throughout the imperial periods. Beginning in the subsequent Han dynasty, this school of thought developed a canon of literature thought to represent and preserve the ways of Zhou, called the Six Classics: the Odes , Documents , Ritual , Music , Spring and Autumn Annals , and Changes . Qin law

5891-451: The state of Wei accused the Qin state of being "avaricious, perverse, eager for profit, and without sincerity. It knows nothing about etiquette, proper relationships, and virtuous conduct, and if there be an opportunity for material gain, it will disregard its relatives as if they were animals." This, combined with a strong leadership from long-lived rulers, openness to employ talented men from other states, and little internal opposition gave

6028-400: The zhu zhu of the musics, Which purifies and refines human feelings. Suddenly the spirits ride off on the darkness And the brilliant event finishes. Purified thoughts grow hidden and still, And the warp and weft of the world fall dark. Book of Han , p. 1046 The dominant religious belief in China during the reign of the Qin, and, in fact, during much of early imperial China,

6165-406: The "Records of Officialdom". A commander named Hu ordered his men to attack peasants in an attempt to increase the number of "bandits" he had killed; his superiors, likely eager to inflate their records as well, allowed this. Qin Shi Huang also improved the strong military, despite the fact that it had already undergone extensive reforms. The military used the most advanced weaponry of the time. It

6302-462: The 13th king in that line. As a reward, Zhuang's son, Duke Xiang, was sent eastward as the leader of a war expedition, during which he formally established the Qin. The state of Qin first began a military expedition into central China in 672 BC, though it did not engage in any serious incursions due to the threat from neighbouring tribesmen. By the dawn of the 4th century BC, the neighbouring tribes had all been either subdued or conquered, and

6439-615: The 1950s. But apart from the Forbidden City, whose walls remain well-preserved, city walls from the Ming dynasty have suffered wholesale demolition in the decades since. The only surviving sections are Qianmen 's gate and arrow tower, Deshengmen 's arrow tower, a section of the wall and Southeast Corner Tower preserved in the Ming City Wall Relics Park , and the Xibianmen corner tower. The Yongdingmen Gate

6576-480: The Chinese Communists could not take the city of Tatung is a puzzle, although they besieged it for 45 days last summer. All you need to do is to look at the outer wall, and then the inner ones.... In places, the masonry is at least 50 feet thick. Communist artillery shells may have been able to play havoc with the old wooden drum tower above one gate, but they could not make more than dents and scratches on

6713-686: The Chinese Historical and Cultural Cities. In 2004, part of the southern walls collapsed. In 2015, Pingyao ancient city became a national 5A-class tourist attraction. Pingyao is located on the east bank of the Fen River near the southwestern edge of the Taiyuan Basin,located in the central part of Shanxi Province in northern China, southwest of Taiyuan Basin in the middle reaches of the Yellow River and eastern Loess Plateau.It

6850-546: The Chinese evidently did not have castles or fortresses, but only city walls for defense: All the Townes in that Countrie are walled about with stone Walles, and have Ditches of water round about them for their Securitie; they use no Fortresse nor Castles, but onely upon every Gate of the Towne they have strong Towers, wherein they place their Ordnance for the defence of ye Towne. They use all kinde of armes, as Calivers, etc. Under

6987-572: The French "braggarts by nature." In fact twentieth century explosive shells had some difficulty creating a breach in tamped earthen walls. We fought our way to Nanking and joined in the attack on the enemy capital in December. It was our unit which stormed the Chunghua Gate. We attacked continuously for about a week, battering the brick and earth walls with artillery, but they never collapsed. The night of December 11, men in my unit breached

SECTION 50

#1732765733733

7124-544: The Global Heritage Fund and UNESCO experts. One such objective of the project is to introduce modern amenities to the 2.4 square km area encompassing the heritage site including electricity and sewage in order to improve standard of living among the 20,000+ individuals who still live and work within the ancient city. The primary objective is to repurpose several unused sites within the ruins of the ancient city to be used as museums and other functions to revitalize

7261-409: The Han dynasty. The Qin often expelled criminals to the new colonies, or pardoned them in exchange for fines, labour, or one to several aristocratic ranks, even up to the death penalty. While the penal laws would still be considered harsh compared to the modern day, they were not very harsh for their time, and often not actually enacted. Villainising the first Emperor while adopting Qin administration,

7398-410: The Ming dynasty, enclosed an area large enough to house an airport, bamboo forests, and lakes in modern times. Gates were placed symmetrically along the walls. The principal gate was traditionally located at the centre of the south wall. Gatehouses were generally built of wood and brick , which sat atop a raised and expanded section of the wall, surrounded by crenellated battlements. A tunnel ran under

