58-601: The Plantain Garden River is a river in the parish of St Thomas on the island of Jamaica . It is the only major river in Jamaica that does not flow in a northerly or southerly direction. 17°57′N 76°13′W / 17.950°N 76.217°W / 17.950; -76.217 This article related to a river in Jamaica is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Saint Thomas Parish, Jamaica Saint Thomas , once known as Saint Thomas in
116-401: A hollow cylinder on which a prisoner was made to step as the mechanism turned." The mechanism did not serve to produce any material good but the officials insisted that exhaustively running on the mechanism for several minutes reformed and disciplined prisoners. Widespread support for the use of treadmills also came from West Indian planters who were convinced that former slaves would not produce
174-593: A period of six years, household labourers were to work for four, and children under the age of six were immediately freed. All apprentices' names were to be placed on a registry that served as documentation of their required service. Apprentices were required to work no more than 45 hours per week without compensation and were paid for any additional labour. Policy makers reasoned that the opportunity for some paid labour would teach slaves how to be industrious. In return for unpaid labour, ex-slaves received food, housing, clothing and medical treatment from their employers though
232-707: A special report and in the 1837–1838 Parliamentary Papers. Narrative of Events , other damaging accounts and investigations of the West Indian workhouses, local fears of rebellion and pressure from the British public led the colonial assemblies to prematurely abolish the apprenticeship system and all had done so by 1838. The political and citizenship status of newly freed slaves was thoroughly debated among colonial authorities and members of Parliament. Britain's colonial secretary, Lord Glenelg , advocated social and political equality. In order to ensure full inclusion into
290-445: A system of indentured servitude or "apprenticeship" that required freed slaves to continue to work for their former owners as apprentices. The gradual emancipation measure was implemented to ease the transition from slavery to freedom for slaves and former masters but it was in large part a result of concerns about emancipation's effect on West Indian sugar production. As stipulated in the emancipation act, field hands were apprenticed for
348-432: Is likely a result of the narrative's political purpose and intended British audience and may suggest that abolitionists and the amanuensis who worked with Williams influenced what themes and details were included. Yet, despite the emphasis on violence, Williams describes how he attempted to resist exploitation through truancy, theft and appealing to magistrates for protection against his masters' abuses. Narrative of Events
406-407: Is one of the few published first person accounts by a former slave. It was published in a pamphlet in 1837 and was sold, reprinted and circulated across Britain and Jamaica. The narrative played a critical role in the anti-apprenticeship campaign launched by Joseph Sturge and other members of Britain's Central Emancipation Committee. The abolitionists were steadfast in their belief that apprenticeship
464-659: Is skirted by the A4 , which runs from Kingston to Annotto Bay . The primary secondary road runs east to west along the foot of the Blue Mountains from Golden Grove to Richmond Vale , with north-south connecting roads linking it to the A4 at Pleasant Hill , Port Morant , Morant Bay , Church Corner , Belvedere , Yallahs , Albion and Eleven Mile . Rail transport in St. Thomas was formerly limited to estate light railways, such as
522-765: Is very mountainous, with ranges that include the Port Royal Mountains, stretching from above Newcastle in St Andrew, to Albion in St Thomas; the Queensbury Ridge, between the Yallahs and Negro rivers; and to the extreme south, an isolated ridge called Yallahs Hill, with its highest elevation 730 metres (2,394 ft) above sea level . The Blue Mountains form the northern border of the parish. The parish contains large wetlands areas, comprising
580-482: The Windward Maroons . Slaves long constituted the majority of the population of the parish. In 1834 the British government abolished slavery, ending it fully in 1838 after a four-year "apprenticeship." But decades later, freedmen struggled to gain land to cultivate and generally worked at very low wages. As they generally could not afford to pay the poll tax , so were excluded from voting. In October 1865,
638-495: The government agreed to compensate West Indian planters for shifting from slave to free labour, allotting £20 million for this purpose. However, the slaves were not compensated. In fact, the Abolition Act transformed the slaves into "apprentices", except in the cases of Antigua and Bermuda where the colonial governments rejected apprenticeship and fully emancipated slaves in 1834. The Slavery Abolition Act established
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#1732791919221696-478: The Act did not specify precise quantities. Apprentices were prohibited from working on Sundays. If financially able to pay the remaining years of their service, an apprentice could purchase his or her own freedom. The British government designated Crown -appointed magistrates to oversee the newly implemented labour system and these officials were tasked with protecting the interests of free people of color . Fearful of
754-732: The British West Indies The emancipation of the British West Indies refers to the abolition of slavery in Britain's colonies in the West Indies during the 1830s. The British government passed the Slavery Abolition Act in 1833, which emancipated all slaves in the British West Indies. After emancipation, a system of apprenticeship was established, where emancipated slaves were required by
