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129-638: Piranesi was born in Venice , in the parish of San Moisè , where he was baptised. His father was a stonemason . His brother Andrea introduced him to Latin literature and ancient Greco-Roman civilization , and later he was apprenticed under his uncle, Matteo Lucchesi , who was a leading architect in the Magistrato alle Acque , the state organization responsible for engineering and restoring historical buildings. From 1740, he had an opportunity to work in Rome as

258-555: A draughtsman for Marco Foscarini , the Venetian ambassador (and future Doge of Venice ) to the new Pope Benedict XIV . He resided in the Palazzo Venezia and studied under Giuseppe Vasi , who introduced him to the art of etching and engraving of the city and its monuments. Giuseppe Vasi found Piranesi's talent was much greater than that of a mere engraver. According to Legrand, Vasi told Piranesi that "you are too much of

387-495: A stone pine tree. The prevailing winds at the time blew toward the southeast, causing the volcanic material to fall primarily on the city of Pompeii and the surrounding area. Since Herculaneum lay west of Vesuvius, it was only mildly affected by the first phase of the eruption. While roofs in Pompeii collapsed under the weight of falling debris, only a few centimetres of ash fell on Herculaneum, causing little damage; nevertheless,

516-553: A 'restorer' of ancient sculpture, the Piranesi Vase , and in 1777–78 he published Avanzi degli Edifici di Pesto (Remains of the Edifices of Paestum ). He died in Rome in 1778 after a long illness, and was buried in the church he had helped restore, Santa Maria del Priorato. His tomb was designed by Giuseppi Angelini . Even though the social structure by an aristocracy remained rigid and oppressive, Venice revived through

645-648: A factor in ending the Byzantine Empire as the loss of the Anatolian themes , after Manzikert . Although the Byzantines recovered control of the ravaged city a half-century later, the Byzantine Empire was terminally weakened, and existed as a ghost of its old self, until Sultan Mehmet The Conqueror took the city in 1453 . Situated on the Adriatic Sea , Venice had always traded extensively with

774-487: A foreign order without the government's consent. Venice remained a republic throughout its independent period, and politics and the military were kept separate, except when on occasion the Doge personally headed the military. War was regarded as a continuation of commerce by other means. Therefore, the city's early employment of large numbers of mercenaries for service elsewhere, and later its reliance on foreign mercenaries when

903-437: A group of twenty-six of his engravings. The Prisons ( Carceri d'invenzione or 'Imaginary Prisons'), is a series of 16 prints produced in first and second states that show enormous subterranean vaults with stairs and mighty machines. The series was started in 1745. The first state prints were published in 1750 and consisted of 14 etchings, untitled and unnumbered, with a sketch-like look. The original prints were 16" x 21". For

1032-601: A legate of Sulla . Following the war the walls lost their protective purpose and were integrated into houses and adjacent structures, such as the House of the Inn . It became a Roman municipium in 89 BC. The eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79 buried Herculaneum under approximately 20 m (66 ft) of ash. It lay hidden and largely intact until discoveries from wells and tunnels became gradually more widely known, notably following

1161-637: A long-term plan for the site. Since 2001, the Herculaneum Conservation Project has been involved in pilot conservation projects and has partnered with the British School at Rome for training students to maintain the site. One of the pilot projects started by the Conservation Project was on the tablinum that had been conserved by Maiuri 's team in 1938. Over time water had seeped into the wall causing

1290-475: A military officer (with an elaborate dagger and belt), who was perhaps involved in a rescue mission. The volcanic ash and debris covering Herculaneum, along with the extreme heat, left it in a remarkable state of preservation for over 1,600 years. However, once excavations began, exposure to the elements began the slow process of deterioration. This was exacerbated by earlier excavation practices, which generally focused on valuable artifacts rather than preserving

1419-494: A painter, my friend, to be an engraver." After his studies with Vasi, he collaborated with pupils of the French Academy in Rome to produce a series of vedute (views) of the city; his first work was Prima parte di Architettura e Prospettive (1743), followed in 1745 by Varie Vedute di Roma Antica e Moderna . In 1752 Piranesi married Angela Pasquini, with their son Francesco born in 1758/1759. From 1743 to 1747, he

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1548-479: A powerful maritime empire (an Italian thalassocracy known also as repubblica marinara ). In addition to Venice there were seven others: the most important ones were Genoa , Pisa , and Amalfi ; and the lesser known were Ragusa , Ancona , Gaeta and Noli . Its own strategic position at the head of the Adriatic made Venetian naval and commercial power almost invulnerable. With the elimination of pirates along

1677-488: A prominent cultural hub. The famous Villa of the Papyri , was built on the seashore on four terraces. It is thought to have belonged to consul Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus , Julius Caesar 's father-in-law, who was a patron of poets and philosophers and built there the only ancient library that has survived virtually intact. Between 1752 and 1754, a number of blackened, unreadable papyrus scrolls were recovered from

1806-572: A saddlebag. His Aldine Editions included translations of nearly all the known Greek manuscripts of the era. Venice's long decline started in the 15th century. Venice confronted the Ottoman Empire in the Siege of Thessalonica (1422–1430) and sent ships to help defend Constantinople against the besieging Turks in 1453. After the Fall of Constantinople , Sultan Mehmed II declared the first of

1935-487: A senator-like assembly of nobles, and the general citizenry with limited political power, who originally had the power to grant or withhold their approval of each newly elected doge. Church and various private property was tied to military service, although there was no knight tenure within the city itself. The Cavalieri di San Marco was the only order of chivalry ever instituted in Venice, and no citizen could accept or join

2064-526: A series of Ottoman-Venetian wars that cost Venice much of its eastern Mediterranean possessions. Vasco da Gama 's 1497–1499 voyage opened a sea route to India around the Cape of Good Hope and destroyed Venice's monopoly. Venice's oared vessels were at a disadvantage when it came to traversing oceans, therefore Venice was left behind in the race for colonies . The Black Death devastated Venice in 1348 and struck again between 1575 and 1577. In three years,