7535-414: The Qin a strong political base. Another advantage of the Qin was that they had a large, efficient army and capable generals. They used the newest developments in weaponry and transportation as well, which many of their enemies lacked. These latter developments allowed greater mobility over several different terrain types which were most common in many regions of China. Thus, in both ideology and practice,

7672-544: The Qin as a monolithic, legalist tyranny, notably citing a purge known as the burning of books and burying of scholars ; however, the earliest account of this event is in Sima Qian 's Shiji ( c.  91 BC ), and some modern scholars dispute its veracity. According to the Shiji ( c.  91 BC ), during the 9th century BC, Feizi , a supposed descendant of the ancient political advisor Gao Yao ,

7809-427: The Qin to attempt to conquer the other states. The Qin were swift in their assault on the other states. They first attacked the Han, directly east, and took thir capital city of Xinzheng in 230 BC. They then struck northward; the state of Zhao surrendered in 228 BC, and the northernmost state of Yan followed, falling in 226. Next, Qin armies launched assaults to the east, and later the south as well; they took

7946-719: The Qin were militarily superior. Finally, Qin possessed geographical advantages, with the fertility and strategic position of its territory protected by mountains making the state a natural stronghold. This was the heart of the Guanzhong region, as opposed to the Yangtze drainage basin, known as Guandong. The warlike nature of the Qin in Guanzhong inspired a Han dynasty adage: "Guanzhong produces generals, while Guandong produces ministers." Its expanded agricultural output helped sustain Qin's large army with food and natural resources;

8083-585: The Sui dynasty, the capital of Chang'an was renamed Da Xingcheng and its outer wall was expanded to cover a perimeter of 35 km. Under the Tang dynasty, the capital of Chang'an's outer walls measured 9.72 km east to west by 8.65 km north to south. Under the Jin dynasty the capital of Zhongdu had walls covering a perimeter of 24 km and reached a height of 12m. The oldest form of wall construction in China

8220-537: The Wei city of Daliang (now called Kaifeng) in 225 and forced Chu to surrender by 223. Lastly, they deposed the Zhou dynasty's remnants in Luoyang and conquered Qi, taking the city of Linzi in 221 BC. Upon the completion of Qin's conquests in 221 BC, King Zheng  – who had first assumed the throne of the Qin state at age 9  – became the effective ruler of China. The subjugation of

8357-622: The availability of resources and the time period - ranging from stones to bricks to rammed earth. Sometimes, different sections of the same wall used different materials and construction techniques - such as one section being made of stones and another section being made of rammed earth. By the medieval period, Chinese walls with rammed earthen cores which absorbed the energy of artillery shots were common. Rammed earth walls also helped prevent intrusion by mining since only localized sections would collapse. Walls were constructed using wooden frameworks which were filled with layers of earth tamped down to

SECTION 60

#1732765733733

8494-410: The base and 5 to 10 metres (16 to 33 ft) at the top. Most Chinese walls were sloped rather than vertical. Sometimes the walls were raised on a plinth or supporting platform. Aside from the wall itself were attached watch towers and gate towers, usually two or three stories tall. Wall bricks came in many dimensions depending on regional variations. In the north, 30 cm x 23 cm x 15 cm

8631-431: The best examples of an ancient "living city". Given just how fast and eager China is these days to modernize its cities and push the architectural envelope, finding such a well preserved historic city in China has become more and more scarce in recent years. Despite the ancient city being in a state of disrepair, the old urban layouts and walls still can take any visitor back in time to the Ming and Qing dynasties from which

8768-437: The brick work. Andrade goes on to question whether or not Europeans would have developed large artillery pieces in the first place had they faced the more formidable Chinese style walls, coming to the conclusion that such exorbitant investments in weapons unable to serve their primary purpose would not have been ideal. The city walls of Beijing , the last imperial capital of China, survived in substantially complete form into

8905-458: The character chéng (城) denoted the defensive wall of the "inner city" which housed government buildings. The character guō (郭) denoted the defensive wall of the "outer city", housing mainly residences. The phrase chángchéng (長城), literally "the long wall", refers to the Great Wall. Colloquially chéng referred to both the walls and city so that both were synonymous with each other. A city

9042-495: The city as well as acknowledging the modern needs an aging city such as Pingyao needs. The Conservation and Revitalisation Programme of the Ancient City of Ping Yao was initially proposed and approved in 2014 and has received a vast number of groups interested in working together in order to meet a series of objectives, including: Tongji University, Pingyao County People's Government and Bureau of Natural Resources as well as