812-405: The British government to abolish it. Developments in capitalism also contributed to emancipation. Some scholars, including Trinidadian historian Eric Williams , have claimed that with the emergence of capitalism, slavery was no longer profitable, and as such increased support for abolition beginning in the late 18th century. In 1807 British abolitionists saw partial success in their efforts when
870-456: The British public about Caribbean labour conditions and gaining widespread support for immediate abolition. The narrative vividly captures James Williams' experiences under the system of apprenticeship in Jamaica. The physical violence meted out apprentices and sexual abuse they faced are central to Williams' narrative. Throughout and in great detail, Williams explains how he was treated unfairly by his master and workhouse prisoners were tied to
928-573: The East , is a suburban parish situated at the south eastern end of Jamaica , within the county of Surrey. It is the birthplace of Paul Bogle , designated in 1969 as one of Jamaica's seven National Heroes . Morant Bay , its chief town and capital , is the site of the Morant Bay Rebellion in 1865, of which Bogle was a leader. Representative George William Gordon , a wealthy mixed race businessman and politician from this district,
986-531: The English captured Jamaica , they organised their new territory into a number of parishes. This was when Saint Thomas Parish was established, administering part of what is now Portland Parish , which was not established until 1722, and excluding what is now the western part of the parish, which was in the historic Saint David Parish . The Crown invited residents from other British colonies to settle here. About 1600 colonists , mainly from Nevis – including
1044-613: The Governor of Nevis, his wife, children – settled there. In a short time, however, two-thirds of them died of tropical fevers . The colony began to rebuild. They forced enslaved Africans to work the sugar cane plantations developed in the area. In 1674, the French Admiral Du Casse, sailed from Santo Domingo and landed at Morant Bay on 17 June. For a month, he raided local settlers, killing many and carrying off their slaves. Later, bands of Maroons settled in
1102-539: The Morant Bay rebellion took place in St Thomas. Formerly enslaved people and their descendants all over Jamaica were discontented about the social injustices, particularly on the question of land tenure . Baptist deacon and preacher Paul Bogle of St. Thomas parish led a delegation of small farmers who walked 72 kilometres (45 mi) to present their grievances to Edward John Eyre the Governor of Jamaica in
1160-475: The apprenticeship system. In Trinidad, apprentices were granted a five-day work week, masters became required to care for freed children, and workers were compensated for labour performed on a Saturday. A small number of apprentices attempted to purchase their freedom with some managing to successfully do so. Apprentices were appraised in the local courts and high prices hampered slaves' ability to free themselves, given their lack of access to material wealth, which
1218-496: The body politic, he proposed that colonial governors carry out full investigations of colonial laws and policies to eliminate those that were discriminatory or would hamper ex-slaves' social and economic opportunities. Local planters continued to wield significant power within the colonies following 1838 and though parliament had legislated emancipation, the colonial assemblies dictated how it would be carried out. Many of these officials proved more reluctant to extend extensive rights to
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#17327919192211276-543: The capital Spanish Town , but they were denied an audience. Angered after a case in which a peasant was convicted of trespass on a long-abandoned plantation, on 11 October, Paul Bogle and his followers, armed with sticks and machetes , marched to the Court House in Morant Bay where a vestry meeting was being held. The authorities read the Riot Act , but the protestors ignored it. A few people began to throw stones at
1334-596: The coastal area between Morant Bay and Hector's River. There are also many cliffs and beaches. There are three main rivers in the parish; the Yallahs River, measuring 36.9 kilometres (22.9 mi) long; the Morant River, measuring 21.9 kilometres (13.6 mi) long; and the Plantain Garden River , measuring 34.9 kilometres (21.7 mi) long. The latter is the only eastward flowing river in
1392-548: The colonies, former slaves rejoiced and celebrated their freedom. However, the realization that emancipation would be gradual had a sobering effect. Ex-slaves protested the system of apprenticeship and demanded immediate, unqualified freedom. Because they had long laboured under slavery and performed the same tasks under apprenticeship, they denied the need for a transitional, supervised labour system. Freed people were eager to restructure their lives and devote time to family. They also sought to choose their own work hours, employers, and
1450-508: The colonies, to consider legislating abolition. The Haitian Revolution in the French colony of Saint-Domingue , the most successful slave uprising in the Americas, heightened British sensitivities to the potential outcomes of insurrection. In addition to slave revolts, Enlightenment schools of thought and evangelism led members of the British public to question the morality of slavery and