2193-497: A significant impact on the architecture and culture that can still be seen today. The Venetian Arsenal is considered by several historians to be the first factory in history, and was the base of Venice's naval power. The sovereignty of Venice came to an end in 1797, at the hands of Napoleon . Subsequently, in 1866, the city became part of the Kingdom of Italy . Venice has been known as "La Dominante", "La Serenissima", "Queen of

2322-496: A smaller layer of material covering the site (4m as compared to 20m at Herculaneum), diverted attention and effort. King Francis I ordered land acquisitions and promoted renewed excavations between 1828 and 1837. Acquisitions continued under the newly formed Kingdom of Italy , extending excavations eastwards till 1875. From 1927 until 1942, Amedeo Maiuri conducted a new campaign, sponsored by Mussolini 's regime, which unearthed approximately four hectares which today are part of

2451-455: A statue of a Cupid , once part of a candlestick. In the centre of the peristyle are the remains of a rectangular basin. The house consists of two adjoined structures with a mix of plain, simple spaces and finely-decorated rooms. The atrium is covered and lacks the usual impluvium . It retains its original flooring of opus tesselatum and opus sectile . A highly adorned biclinium (a dining-couch for two persons ) with frescoes in

2580-452: A striking influence on nascent European Neoclassicism ; by the end of the 18th century, motifs from Herculaneum began to appear on fashionable furnishings, including decorative wall-paintings, tripod tables, perfume burners, and teacups. Nonetheless, excavation ceased once again in 1762 as a result of Winckelmann 's harsh criticism of the treasure-hunting techniques. The discovery of neighbouring Pompeii, substantially simpler to excavate due to

2709-465: A strong influence on Neoclassicism . One of the main features of Neo-Classicism is the attitude towards nature and the uses of the past. Neo-Classicism was prompted by the discoveries at Herculaneum and Pompeii. Rediscovery and revaluation of Greece, Egypt, and Gothic was also active as well as the various expeditions of unfamiliar Roman empire. The view of a Golden Age was changing from static to mutable, inspired by Rousseau and Winckelmann in response to

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2838-733: A viceroy (the Exarch ) appointed by the Emperor in Constantinople . Ravenna and Venice were connected by just sea routes, and with the Venetians' isolation came increasing autonomy. New ports were built, including those at Malamocco and Torcello in the Venetian lagoon. The tribuni maiores formed the earliest central standing governing committee of the islands in the lagoon, dating from c.  568 . The traditional first doge of Venice , Paolo Lucio Anafesto (Anafestus Paulicius),

2967-470: A villa in neighbouring Granatello, and to furnish it, he grew intrigued in local tales of wells containing antique sculptures and artworks. In 1709, he acquired the site of a recently-dug well and tunnelled out from its bottom in search of sculptures. The tunnel reached what would be later identified as a theatre, where remarkable sculptures were uncovered. Among the earliest sculptures discovered were two exquisitely carved Herculaneum women, currently housed in

3096-588: A walled defense ( civitatis murus ) between Olivolo and Rialto, were subsequently built here. Charlemagne sought to subdue the city to his rule. He ordered the pope to expel the Venetians from the Pentapolis along the Adriatic coast; Charlemagne's own son Pepin of Italy , king of the Lombards, under the authority of his father, embarked on a siege of Venice itself. This, however, proved a costly failure. The siege lasted six months, with Pepin's army ravaged by

3225-430: Is 3.3 °C (37.9 °F), and for July this figure is 23.0 °C (73.4 °F). Precipitation is spread relatively evenly throughout the year, and averages 748 millimetres (29.4 in); snow isn't a rarity between late November and early March. During the most severe winters, the canals and parts of the lagoon can freeze, but with the warming trend of the past 30–40 years, the occurrence has become rarer. The city

3354-717: Is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto region . It is built on a group of 126 islands that are separated by expanses of open water and by canals; portions of the city are linked by 472 bridges. The islands are in the shallow Venetian Lagoon , an enclosed bay lying between the mouths of the Po and the Piave rivers (more exactly between the Brenta and the Sile ). In 2020, around 258,685 people resided in greater Venice or

3483-425: Is an ancient Roman town located in the modern-day comune of Ercolano , Campania , Italy. Herculaneum was buried under a massive pyroclastic flow in the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD . Like the nearby city of Pompeii , Herculaneum is famous as one of the few ancient cities to be preserved nearly intact, as the solidified material from the volcano that blanketed the town protected it against looting and

3612-407: Is further supported by the documentation on the so-called "apostolic families", the twelve founding families of Venice who elected the first doge , who in most cases trace their lineage back to Roman families. Some late Roman sources reveal the existence of fishermen, on the islands in the original marshy lagoons, who were referred to as incolae lacunae ("lagoon dwellers"). The traditional founding

3741-627: Is identified with the dedication of the first church, that of San Giacomo on the islet of Rialto ( Rivoalto , "High Shore")—said to have taken place at the stroke of noon on 25 March 421 (the Feast of the Annunciation ). Beginning as early as AD 166–168, the Quadi and Marcomanni destroyed the main Roman town in the area, present-day Oderzo . This part of Roman Italy was again overrun in

3870-471: Is located in northeastern Italy, in the Veneto region. The city is situated on a group of 118 small islands that are separated by canals and linked by 438 bridges. The historic center of Venice is divided into six districts, or sestieri, which are named Cannaregio , Castello, Dorsoduro , San Marco, San Polo, and Santa Croce. Venice sits atop alluvial silt washed into the sea by the rivers flowing eastward from

3999-507: Is predominantly Roman Catholic (85.0% of the resident population in the area of the Patriarchate of Venice in 2022 ), but because of the long-standing relationship with Constantinople , there is also a noticeable Orthodox presence; and as a result of immigration, there is now a large Muslim community (about 25,000 or 9.5% of city population in 2018 ) and some Hindu , and Buddhist inhabitants. Herculaneum Herculaneum

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4128-468: Is the House of Aristides. The entrance opens directly onto the atrium, but the ruins are not well preserved due to damage caused by previous excavations. The lower floor was probably used for storage. The second house in insula II takes its name from a lost fresco of Argus and Io that once adorned a reception room off the large peristyle . This structure was likely one of Herculaneum's finest villas. It