9179-428: The city played a notable part in the workings of China's Wall Street. By late 18th century to early 19th century China, much past the time of ancient dynasties, travel across the northern plains of China was no safe task. Merchants were frequently robbed when traveling to Pingyao which resided between the imperial Xi' and what is now Beijing, making it a vital trade route. To solve this problem, Pingyao merchants introduced

9316-598: The city wall is attributed to the semi-historical sage Gun (鯀) of the Xia dynasty , father of Yu the Great . The traditional narrative tells that Gun built the inner wall to defend the prince and the outer wall to settle the people. An alternative narrative attributes the first city wall to the Yellow Emperor . A number of neolithic walls surrounding substantial settlements have been excavated in recent years. These include

9453-566: The city walls protecting the Confucian compound in Qufu are authentic, the rest having been demolished in 1978 and rebuilt in recent years. Some isolated gates of Hangzhou and Suzhou (especially Panmen Gate) have either survived or been rebuilt. Substantial remains of the gates of Zhengding in Hebei have survived but the walls have largely been stripped to their earthen core. One small section of

9590-494: The city, comprising more than half of the total in the whole country. Rishengchang was the first and largest, controlling almost half of China's silver trade under the late Qing before going bankrupt in 1914 in the aftermath of the Xinhai Revolution . Organized restorations have been undertaken periodically since the 15th century, the most recent phase beginning in 1979. In 1986, China designated Pingyao as one of

9727-401: The dead journeyed and stayed in the other realm, and to receive blessings from the spirit realm. Religious practices were usually held in local shrines and sacred areas, which contained sacrificial altars. During a sacrifice or other ritual, the senses of all participants and witnesses would be dulled and blurred with smoke, incense, and music. The lead sacrificer would fast and meditate before

9864-507: The different districts. Versatility in federal structures was emphasised, to create a sense of authority and absolute power. Architectural elements such as high towers, pillar gates, terraces, and high buildings amply conveyed this. The written language of the Qin was logographic , as that of the Zhou had been. It was more conservative of earlier graphic forms than more evolved local scripts in other regions. As one of his most influential achievements in life, prime minister Li Si standardised

10001-746: The early period as the source of the name. Qin Shi Huang was the first Chinese sovereign to proclaim himself "Emperor", after unifying China in 221 BC. That year is therefore generally taken by historians to be the start of the "Qin dynasty" which lasted for 14 years until 207, when it was cut short by civil wars. Chinese city wall Chinese city walls ( traditional Chinese : 城牆 ; simplified Chinese : 城墙 ; pinyin : chéngqiáng ; lit. 'city wall') refer to defensive walls built to protect important towns and cities in pre-modern China . In addition to walls, Chinese city defenses also included fortified towers and gates , as well as moats and ramparts around

10138-456: The empire, but all these paled in comparison to contemporary Chinese walls, which could reach a thickness of 20 metres (66 ft) at the base in extreme cases. Even the walls of Constantinople which have been described as "the most famous and complicated system of defence in the civilized world," could not match up to a major Chinese city wall. Had both the outer and inner walls of Constantinople been combined, they would have only reached roughly

10275-418: The end of 2023 and the beginning of 2024, the permanent population is 442,785, with an urbanization rate of 50.3%. The urban population is 222,832, the rural population is 219,953, with 225,301 males and 217,484 females. Pingyao Ancient City and its environs are organized as the town of "Gutao", the seat of Pingyao County . Gutao directly oversees 10 administrative villages : In the early years of Pingyao,

10412-484: The enemy force, commanded by Zhu, while they were crossing a river. After allowing them to cross and marshal their forces, he was decisively defeated in the ensuing battle. When his advisors later admonished him for such excessive courtesy to the enemy, he retorted, "The sage does not crush the feeble, nor give the order for attack until the enemy have formed their ranks." The Qin disregarded this military tradition, taking advantage of their enemy's weaknesses. A nobleman in

10549-454: The first emperor and his advisors was used by later dynasties to structure their own government. Under this system, both the military and government thrived, as talented individuals could be more easily identified in the transformed society. Later Chinese dynasties emulated the Qin government for its efficiency, despite its being condemned by Confucian philosophy. There were instances of abuse, however, with one example having been recorded in

10686-557: The future. The forms of divination which sprang up during early imperial China were diverse, though observing natural phenomena was a common method. Comets, eclipses, and droughts were considered omens of things to come. The name Qin is believed to be the origin of the modern name for the country in many European languages, China . The word probably made its way into the Indo-Aryan languages first as Cina or Sina , and then into Greek and Latin as Sinai or Thinai . It