1508-467: The emancipation of the enslaved Africans in 1838. Religious, economic, and social factors contributed to the British abolition of slavery throughout their empire . Throughout European colonies in the Caribbean , enslaved people engaged in revolts , labour stoppages and more everyday forms of resistance which enticed colonial authorities, who were eager to create peace and maintain economic stability in
1566-694: The freed slaves to adopt Christianity, attend church and adopt the latest European fashions. Most did not adopt these practices wholesale. Instead, they took parts of the European model and melded them with their own African cultural practices. Former slaves often partook in leisure activities such as dancing, participating in carnivals , alcohol consumption, and gambling. Authorities and missionaries detested these practices as they considered them antithetical to their reform efforts. Historian Sheena Boa has suggested that because their mobility and choices were no longer controlled by outsiders, enjoyment of their own bodies
1624-762: The freed slaves. Missionaries, clergymen, and magistrates sought to morally, culturally and spiritually reform former slaves. In their view, enslavement had contributed to their debasement and the development of backwards cultural practices. They encouraged ex-slaves to legally marry, adopt the nuclear family model, and to take on Victorian gender roles which they believed were they path to achieving respectability and upward mobility. The patriarchal gender ideology they espoused dictated that men were to be heads of their households and responsible for providing for their dependents. Child rearing, caregiving, and domestic work were considered women's roles. To some extent, freedmen and women embraced these gender conventions but some aspects of
1682-698: The government passed the Slave Trade Act , abolishing the slave trade . After passage of the Act, these reformers continued to press for the abolition of slavery itself. The British government formally abolished slavery in its colonies with passage of the Slavery Abolition Act of 1833. The legislation went into effect in August 1834 whereby all slaves in the British Empire were considered free under British law. After long and heated debates in Britain,
1740-496: The home all together or simply mirrored western notions of domesticity. Their supplemental income was essential for supporting their families. Consequently, women often engaged in domestic agriculture and sold their crops in the market place while their male kin worked on the estates. Attempts to shield themselves from sexual abuse, the prioritization of child rearing, poor experiences under apprenticeship and political protest may also explain women's exodus from wage cultivation. By
1798-452: The island. The total population of the parish is 94,410. The ethnic makeup of Saint Thomas is 88.2% Black, 7.6% Asian, 3.2% White, and 1% Other. The parish has a relatively youthful population. Approximately 54.7% of the parish’s population was 29 years or younger: children under 0-14 years accounted for 27% of the population, youths of 15 to 29 years accounted for 27.7%. The working-age population (15-64 years) accounted for 64.1%, reflecting
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1856-483: The local newspapers to bolster Williams' claims. Historian of the Caribbean Diana Patton has suggested that the extent of planter resistance indicates the political efficacy of the narrative. Williams' narrative was particularly helpful in the anti-apprenticeship campaign because it includes specific names and places which made his claims verifiable. As a result, In 1837, after receiving and reviewing
1914-536: The main source of employment. Serge Island Dairies is located in the parish. St. Thomas also has many factories for food processing and electrical equipment. Current efforts are being made by Upliftment Jamaica to create, support and provide opportunities to the people of St. Thomas, and to encourage economic and social transformation on a community and county-wide basis. Over 10,000 people benefit annually from this organization, via year-round projects and events, with numbers rapidly increasing. The coast of St. Thomas
1972-490: The mid-19th century, just years after emancipation, the Caribbean's economy began to fail as a result of dropping sugar prices and planters in regions like Jamaica saw their plantations close down. In Jamaica, by 1865 sugar production was half of what it had been in 1834. These market shifts created massive unemployment, high taxes, and low wages and increased poverty. Living conditions on the islands failed to improve much over
2030-710: The mountains of St. Thomas. In 1676, when Saint Thomas in the Vale Parish , the parish became known as "Saint Thomas in the East Parish". It retained this name until 1 May 1867 when the parish system of colonial administration was reformed by Governor John Peter Grant who introduced A Law to Reduce the Number of Parishes (1867/No.20) . In the 18th century they joined with the Maroons in Portland parish to form
2088-574: The national distribution. The elderly, 65 years and over, accounted for 8.9%; this figure is lower than the national proportion of 11.1% reported by the Economic and Social Survey Jamaica (2010). Agriculture plays a vital part in the economy of Saint Thomas. Sugar and bananas were the main items produced for export .The St. Thomas Parish sugar mill Golden Grove closed in July 2019. Most small farmers produce domestic and orchard crops, which provide
2146-625: The one serving the former Bowden banana shipment port. All have ceased operation. The Morant Point Lighthouse guards the easternmost tip of the parish and the island. St. Thomas is home to several secondary institutions of education. Morant Bay High School , established in 1961, was the first of its kind in the parish of St. Thomas. High schools in St. Thomas include: Saint Thomas Parish consists of two parliamentary constituencies : Saint Thomas Eastern and Saint Thomas Western . 17°54′N 76°26′W / 17.900°N 76.433°W / 17.900; -76.433 Emancipation of