4257-486: Is to fix a series of 78 hollow pontoons to the sea bed across the three entrances to the lagoon. When tides are predicted to rise above 110 centimetres (43 in), the pontoons will be filled with air, causing them to float on lagoon side while hinged at sea floor on seaside, thus blocking the incoming water from the Adriatic Sea. This engineering work was due to be completed by 2018. A Reuters report stated that

4386-558: The Comune di Venezia , of whom around 51,000 live in the historical island city of Venice ( centro storico ) and the rest on the mainland ( terraferma ). Together with the cities of Padua and Treviso , Venice is included in the Padua-Treviso-Venice Metropolitan Area (PATREVE), which is considered a statistical metropolitan area, with a total population of 2.6 million. The name is derived from

4515-594: The fourth style and a spacious triclinium originally marble-floored are found off the atrium . Several further rooms, including the apsed alcove after which the house is named, are accessible via a corridor receiving daylight from a small courtyard. Temple of the Augustales or priests of the Imperial cult . The Central baths ( thermae ) were built around the 1st century AD. There were separate bathing areas for men and women. The thermae also served as

4644-521: The Adriatic ", "City of Water", "City of Masks", "City of Bridges", "The Floating City", and "City of Canals". The lagoon and the historic parts of the city within the lagoon were inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987, covering an area of 70,176.4 hectares (173,410 acres). Parts of Venice are renowned for the beauty of their settings, their architecture , and artwork. Venice is known for several important artistic movements – especially during

4773-557: The Dalmatian coast , the city became a flourishing trade centre between Western Europe and the rest of the world, especially with the Byzantine Empire and Asia , where its navy protected sea routes against piracy. The Republic of Venice seized a number of places on the eastern shores of the Adriatic before 1200, mostly for commercial reasons, because pirates based there were a menace to trade. The doge already possessed

4902-556: The Grand Tour as the center of intellectual and international exchange in the eighteenth century. The ideas of the Enlightenment stimulated theorists and artists all over Europe including Paris, Dresden, and London. New forms of artistic expression emerged: veduta, capriccio, and veduta ideata, topographical view, architectural fantasy, accurate renderings of ancient monuments assembled with imaginary compositions in response to

5031-611: The Great Council , which was made up of members of the noble families of Venice. The Great Council appointed all public officials, and elected a Senate of 200 to 300 individuals. Since this group was too large for efficient administration, a Council of Ten (also called the Ducal Council, or the Signoria), controlled much of the administration of the city. One member of the great council was elected " doge ", or duke, to be

5160-582: The Gulf of Naples . In the 4th century BC, Herculaneum came under the domination of the Samnites . In the 2nd century BC the city walls were built (between 2 and 3 metres thick), constructed primarily of large pebbles, with the exception of the coastal section made of opus reticulatum . It participated in the Social War (91–88 BC) on the side of the "Allies" against Rome and was defeated by Titus Didius ,

5289-573: The Italian Renaissance – and has played an important role in the history of instrumental and operatic music; it is the birthplace of Baroque music composers Tomaso Albinoni and Antonio Vivaldi . In the 21st century, Venice remains a very popular tourist destination, a major cultural centre, and has often been ranked one of the most beautiful cities in the world. It has been described by The Times as one of Europe's most romantic cities and by The New York Times as "undoubtedly

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5418-603: The Italian Wars , marginalising its political influence. However, Venice remained a major exporter of agricultural products and until the mid-18th century, a significant manufacturing centre. The Republic of Venice lost its independence when Napoleon Bonaparte conquered Venice on 12 May 1797 during the War of the First Coalition . Napoleon was seen as something of a liberator by the city's Jewish population. He removed

5547-593: The Naples National Archaeological Museum . After years of mismanagement, Herculaneum fell into a dire state. However, in 2001, the Packard Humanities Institute began the Herculaneum Conservation Project, a private–public partnership initially set to provide financial aid to local authorities addressing critical issues. The program eventually shifted to include providing skilled expert support and formulating

5676-525: The Prince d'Elbeuf's explorations in the early 18th century. Excavations continued sporadically up to the present and today many streets and buildings are visible, although over 75% of the town remains buried. Today, the Italian towns of Ercolano and Portici lie above Herculaneum. Ercolano was called Resina until 1969 when the modern name was adopted in honour of the old city. The course and timeline of

5805-682: The Skulpturensammlung in Dresden . The excavation ceased in 1711 out of concern about the stability of the structures above. Major excavations resumed in 1738 under the patronage of Charles III of Spain , who had recently begun building his nearby palace in Portici. He appointed the Italian military engineer Giovanni Antonio Medrano and Roque Joaquin de Alcubierre to supervise the extensive new project. The publication of " Le Antichità di Ercolano " ("The Antiquities of Herculaneum") had

5934-632: The Suez Canal , which opened in 1869, between Asia and Central Europe, while Venice very quickly lost its competitive edge and commercial strength. During World War II , the historic city was largely free from attack, the only aggressive effort of note being Operation Bowler , a successful Royal Air Force precision strike on the German naval operations in the city in March 1945. The targets were destroyed with virtually no architectural damage inflicted on

6063-582: The Venetian dialectal equivalent of the Latin dux ("leader"); the corresponding word in English is duke , in standard Italian duca (see also " duce ".) Whatever his original views, Ursus supported Emperor Leo III's successful military expedition to recover Ravenna, sending both men and ships. In recognition of this, Venice was "granted numerous privileges and concessions" and Ursus, who had personally taken

6192-597: The plague killed some 50,000 people. In 1630, the Italian plague of 1629–31 killed a third of Venice's 150,000 citizens. Venice began to lose the position as a centre of international trade during the later part of the Renaissance as Portugal became Europe's principal intermediary in the trade with the East, striking at the very foundation of Venice's great wealth. France and Spain fought for hegemony over Italy in