10823-410: The gatehouse, with several metal gates and wooden doors. Camouflaged defensive positions are placed along the tunnel (in an effect similar to murder holes ). Gatehouses were accessed by ramps, called horse ramps or bridle paths, ( Chinese : 马道 ; pinyin : mǎdào ), which sat against the wall adjacent to the gate. An "archery tower" was often placed in front of the main gatehouse, forming

10960-428: The government was heavy-handed and bureaucratic. Qin created a system of administering people and land that greatly increased the power of the government to transform environment, and it has been argued that the subsequent impact of this system on East Asia's environments makes the rise of Qin an important event in China's environmental history. When Qin Shi Huang died in 210 BC, two of his advisors placed an heir on

11097-406: The heritage of Pingyao. Qin dynasty This is an accepted version of this page The Qin dynasty ( / tʃ ɪ n / ; CHIN ) was the first dynasty of Imperial China . It is named for its progenitor state of Qin , which was a fief of the confederal Zhou dynasty that had endured for over five centuries. Beginning in 230 BC, the Qin under King Ying Zheng engaged in

11234-412: The historical style of the Ming and Qing dynasties. Increases in tourism have put pressure on Pingyao. During China's Golden Weeks , the number of visitors to the city has sometimes been as high as 2½ times its planned maximum capacity. During the single week around May Day in 2007, the town made about 94.5m   RMB from visiting tourists. Since that high point in 2007, the government has reduced

11371-420: The house are the extensive exterior walls, stretching 10 meters high. The Qiao family resided in the mansion until the 1980's, where sometime after the massive complex has since been converted to a museum, seeing thousands of visitors annually. As of 2009, Pingyao had a population of 48,531 people living in 16,634 households. 12,132 residents held local hukous and 36,399 were from other parts of China. As of

11508-413: The house itself, the complex reflects a traditional-yet massive- example of a Qing Dynasty mansion. The construction is primarily stone and timber using various traditional methods from the Chinese 18th-19th centuries. Many entrances to the grounds are overlooked by large stone guardian lion statues, a symbol of protection in Chinese culture and often applied to Chinese architecture. Another notable aspect of

11645-476: The main wall, connect the archery tower with the main gatehouse, enclosing a rectangular area. This area serves as a buffer zone, should the first gate be breached. Its Chinese name, "jar walls", refers to the intended strategy whereby attackers coming through the archery tower would be trapped in the barbican, open to attack from all sides. In large gates there may be multiple barbicans – the main gate of Nanjing ( Gate of China, Nanjing ) had three barbicans, forming

11782-423: The majority (500,000 men) of his army south to conquer the territory of the southern tribes . Prior to the events leading to Qin dominance over China, they had gained possession of much of Sichuan to the southwest. The Qin army was unfamiliar with the jungle terrain, and it was defeated by the southern tribes' guerrilla warfare tactics with over 100,000 men lost. However, in the defeat Qin was successful in building

11919-443: The mid-twentieth century a European expert in fortification commented on their immensity: "in China … the principal towns are surrounded to the present day by walls so substantial, lofty, and formidable that the medieval fortifications of Europe are puny in comparison." Chinese walls were thick. Ming prefectural and provincial capital walls were 10 to 20 metres (33 to 66 ft) thick at the base and 5 to 10 metres (16 to 33 ft) at

12056-401: The moniker "Turtle City." The walls measure about 12 m (39 ft) high, with a perimeter of 6,163 m (20,220 ft). A 4   m wide and 4 m (13 ft) deep moat can be found just outside the walls. Aside from the four structured towers at the four corners, there are also 72 watchtowers and more than 3,000 battlements . The number of defensive works supposedly represents

12193-414: The most elaborate system still in existence in China. Towers that protruded from the wall were located at regular intervals along the wall. Large and elaborate towers, called corner towers (角楼, Jiǎolóu ), were placed where two walls joined (i.e. at corners). These were significantly higher than the wall itself, and gave defenders a bird's eye view over both the city and its surroundings. In larger cities,

12330-429: The name of Qin Er Shi . They believed that they would be able to manipulate him to their own ends, and thus effectively control the empire. Qin Er Shi was, indeed, inept and pliable. He executed many ministers and imperial princes, continued massive building projects (one of his most extravagant projects was lacquering the city walls), enlarged the army, increased taxes, and arrested messengers who brought him bad news. As

12467-441: The new Han dynasty . Despite the short duration of the Qin, it was very influential on the structure of future dynasties. The Qin aristocracy were largely similar to the Zhou in culture and daily life, with regional variation generally considered a symbol of the lower classes – and ultimately as contrary to the unification that the government strove to achieve. Commoners and rural villagers, who made up over 90% of

12604-428: The new name "Shi Huangdi", meaning 'First Emperor'. The newly declared emperor ordered all weapons not in the possession of the Qin to be confiscated and melted down. The resulting metal was sufficient to build twelve large ornamental statues at the Qin's newly declared capital at Xianyang . In 214 BC, Qin Shi Huang secured his boundaries to the north with a fraction of his large army (roughly 100,000 men) and sent

12741-477: The newly conquered area. In terms of extending the boundaries of his empire, the First Emperor was extremely successful in the south. However, while the empire at times was extended to the north, the Qin could rarely hold on to the land for long. The tribes of these locations, collectively called the Hu by the Qin, were free from Chinese rule during the majority of the dynasty. Prohibited from trading with Qin peasants,

12878-699: The number and length of China's "golden weeks", spreading domestic tourism more equitably throughout the year. The Global Heritage Fund has also worked with the Pingyao County People's Government to protect the town against overdevelopment and damage from its high volume of visitors. The stated goal for their Pingyao Cultural Heritage Development Program is improved preservation of local vernacular architecture and traditional arts through improved planning and increased conservation efforts. Local specialties include Pingyao beef ( 平遥 牛肉 , Píngyáo niúròu ) and wantuo ( 平遥 碗托 , Píngyáo wǎntuō ),

13015-404: The number of Confucius 's disciples and other students. The walls are considered among the best-preserved ancient city walls on this scale-aside from the Great Wall of China, of course. Given the extensive history of trade and growing wealth of families in the city in early 19th century China, many families were able to have great fortresslike structures built for themselves. One such structure

13152-418: The people, largely caused by regional differences which survived despite Qin's attempt to impose uniformity, and many local officials had declared themselves kings. Given this climate, Ziying attempted to cling to his throne by declaring himself one king among all the others. He was undermined by his ineptitude, and popular revolt broke out in 209 BC. When Chu rebels under the lieutenant Liu Bang attacked,

13289-444: The population, very rarely left the villages or farmsteads where they were born. Forms of employment differed by region, though farming was almost universally common. Professions were hereditary; a father's employment was passed to his eldest son after he died. The Lüshi Chunqiu gave examples of how, when commoners are obsessed with material wealth, instead of the idealism of a man who "makes things serve him", they were "reduced to

13426-402: The process. Indeed, this was true of the dynasty's borders in multiple directions; modern Xinjiang , Tibet, Manchuria , Inner Mongolia, and regions to the southeast were foreign to the Qin, and even areas over which they had military control were culturally distinct. Three assassination attempts were made on Qin Shi Huang, leading him to become paranoid and obsessed with immortality. While on

13563-435: The rank of the city in the administrative hierarchy. The size of the enclosed area of the typical walled city decreases southward, indicative of the magnitude of regional urbanization in Ming times or earlier. At later dates, an outer wall was often erected to enclose settlement that had spread outside the city, and in many cases "multiple cities" were developed at the same locality. Long-term strategic considerations meant that

13700-516: The same plan created by Wu Zixu in the 5th century BC. and lasted until their demolition in the 1960s and 1970s. Sieges of city walls (along with naval battles) were portrayed on bronze 'hu' vessels dated to the Warring States (5th century BC to 3rd century BC), like those found in Chengdu , Sichuan , China in 1965. An example of walls built the Spring and Autumn to Warring States can include

13837-468: The service of things". Peasants were rarely figured in literature during the Qin dynasty and afterwards; scholars and others of more elite status preferred the excitement of cities and the lure of politics. One notable exception to this was Shen Nong , the so-called "Divine Father", who taught that households should grow their own food. "If in one's prime he does not plow, someone in the world will grow hungry. If in one's prime she does not weave, someone in

13974-518: The sewer network below the Beijing city wall in the 16th century. In addition to tamped earth, Chinese walls were sometimes reinforced with wood. A study of Han forts in Xinjiang found that they had brushwood and poplar interspersed between the layers of tamped earth. Remains of city walls have been found as early as 15th century BC during the Shang dynasty , which constructed large walls around

14111-430: The site of Ao with dimensions of 20 metres (66 ft) in width at the base and enclosed an area of some 2,100 yards (1,900 m) squared. Walls of similar dimensions are also found at the ancient capital of the state of Zhao , Handan (founded in 386 BC), with a width of 20 metres (66 ft) at the base, a height of 15 metres (49 ft), and a length of 1,530 yards (1,400 m) along its two rectangular sides. At