6321-476: The "Suburban District" (SD). Individual buildings have their own entrance number. For example, the House of the Deer is labelled (Ins IV, 3). The Forum , temples, theatre, numerous houses and necropoles are still buried. Due to bradyseism , which affects the entire Vesuvius region, portions of the historic city of Herculaneum today lie as much as 4 metres below sea level. A single main drain collected water from

6450-417: The 13th century to the end of the 17th. The city-state of Venice is considered to have been the first real international financial centre, emerging in the 9th century and reaching its greatest prominence in the 14th century. This made Venice a wealthy city throughout most of its history. For centuries Venice possessed numerous territories along the Adriatic Sea and within the Italian peninsula , leaving

6579-403: The 1990s uncovered 296 skeletons on the beach or huddled in 9 of the 12 stone vaults facing the sea. While the town was almost completely evacuated, these people found themselves trapped. The "Ring Lady" (see image), named for the rings on her fingers, was discovered there in 1982. Eventually, 340 bodies were identified in this area. Analyses of the skeletons suggest it was mainly men who died on

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6708-519: The Alps across the Veneto plain, with the silt being stretched into long banks, or lidi , by the action of the current flowing around the head of the Adriatic Sea from east to west. Subsidence , the gradual lowering of the surface of Venice, has contributed – along with other factors – to the seasonal Acqua alta ("high water") when the city's lowest lying surfaces may be covered at high tide. Those fleeing barbarian invasions who found refuge on

6837-680: The Austrian-held Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia . In 1848 a revolt briefly re-established the Venetian republic under Daniele Manin , but this was crushed in 1849. In 1866, after the Third Italian War of Independence , Venice, along with the rest of the Veneto, became part of the newly created Kingdom of Italy . From the middle of the 18th century, Trieste and papal Ancona , both of which became free ports, competed with Venice more and more economically. Habsburg Trieste in particular boomed and increasingly served trade via

6966-468: The Byzantine Empire and the Middle East . By the late 13th century, Venice was the most prosperous city in all of Europe. At the peak of its power and wealth, it had 36,000 sailors operating 3,300 ships, dominating Mediterranean commerce. Venice's leading families vied with each other to build the grandest palaces and to support the work of the greatest and most talented artists. The city was governed by

7095-602: The Forum and from house impluviums , latrines and kitchens along Cardo III. Other drains emptied directly into the street, except latrines equipped with a cesspit. For water supply, the city was directly connected to the Serino aqueduct , built in the Augustan age, which brought water to buildings through a series of lead pipes under the roads, regulated by valves; wells had been used previously. The first building in insula II

7224-542: The MOSE Project attributed the delay to "corruption scandals". The project is not guaranteed to be successful and the cost has been very high, with as much as approximately €2 billion of the cost lost to corruption. According to a spokesman for the National Trust of Italy ( Fondo Ambiente Italiano ): Mose is a pharaonic project that should have cost €800m [£675m] but will cost at least €7bn [£6bn]. If

7353-721: The Romans had improved upon their Greek models. His free relationship to the past may be summarized in a phrase of his that become a mantra: "col sporcar si trova"; "by messing about, one discovers". Throughout his lifetime, Piranesi created numerous prints depicting the Eternal City; these were widely collected by gentlemen on the Grand Tour. The Lobkowicz Collections, housed at the Lobkowicz Palace in Prague , contains

7482-593: The Villa of the Papyri by workmen. These scrolls became known as the Herculaneum papyri or scrolls , the majority of which are today stored at the National Library, Naples . Although badly carbonized, a number of scrolls have been unrolled with varying degrees of success. Computer-enhanced multi-spectral infrared imaging helped make the ink legible. There is now a real prospect that it will be possible to read

7611-433: The acquisition, from Alexandria , of relics claimed to be of St Mark the Evangelist ; these were placed in the new basilica. Winged lions – visible throughout Venice – are the emblem of St Mark . The patriarchal seat was also moved to Rialto. As the community continued to develop, and as Byzantine power waned, its own autonomy grew, leading to eventual independence. From the 9th to the 12th centuries, Venice developed into

7740-427: The already-excavated portions of the city rather than exposing more. Smaller than Pompeii with a population of circa 5,000, Herculaneum was a wealthier town. It was a seaside retreat for the Roman elite, as reflected by the extraordinary density of luxurious houses featuring lavish use of coloured marble cladding. Buildings of the ancient city include the Villa of the Papyri and the so-called "boat houses", wherein

7869-450: The ancient Veneti people who inhabited the region by the 10th century BC. The city was historically the capital of the Republic of Venice for almost a millennium, from 810 to 1797. It was a major financial and maritime power during the Middle Ages and Renaissance , and a staging area for the Crusades and the Battle of Lepanto , as well as an important centre of commerce—especially silk, grain, and spice , and of art from

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7998-413: The ancient beach (just in front of the city walls) and in the first six so-called "boat sheds". Long before this finding, it was believed that the majority of the town's inhabitants had managed to flee, as only a few skeletons had been unearthed during the excavations. However, this discovery led to a shift in perspective. The last inhabitants waiting for rescue from the sea were probably killed instantly by

8127-461: The archaeological park. Hundreds of skeletons were found in the so-called "boat houses", by the ancient shoreline, between 1980 and 1981. The Villa of the Papyri , the northwest baths, the House of the Dionysian Reliefs and a large collapsed monument were brought to light between 1996 and 1999. However, the area was left in a chaotic state until major conservation interventions from 2000 through 2007. Many public and private buildings, including

8256-697: The archaeological value of the site. Preservation of the skeletal remains became a top priority only in the early 1980s, under the direction of Sara C. Bisel . Intensive tourism, vandalism, substandard management, and political ineptitude contributed to the deterioration of numerous sites and buildings. Numerous building foundations have been weakened by water damage caused by modern Ercolano . Reconstruction initiatives have often proved counterproductive. However, recent conservation efforts have had greater success. Today excavations have been temporarily discontinued to direct all funding to conservation programs. A large number of artifacts from Herculaneum are preserved in