14248-419: The six states was done by King Zheng who had used efficient persuasion and exemplary strategy. He solidified his position as sole ruler with the abdication of his prime minister, Lü Buwei . The states made by the emperor were assigned to officials dedicated to the task rather than place the burden on people from the royal family. He then combined the titles of the earlier Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors into

14385-459: The stage was set for the rise of Qin expansionism. During the Warring States period ( c.  475  – 221 BC), the Qin statesman Shang Yang introduced a series of advantageous military reforms between 361 BC and his death in 338 BC. Yang also helped to construct the Qin capital at Xianyang , a city that ultimately resembled the capitals of the other states. Qin engaged in practical and ruthless warfare. During

14522-490: The state of Zhao , Handan (founded in 386 BC), also with a width of 20 metres (66 ft) at the base, a height of 15 metres (49 ft), and a length of 1,530 yards (1,400 m) along its two rectangular sides. Most settlements of significant size possessed a city wall from the Zhou dynasty onwards. The city wall of Pingyao was first constructed between 827 BC and 782 BC during the reign of King Xuan of Zhou . The city walls of Suzhou followed afterward under largely

14659-461: The task rather than placing the burden on people from the royal family. Zheng and his advisors also introduced new laws and practices that ended aristocratic rule in China, fully replacing it with a centralised, bureaucratic government. A supervisory system, the Censorate was introduced to monitor and check the powers of administrators and officials at each level of government. The Qin instituted

14796-405: The throne in an attempt to influence and control the administration of the dynasty. These advisors squabbled among themselves, resulting in both of their deaths and that of the second Qin emperor. Popular revolt broke out and the weakened empire soon fell to Chu general Xiang Yu , who was proclaimed Hegemon-King of Western Chu, and Liu Bang , who founded the Han dynasty. Han Confucians portrayed

14933-522: The top. In Europe the height of wall construction was reached under the Roman Empire , whose walls often reached 10 metres (33 ft) in height, the same as many Chinese city walls, but were only 1.5 to 2.5 metres (4 ft 11 in to 8 ft 2 in) thick. Rome's Servian Walls reached 3.6 and 4 metres (12 and 13 ft) in thickness and 6 to 10 metres (20 to 33 ft) in height. Other fortifications also reached these specifications across

15070-473: The town originated. The city walls of Pingyao were constructed in 1370, the 3rd year of the Hongwu Emperor of the Ming . They enclose an area of about 2.25 km (0.87 sq mi). The town is accessed by six barbican gates, one each on the north and south walls and two each on the east and west walls. This pattern is similar to that of a turtle (the head, tail and four legs), earning Pingyao

15207-511: The use of paper remittances or bonds, in order to relieve traveling merchants from carrying gold and silver, making travel much safer. Pingyao being a conduit for trade in China led to skyrocketing wealth among many families including the Qiao family ( mentioned in architecture section) . As of 2009, the town had a labour pool of 19,059 people. 3,811 farmers worked 9977   mu (613 ha or 1,510 acres) of arable land, producing 33.7m RMB of crops, livestock, and other goods. The local focus

15344-448: The wall. The morning came with most of our unit still behind us, but we were beyond the wall. Behind the gate great heaps of sandbags were piled up. We 'cleared them away, removed the lock, and opened the gates, with a great creaking noise. We'd done it! We'd opened the fortress! All the enemy ran away, so we didn't take any fire. The residents too were gone. When we passed beyond the fortress wall we thought we had occupied this city. Why

15481-415: The walls had all been destroyed and the enemy thus able to penetrate, their exhausted forces could hardly meet the fresh strength of the defenders. Even in modern warfare city walls continued to play a vital role in the Chinese concept of effective defense. While China was the birthplace of gunpowder the guns there remained relatively small and light, weighing 80 kilograms or less for the large ones, and only

15618-1389: The walls of Pingyao in Shanxi , Dali in Yunnan , Jingzhou in Hubei , and Xingcheng in Liaoning . Smaller garrison towns or fortifications include Diaoyu near Chongqing, Wanping county fortifications near Marco Polo Bridge in Beijing, the garrison town of Shanhai Pass , Jinyuan District in Taiyuan, Wanquan District in Zhangjiakou, Yongtai turtle town, Guangfu Ancient City in Hebei, Zhaoqing in Guangdong, and Qiansuo in Huludao , Liaoning. Isolated remnants and some modern recreations can be seen today in many other cities. The walls of Luoyang in Henan survive as heavily eroded remains. The surviving walls of Shangqiu in Henan , while extensive, have heavily deteriorated over time. Only small parts of

15755-540: The walls of important cities often enclosed an area much larger than existing urban areas in order to ensure excess capacity for growth, and to secure resources such as timber and farmland in times of war. The city wall of Quanzhou in Fujian still contained one quarter vacant land by 1945. The city wall of Suzhou by the Republic of China era still enclosed large tracts of farmland. The City Wall of Nanjing , built during

15892-428: The walls of the marketplace of Chang'an were thicker than the walls of major European capitals. Aside from their immense size, Chinese walls were also structurally different from the ones built in medieval Europe. Medieval European walls for castles were mostly constructed of stone interspersed with gravel or rubble filling and bonded by limestone mortar. Chinese walls used a variety of different materials depending on

16029-437: The walls. The most specific Chinese word for a city wall is chéngqiáng (城墙), which can be used in two senses in the modern Chinese language. It broadly refers to all defensive walls , including the Great Wall of China , as well as similar defensive structures in areas outside of China such as Hadrian's Wall . More specifically Chengqiang refers to defensive walls built around a city or town. However, in classical Chinese ,

16166-458: The world will be cold." The Qin encouraged this; a ritual was performed once every few years that consisted of important government officials taking turns with the plough on a special field, to create a simulation of government interest and activity within agriculture. Warring States-era architecture had several definitive aspects. City walls, used for defence, were made longer, and indeed several secondary walls were also sometimes built to separate

16303-662: The writing system to be of uniform size and shape across the whole country. This would have a unifying effect on the Chinese culture for thousands of years. He is also credited with creating the small seal script style, which serves as a basis for modern Chinese and is still used in cards, posters, and advertising. During the Warring States period, the Hundred Schools of Thought comprised many different philosophies proposed by Chinese scholars. These largely lacked coherence until much later taxonomy imposed by Han dynasty librarians. Contemporary institutions descended in part from

16440-511: Was a minor power for the early centuries of its existence. The strength of the Qin state was greatly increased by the reforms of Shang Yang in the 4th century BC, during the Warring States period . In the mid- and late 3rd century BC, the Qin state carried out a series of swift conquests, destroying the powerless Zhou dynasty and eventually conquering the other six of the Seven Warring States . Qin's 15-year existence

16577-469: Was defeated by an alliance of the other states in 295 BC, and shortly after suffered another defeat by the state of Zhao, because the majority of their army was then defending against Qi. The aggressive statesman Fan Sui ( 范雎 ), however, soon came to power as prime minister even as the problem of the succession was resolved, and he began an expansionist policy that had originated in Jin and Qi, which prompted

16714-431: Was first used mostly in bronze form, but by the 5th century BC, kingdoms such as Chu and Qin were using iron and/or steel swords. The demand for this metal resulted in improved bellows . The crossbow had been introduced in the 5th century BC and was more powerful and accurate than the composite bows used earlier. It could also be rendered ineffective by removing two pins, which prevented enemies from capturing

16851-416: Was focused on the shen (roughly translating to 'spirits' or 'gods'), yin ('shadows'), and the realm they were said to live in. The Chinese offered animal sacrifices in an attempt to contact this other world, which they believed to be parallel to the earthly one. The dead were said to have simply moved from one world to the other. The rituals mentioned, as well as others, served two purposes: to ensure that

16988-549: Was granted rule over the settlement of Qin ( 秦邑 ) (present-day Qingshui County in Shaanxi ). During the rule of King Xiao of Zhou , the eighth king of the Zhou dynasty, this area became known as the state of Qin. In 897 BC, under the Gonghe Regency , the area became a dependency allotted for the purpose of raising and breeding horses. One of Feizi's descendants, Duke Zhuang , became favoured by King Ping of Zhou ,

17125-577: Was growing rapidly and marked for special focus by local government. Pingyao Ancient City is located 90 kilometers south of Taiyuan, Shanxi, and is one of the world historical and cultural heritage sites approved by the United Nations. Pingyao Ancient City is the most well preserved prototype of an ancient Chinese county town from the Ming and Qing dynasties in China. It is a large ancient architectural complex composed of complete city walls, streets, shops, temples, and residential buildings, reflecting

17262-521: Was inconspicuous due to its underground location, and was not discovered until 1974. Floating on high in every direction, Music fills the hall and court. The incense sticks are a forest of feathers, The cloudy scene an obscure darkness. Metal stalks with elegant blossoms, A host of flags and kingfisher banners. The music of the "Seven Origins" and "Blossoming Origins" Are intoned as harmonious sounds. Thus one can almost hear The spirits coming to feast and frolic. The spirits are seen off to