8385-472: The ash prompted most inhabitants to flee. The volcano continued spewing up a high-altitude column from which ash and pumice began to fall, blanketing the area. At 1 am the next day, the eruptive column collapsed onto Vesuvius and its flanks. The first pyroclastic surge , formed by a mixture of ash and hot gases, flowed down the mountain and through the mostly-evacuated town of Herculaneum at 160 km/h (100 mph). A succession of six flows and surges buried

8514-451: The barriers are closed at only 90 cm of high water, most of St Mark's will be flooded anyway; but if closed at very high levels only, then people will wonder at the logic of spending such sums on something that didn't solve the problem. And pressure will come from the cruise ships to keep the gates open. On 13 November 2019, Venice was flooded when waters peaked at 1.87 m (6 ft), the highest tide since 1966 (1.94 m). More than 80% of

8643-450: The beach, while women and children sheltered and died in the boat houses. A scientific study, published in 2021, showed that chemical analysis of the remains was able to provide further insights into the health and nutrition of Herculaneum's population. Stable isotope analysis of bone samples from 17 individuals (11 men and 6 women) revealed the men ate 1.6 times more fish than the women, who consumed more meat, eggs, and dairy; this fits into

8772-430: The cause. The sinking has slowed markedly since artesian wells were banned in the 1960s. However, the city is still threatened by more frequent low-level floods – the Acqua alta , that rise to a height of several centimetres over its quays – regularly following certain tides. In many old houses, staircases once used to unload goods are now flooded, rendering the former ground floor uninhabitable. Studies indicate that

8901-414: The chief executive; he would usually hold the title until his death, although several Doges were forced, by pressure from their oligarchical peers, to resign and retire into monastic seclusion, when they were felt to have been discredited by political failure. The Venetian governmental structure was similar in some ways to the republican system of ancient Rome, with an elected chief executive (the doge),

9030-406: The city continues sinking at a relatively slow rate of 1–2   mm per year; therefore, the state of alert has not been revoked. In May 2003, Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi inaugurated the MOSE Project ( Italian : Modulo Sperimentale Elettromeccanico ), an experimental model for evaluating the performance of hollow floatable gates, expected to be completed in late 2023; the idea

9159-457: The city is often threatened by flood tides pushing in from the Adriatic . Six hundred years ago, Venetians protected themselves from land-based attacks by diverting all the major rivers flowing into the lagoon and thus preventing sediment from filling the area around the city. This created an ever-deeper lagoon environment. Additionally, the lowest part of Venice, St Mark's Basilica , is only 64 centimetres (25 in) above sea level, and one of

9288-606: The city itself. However, the industrial areas in Mestre and Marghera and the railway lines to Padua, Trieste, and Trento were repeatedly bombed . On 29 April 1945, a force of British and New Zealand troops of the British Eighth Army , under Lieutenant General Freyberg , liberated Venice, which had been a hotbed of anti-Mussolini Italian partisan activity. Venice was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987, inscribing it as "Venice and its Lagoon". Venice

9417-484: The city was covered by water, which damaged cultural heritage sites, including more than 50 churches, leading to tourists cancelling their visits. The planned flood barrier would have prevented this incident according to various sources, including Marco Piana, the head of conservation at St Mark's Basilica. The mayor promised that work on the flood barrier would continue, and the Prime Minister announced that

9546-403: The city's buildings to approximately 20 m (66 ft) depth, causing little damage in some areas and preserving structures, objects and victims almost intact. However, other areas were damaged significantly, knocking down walls, tearing away columns and other large objects; a marble statue of Marcus Nonius Balbus near the baths was blown 15 m (49 ft) away and a carbonised skeleton

9675-498: The city. A Washington Post report provided a more thorough analysis: "The sea level has been rising even more rapidly in Venice than in other parts of the world. At the same time, the city is sinking, the result of tectonic plates shifting below the Italian coast. Those factors together, along with the more frequent extreme weather events associated with climate change, contribute to floods." Henk Ovink , an expert on flooding, told CNN that, while environmental factors are part of

9804-423: The decay of the ruins. This is consistent with a familiar trope of Renaissance literature, in which the ruins of Rome are lamented as a metaphor for the imperfection and transience of human existence. Some of his later work was completed by his children and several pupils. Piranesi's son and coadjutor, Francesco , collected and preserved his plates, in which the freer lines of the etching-needle largely supplemented

9933-541: The demand of increased visitors. The developing center of the Grand Tour was Rome. Rome became a new meeting place and intellectual capital of Europe for the leaders of a new movement in the arts. The city was attracting artists and architects from all over Europe beside the Grand Tourists, dealers and antiquarians. While many came through official institutions such as the French Academy, others came to see

10062-526: The design of the facade of the church and the walls of the adjacent Piazza dei Cavalieri di Malta. In 1767, he was made a knight of the Golden Spur , which enabled him to sign himself "Cav[aliere] Piranesi". In 1769, his publication of a series of ingenious and sometimes bizarre designs for chimneypieces, as well as an original range of furniture pieces, established his place as a versatile and resourceful designer. In 1776, he created his best known work as

10191-500: The diseases of the local swamps and eventually forced to withdraw in 810. A few months later, Pepin himself died, apparently as a result of a disease contracted there. In the aftermath, an agreement between Charlemagne and the Byzantine Emperor Nicephorus in 814 recognized Venice as Byzantine territory, and granted the city trading rights along the Adriatic coast. In 828 the new city's prestige increased with

10320-578: The dynamic growth of society. The wider perspective on the past created a new way of expression. Artists developed a greater self-consciousness in confronting the limited authority of the ancient world, and there was a growing interest in civilizations and the destiny of nations. Piranesi was especially interested in the Graeco-Roman debate in the 1760s, between followers of Winckelmann who thought Greek culture and architecture superior to their Roman counterparts, and those who (like Piranesi) believed that

10449-732: The early 5th century by the Visigoths and, some 50 years later, by the Huns led by Attila . The last and most enduring immigration into the north of the Italian peninsula, that of the Lombards in 568, left the Eastern Roman Empire only a small strip of coastline in the current Veneto, including Venice. The Roman/Byzantine territory was organized as the Exarchate of Ravenna , administered from that ancient port and overseen by

10578-431: The elements. Although less known than Pompeii today, it was the first and, for a long time, the only discovered Vesuvian city (in 1709). Pompeii was revealed in 1748 and identified in 1763. Unlike Pompeii, the mainly pyroclastic material that covered Herculaneum carbonized and preserved more wooden objects such as roofs, beds, and doors, as well as other organic-based materials such as food and papyrus . According to

10707-639: The entrance to the cathedral of Venice, St Mark's Basilica (The originals have been replaced with replicas, and are now stored within the basilica.) After the fall of Constantinople, the former Eastern Roman Empire was partitioned among the Latin crusaders and the Venetians. Venice subsequently carved out a sphere of influence in the Mediterranean known as the Duchy of the Archipelago , and captured Crete. The seizure of Constantinople proved as decisive

10836-480: The eruption can be reconstructed based on archaeological excavations and two letters from Pliny the Younger to the Roman historian Tacitus . At around 1 pm on the first day of eruption, Mount Vesuvius began spewing volcanic material thousands of metres into the sky. After the plume had reached a height of 27–33 km (17–21 mi), the top of the column flattened, prompting Pliny to describe it to Tacitus as

10965-458: The fall of the Republic in 1797. Shortly after the introduction of the tax, Spain produced similar paper for general taxation purposes, and the practice spread to other countries. During the 20th century, when many artesian wells were sunk into the periphery of the lagoon to draw water for local industry, Venice began to subside . It was realized that extraction of water from the aquifer was

11094-535: The field, was confirmed by Leo as dux and given the added title of hypatus (from the Greek for " consul "). In 751, the Lombard King Aistulf conquered most of the Exarchate of Ravenna , leaving Venice a lonely and increasingly autonomous Byzantine outpost. During this period, the seat of the local Byzantine governor (the "duke/dux", later "doge"), was at Malamocco. Settlement on the islands in

11223-443: The forum complex, are yet to be excavated. The classical street layout separates the city into blocks ( insulae ), defined by the intersection of the east–west ( cardi ) and north–south ( decumani ) streets. Hence Insula II to Insula VII run counterclockwise from Insula II. To the east are two additional blocks: Orientalis I (oI) and Orientalis II (oII). To the south of Orientalis I (oI) lies one additional group of buildings known as

11352-432: The founding or building of Venice, tradition and the available evidence have led several historians to agree that the original population of Venice consisted of refugees – from nearby Roman cities such as Patavium ( Padua ), Aquileia , Tarvisium ( Treviso ), Altinum , and Concordia (modern Portogruaro ), as well as from the undefended countryside – who were fleeing successive waves of Germanic and Hun invasions. This

11481-582: The gates of the Ghetto and ended the restrictions on when and where Jews could live and travel in the city. Venice became Austrian territory when Napoleon signed the Treaty of Campo Formio on 12 October 1797. The Austrians took control of the city on 18 January 1798. Venice was taken from Austria by the Treaty of Pressburg in 1805 and became part of Napoleon's Kingdom of Italy . It was returned to Austria following Napoleon's defeat in 1814, when it became part of

11610-477: The government would be accelerating the project. The city's mayor, Luigi Brugnaro , blamed the floods on climate change . The chambers of the Regional Council of Veneto began to be flooded around 10 pm, two minutes after the council rejected a plan to combat global warming. One of the effects of climate change is sea level rise which causes an increase in frequency and magnitude of floodings in

11739-488: The intense heat of the pyroclastic flow , despite being sheltered from direct impact. A study of victims' postures and the effects on their skeletons seemed to indicate that the first surge caused instant death as a result of fulminant shock due to a temperature of about 500 °C (930 °F). Extreme heat caused hands and feet to contract and perhaps fractured bones and teeth. After a period of finds being mismanaged and deterioration of skeletons, further excavations in

11868-510: The lagoon probably increased with the Lombard conquest of other Byzantine territories, as refugees sought asylum in the area. In 775/6, the episcopal seat of Olivolo ( San Pietro di Castello ) was created. During the reign of duke Agnello Particiaco (811–827) the ducal seat moved from Malamocco to the more protected Rialto, within present-day Venice. The monastery of St Zachary and the first ducal palace and basilica of St. Mark , as well as

11997-403: The lagoon). 47.8% of the population in 2021 were male and 52.2% were female; minors (ages 18 and younger) were 14.7% of the population compared to elderly people (ages 65 and older) who numbered 27.9%. This compared with the Italian average of 16.7% and 23.5%, respectively. The average age of Venice residents was 48.6 compared to the Italian average of 45.9. In the five years between 2016 and 2021,

12126-470: The lethal effects of the pyroclastic surges in the Vesuvius area has shown that, in the vicinity of Pompeii and Herculaneum, intense heat was the main cause of the death of people who had previously been thought to have died by ash suffocation. Exposure to ≥250 °C (480 °F) had likely killed residents within 10 km, including those sheltering in buildings. Prince d' Elbeuf began constructing

12255-743: The meantime Piranesi devoted himself to the measurement of many of the ancient buildings: this led to the publication of Le Antichità Romane de' tempo della prima Repubblica e dei primi imperatori ("Roman Antiquities of the Time of the First Republic and the First Emperors"). In 1761, he became a member of the Accademia di San Luca and opened a printing house of his own. In 1762, the Campo Marzio dell'antica Roma collection of engravings

12384-842: The monuments in Piranesi's engravings have disappeared, and the stucco and surfacings were often stolen, or restored and modified clumsily. Piranesi's precise observational skills allow people to experience the atmosphere in Rome in the eighteenth century. Piranesi may have recognised his role of disseminating remarkable information through meaningful images. He became the Director of the Portici Museum in 1751. Attribution: Venice Venice ( / ˈ v ɛ n ɪ s / VEN -iss ; Italian : Venezia [veˈnɛttsja] ; Venetian : Venesia [veˈnɛsja] , formerly Venexia [veˈnɛzja] )

12513-438: The most beautiful city built by man". However, the city faces challenges including an excessive number of tourists, pollution, tide peaks and cruise ships sailing too close to buildings. In light of the fact that Venice and its lagoon are under constant threat in terms of their ecology and cultural heritage, Venice's UNESCO listing has been under constant examination. Although no surviving historical records deal directly with