17399-564: Was it the lack of warfare, which other historians have suggested to be the case, but does not stand up to scrutiny as walls were a constant factor of war which stood in the way of many Chinese armies since time immemorial into the twentieth century. The answer Andrade provides is simply that Chinese walls were much less vulnerable to bombardment. Andrade argues that traditional Chinese walls were built differently from medieval European walls in ways which made them more resistant to cannon fire. Chinese walls were bigger than medieval European walls. In

17536-476: Was not a city without walls, however large it may be. There is no real city in Northern China without a surrounding wall, a condition which, indeed, is expressed by the fact that the Chinese use the same word Ch'eng for a city and a city wall: for there is no such thing as a city without a wall. It is just as inconceivable as a house without a roof. It matters little how large, important, and well ordered

17673-443: Was of rammed earth . Stone rubble was used for the foundation. Bricks were also used but were less common. From the Zhou dynasty , bricks were made of adobe, until the Han dynasty , when baked bricks became common. It is not certain how common brick faced walls were during the Shang and Zhou dynasties. In the state of Xia (Sixteen Kingdoms) , the Xiongnu engineer Chigan Ali had the workers bake bricks for wall construction, and if

17810-903: Was primarily administrative, and included penal law alongside ritual orthopraxy , comparative model manuals in the Qin empire guided penal legal procedure and application based on real-life situations, with publicly named wrongs linked to punishments. While some Qin penal laws deal with infanticide or other unsanctioned harm of children, it primarily concerned theft; it does not much deal with murder, as either more straightforward or more suitable to ritual. By contrast, detailed rules and "endless paperwork" tightly regulate grain, weights, measures, and official documents. Like most ancient societies, tradition China did not divide administration and judiciary, but it did include such concepts as intent, judicial procedure, defendant rights, retrial requests and distinctions between different kinds of law ( common law and statutory law ). The Book of Lord Shang prophecies

17947-450: Was rebuilt in 2005. Of the walls of other major historical cities, those of Nanjing , Xi'an and Kaifeng are notable for their state of preservation. The walls of Nanjing and Xi'an are Ming dynasty originals with extensive Qing dynasty and modern restorations, while the wall of Kaifeng visible today is largely the result of Qing dynasty restoration. The walls of some smaller cities and towns have survived more or less intact. These include

18084-611: Was the Qiao family compound located just outside Pingyao. The compound was constructed in 1756, during the Qing Dynasty. The Qiao family had made a fortune as merchants of tea and tofu. By the third generation, the family head was Qiao Zhiyong who built the merchant business into an Empire over the Shanxi province where Pingyao is located. Zhiyong made several expansions to the compound including Qiao's Grand Courtyard , which actually

18221-483: Was the initial construction of what later became the Great Wall of China , which was built by joining and strengthening the walls made by the feudal lords, which would be expanded and rebuilt multiple times by later dynasties, also in response to threats from the north. Another project built during Qin Shi Huang's rule was the Terracotta Army , intended to protect the emperor after his death. The Terracotta Army

18358-434: Was the most common, and in the south, 15 cm x 13 cm x 3 cm. Most imperial capitals and many important cities in the north had the walls of rectangular shape. In areas of rugged relief, however, a square form was usually replaced by one of irregular shape, determined in many cases by topographic conditions. The size of the walled area and the elaboration of wall construction were normally directly proportional to

18495-435: Was the shortest major dynasty in Chinese history, with only two emperors. However, the legacy of Qin strategies in military and administrative affairs shaped the consummate Han dynasty that followed, ultimately becoming seen as the originator of an imperial system that ultimately lasted in various forms until the Xinhai Revolution in 1911. The Qin sought to create a state unified by structured centralised political power and

18632-530: Was then borrowed into English and French as China and Chine . This etymology is dismissed by some scholars, who suggest that Sina in Sanskrit evolved much earlier before the Qin. However, the preceding state of Qin was itself founded in the 9th century BC. Jin , a state during the Zhou dynasty until the 4th century BC, is another possible origin. Others argued for the state of Jing ( 荆 , another name for Chu ), as well as other polities in

18769-438: Was to build relatively low and thick walls of packed earth, which could both withstand the force of cannon balls and support their own, defensive cannon. Chinese wall-building practice was, by happenstance, extremely resistant to all forms of battering. This held true into the twentieth century, when even modern explosive shells had some difficulty in breaking through tamped earth walls. The Chinese Wall Theory essentially rests on

#732267