12642-425: The most flood-prone parts of the city. In 1604, to defray the cost of flood relief, Venice introduced what could be considered the first example of a stamp tax. When the revenue fell short of expectations in 1608, Venice introduced paper , with the superscription "AQ" and imprinted instructions, which was to be used for "letters to officials". At first, this was to be a temporary tax, but it remained in effect until

12771-622: The new discoveries at Herculaneum and Pompeii . Coffee shops were frequent gathering places, most famously the Antico Caffè Greco , established 1760. The Caffe degli Inglesi opened several years later, at the foot of the Spanish Steps in Piazza di Spagna , with wall paintings by Piranesi. With his own print workshop and museo of antiquities nearby, Piranesi was able to cultivate relationships in both places with wealthy buyers on

12900-518: The original architect provided the missing parts. His masterful skill at engraving introduced groups of vases, altars, tombs that were absent in reality; his manipulations of scale; and his broad and scientific distribution of light and shade completed the picture, creating a striking effect from the whole view. A number of the Views are notable for depicting human figures whose poverty, lameness, apparent drunkenness, and other visible flaws appear to echo

13029-506: The outer papyrus, marking "a revolution for papyrologists ". While researchers can identify certain words on the scrolls, the stories on the scrolls cannot yet be unlocked. In 2024 the winners of a contest called the Vesuvius Challenge, with the help of AI, managed to reveal hundreds of words across 15 columns of text, corresponding to around 5% of a scroll. In 1980–82, excavations initially turned up more than 55 skeletons on

13158-455: The population of Venice declined by 2.7%, while Italy as a whole declined by 2.2%. The population in the historic old city declined much faster: from about 120,000 in 1980 to about 60,000 in 2009, and to 50,000 in 2021. As of 2021 , 84.2% of the population was Italian. The largest immigrant groups include: 7,814 (3.1%) Bangladeshis , 6,258 (2.5%) Romanians , 4,054 (1.6%) Moldovans , 4,014 (1.6%) Chinese , and 2,514 (1%) Ukrainians . Venice

13287-451: The problem, "historic floods in Venice are not only a result of the climate crisis but poor infrastructure and mismanagement". The government of Italy committed to providing 20 million euros in funding to help the city repair the most urgent aspects although Brugnaro's estimate of the total damage was "hundreds of millions" to at least 1 billion euros. On 3 October 2020, the MOSE

13416-508: The rapid vaporisation and replacement of the flesh of the victims by the hot ash (ca. 500 °C). A cast of the skeletons unearthed in chamber 10 is on display at the Museum of Anthropology in Naples. Of exceptional interest is the analysis, published in 2021, of one of the skeletons (n. 26) discovered in 1982 on the beach next to a boat (on display in the boat pavilion). The remains belong to

13545-618: The rise of Venice's power. Venice became an imperial power following the Fourth Crusade , which, having veered off course, culminated in 1204 by capturing and sacking Constantinople and establishing the Latin Empire . As a result of this conquest, considerable Byzantine plunder was brought back to Venice. This plunder included the gilt bronze horses from the Hippodrome of Constantinople , which were originally placed above

13674-645: The rolls stored at the French National Academy in Paris have been extensively examined by X-ray in summer 2009. However, the text imaging failed because Roman writers likely used carbon-based inks, essentially invisible to the X-ray scans. Similar later attempts all failed. In 2015, a team of scientists managed to increase the contrast between the carbon ink and the carbon-based papyrus using X-ray Phase Contrast Tomography , and read Greek words along

13803-597: The ruling class was preoccupied with commerce. Although the people of Venice generally remained orthodox Roman Catholics, the state of Venice was notable for its freedom from religious fanaticism, and executed nobody for religious heresy during the Counter-Reformation . This apparent lack of zeal contributed to Venice's frequent conflicts with the papacy . In this context, the writings of the Anglican divine William Bedell are particularly illuminating. Venice

13932-421: The sandy islands of Torcello, Iesolo, and Malamocco, in this coastal lagoon, learned to build by driving closely spaced piles consisting of the trunks of alder trees, a wood noted for its water resistance, into the mud and sand, until they reached a much harder layer of compressed clay . Building foundations rested on plates of Istrian limestone placed on top of the piles. Between autumn and early spring,

14061-465: The second publishing in 1761, all the etchings were reworked and numbered I–XVI (1–16). Numbers II and V were new etchings to the series. Numbers I to IX were all done in portrait format (vertical), while X to XVI were landscape format (horizontal+). In the second publishing, some of the illustrations appear to have been edited to contain (likely deliberate) impossible geometries . It is important to look at his contribution as an archaeologist, which

14190-503: The severity of burin work. Twenty-nine folio volumes containing about 2000 prints appeared in Paris (1835–1837). The late Baroque works of Claude Lorrain , Salvatore Rosa , and others had featured romantic and fantastic depictions of ruins; in part as a memento mori or as a reminiscence of a golden age of construction. Piranesi also made copies of a number of etchings by Israel Silvestre , whose works he apparently admired. Piranesi's reproductions of real and recreated Roman ruins were

14319-458: The shops are typical of October – and conversely the summer fruit typical of August was already being sold in dried, or conserved form. Wine fermenting jars had been sealed, which would have happened around the end of October; coins found in the purse of a woman buried in the ash include one with a 15th imperatorial acclamation among the emperor's titles and could not have been minted before the second week of September. Multidisciplinary research on

14448-580: The skeletal remains of at least 300 people were found. Dionysius of Halicarnassus states that the Greek hero Heracles ( Hercules in Latin ) founded the city. However, according to Strabo , the Oscans founded the first settlement. The Etruscans took control of the area, and were later overthrown by the Greeks. The Greeks named the town Heraklion and used it as a trading post because of its proximity to

14577-550: The titles of Duke of Dalmatia and Duke of Istria . Later mainland possessions, which extended across Lake Garda as far west as the Adda River , were known as the Terraferma ; they were acquired partly as a buffer against belligerent neighbours, partly to guarantee Alpine trade routes, and partly to ensure the supply of mainland wheat (on which the city depended). In building its maritime commercial empire, Venice dominated

14706-409: The tour, particularly English. The remains of Rome kindled Piranesi's enthusiasm. Informed by his experience in Venice and his study of the works of Marco Ricci and particularly Giovanni Paolo Panini , he appreciated not only the engineering of the ancient buildings but also the poetic aspects of the ruins. He was able to faithfully imitate the actual remains; his invention in catching the design of

14835-520: The trade in salt, acquired control of most of the islands in the Aegean , including Crete , and Cyprus in the Mediterranean, and became a major power-broker in the Near East . By the standards of the time, Venice's stewardship of its mainland territories was relatively enlightened and the citizens of such towns as Bergamo , Brescia , and Verona rallied to the defence of Venetian sovereignty when it

14964-452: The traditional tale, the city was rediscovered by chance in 1709 during the drilling of a well. Remnants of the city, however, were already found during earlier earthworks. In the years following the site's uncovering, treasure seekers excavated tunnels and took artifacts . Regular excavations commenced in 1738 and have continued irregularly since. Today, only a fraction of the ancient site has been excavated. The focus has shifted to preserving

15093-401: The unopened rolls using X-rays . The same techniques could be applied to the rolls waiting to be discovered in the as-yet unexcavated part of the villa, eliminating the risk of potential damage from unrolling. Later CT scan revealed the scrolls' fibres structure, sand, and other debris trapped in the scrolls. These findings help a safer unrolling. However, the text remains illegible. Two of

15222-399: The urging of Pope Gregory II . The exarch, held responsible for the acts of his master, Byzantine Emperor Leo III , was murdered, and many officials were put to flight in the chaos. At about this time, the people of the lagoon elected their own independent leader for the first time, although the relationship of this to the uprisings is not clear. Ursus was the first of 117 "doges" ( doge is

15351-436: The wider dietary trend from Herculaneum and Roman Italy. Casts of skeletons were also produced to replace the original bones after taphonomic study, scientific documentation and excavation. In contrast to Pompeii, where casts resembling the body features of the victims were produced by filling hollowed spaces of the body imprints in the ash deposit with plaster, the shape of corpses at Herculaneum could not be preserved due to

15480-516: Was acknowledged at the time as he had been elected to the Society of Antiquaries of London . His influence of technical drawings in antiquarian publications is often overshadowed. He left explanatory notes in the lower margin about the structure and ornament. Most ancient monuments in Rome were abandoned in fields and gardens. Piranesi tried to preserve them with his engravings. To do this, Piranesi pushed himself to achieve realism in his work. A third of

15609-579: Was activated for the first time in response to a predicted high tide event, preventing some of the low-lying parts of the city (in particular the Piazza San Marco) from being flooded. According to the Köppen climate classification , Venice has a mid-latitude, four season humid subtropical climate ( Cfa ), with cool, damp winters and warm, humid summers. The 24-hour average temperature in January

15738-481: Was elected in 697, as written in the oldest chronicle by John, deacon of Venice c.  1008 . Some modern historians claim Paolo Lucio Anafesto was actually the Exarch Paul , and Paul's successor, Marcello Tegalliano , was Paul's magister militum (or "general"), literally "master of soldiers". In 726 the soldiers and citizens of the exarchate rose in a rebellion over the iconoclastic controversy , at

15867-468: Was found lifted 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in) above ground level in the garden of the House of the Relief of Telephus . The date of the eruption has been shown to be on or after 17 October. Support for an October/November eruption has long been known in several respects: buried people in the ash were wearing heavier clothing than the light summer clothes typical of August; fresh fruit and vegetables in

15996-464: Was mainly in Venice where, according to some sources, he often visited Giovanni Battista Tiepolo , a leading artist in Venice. It was Tiepolo who expanded the restrictive conventions of reproductive, topographical and antiquarian engravings. He then returned to Rome, where he opened a workshop in Via del Corso . In 1748–1774, he created an important series of vedute of the city which established his fame. In

16125-707: Was one of the largest in Europe in the High Middle Ages , with a population of 60,000 in AD 1000; 80,000 in 1200; and rising up to 110,000–180,000 in 1300. In the mid-1500s the city's population was 170,000, and by 1600 it approached 200,000. In 2021, there were 254,850 people residing in the Comune of Venice (the population figure includes 50,434 in the historic city of Venice (Centro storico), 177,621 in Terraferma (the mainland); and 26,795 on other islands in

16254-678: Was printed. The following year he was commissioned by Pope Clement XIII to restore the choir of San Giovanni in Laterano , but the work did not materialize. In 1764, one of the Pope's nephews, Cardinal Rezzonico, appointed him to start his only architectural work, the restoration of the church of Santa Maria del Priorato in the Villa of the Knights of Malta , on Rome's Aventine Hill . He combined Classical architectural elements , trophies and escutcheons with his own particular imaginative genius for

16383-475: Was the first time that a second story had been unearthed in such detail when the house was discovered in the late 1820s. The excavation uncovered a balcony on the second level overlooking Cardo III, as well as wooden shelving and cupboards now lost. North of the House of Argus lies the House of the Genius . Although it has only been partially uncovered, it appears to have been a vast structure. Its name derives from

16512-561: Was threatened by invaders. Venice remained closely associated with Constantinople, being twice granted trading privileges in the Eastern Roman Empire, through the so-called golden bulls or "chrysobulls", in return for aiding the Eastern Empire to resist Norman and Turkish incursions. In the first chrysobull, Venice acknowledged its homage to the empire; but not in the second, reflecting the decline of Byzantium and

16641-453: Was threatened with the interdict on a number of occasions and twice suffered its imposition. The second, most noted, occasion was in 1606, by order of Pope Paul V . The newly invented German printing press spread rapidly throughout Europe in the 15th century, and Venice was quick to adopt it. By 1482, Venice was the printing capital of the world; the leading printer was Aldus Manutius , who invented paperback books that could be carried in

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