2204-405: The parish and ordered troops to suppress the rebellion. More than 430 people were killed outright by soldiers in suppression of the rebellion, and more than 1,000 homes were burned to the ground, leaving thousands of people homeless. They arrested more than 300, executing some and punishing many innocent people. Representative George William Gordon , who was in touch with Paul Bogle, spoke out for
2262-467: The patriarchal model were incompatible with their economic circumstances, personal preferences and understandings of kinship. Marriage between former slaves did increase with emancipation. However, freedpeople considered their brother- sister, parent-child relationships equally, if not more important. Consequently, having children out of wedlock and single parent households were not uncommon or stigmatized. Missionaries also established schools and encouraged
2320-545: The plantations or breaking other duties specified in the Abolition Act. Emancipation legislation banned planters' use of the whip and the state formally took on the responsibility for disciplining labourers. However, planters could use the remanding of apprentices to workhouses as a means of exercising control over former slaves. The conditions within workhouses were grim and apprentices were subjected to hard labour and regular physical punishment. Treadmills were common features in these spaces and consisted of "wooden steps around
2378-488: The practise of importing indentured servants but they failed to achieve the same success they had in previous efforts. Emancipation marked an exodus of black women from wage-based agricultural labour. Some women abandoned plantation fields altogether while others simply reduced the time they spent performing wage agricultural labour. Their exodus demonstrates that freed people did adopt gendered divisions of labour. However, this did not mean that women avoided labour outside of
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2436-467: The property of the master, thereby producing more wealth for their owner. Under apprenticeship, however, planters were no longer afforded access to women's children and consequently employers ceased to offer women "indulgences". Women were now expected to work while pregnant and with small children, though other ex-slaves demanded that these women be exempt from arduous field labour. In some cases, apprentices' protests were effective for producing reforms to
2494-691: The publication, the Colonial Office tasked Sir Lionel Smith, the governor of Jamaica, to investigate the allegations made in Williams' narrative and to establish a commission to interview the apprentices, magistrates, and workhouse overseers in St. Ann's and other Jamaican parishes. The commission consisted of Sir Special Magistrate Daughtrey and local justice Gordon. It commenced its investigation on 20 September 1837. The Gordon & Daughtrey Commission corroborated many of Williams' claims though there were some discrepancies. Their findings were printed in
2552-415: The response that conditional emancipation might elicit from former slaves, the colonial authorities created police districts to maintain societal order. Within each district were houses of correction and workhouses that were operated and supervised by the chief magistrate and five justices of the peace who were frequently planters as well. Freedpeople could be sent to labour in workhouses for failure to work on
2610-477: The same outputs if they were not adequately disciplined with corporal punishment. Photographs that depict the treadmills of the Jamaican workhouses illuminate that this punishment was not restricted to men. Women, who made up a majority of the field labour population in Jamaica and other colonies, were frequently sent to the workhouses and subjected to the treadmill. Once news of the Abolition Act made its way to
2668-669: The slave trade and during the 18th and 19th century there was a surge of abolitionist agitation . Religious figures played a prominent role in the crusade against slavery. Anti-slavery societies such as the British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society (BFASS) circulated pamphlets about the cruelties and inhumanity of slavery, and petitions with hundreds of thousands of signatures were sent to the British Parliament , many of which came from women's organizations. Collectively, these men and women politicized slavery and placed pressure on
2726-511: The treadmills, forced to "dance" on the machine after long days of labour and severely flogged. The disruptive effects of forced labour on the families of freed slaves, colonial officials' inability to effectively regulate the labour system, and the apprentices' poor living and working conditions are issues that Williams also discusses. The narrative does not include any information about James Williams' early life and focuses solely on his time as an apprentice. Its narrow focus and centring of violence
2784-515: The type of labour they performed. Many apprentices across the West Indies refused to return to work and went on strike. For their failure to work, many were arrested, flogged under judicial authority, and sent to prison. Circumstances under apprenticeship were far from ideal for all labourers, but women often faced particular challenges. In the years leading up to emancipation, former masters offered incentives to pregnant women and new mothers for bearing children, because by law, women's offspring became
2842-404: The various colonial assemblies to continue working for their former masters for a period of four to six years in exchange for provisions. The system of apprenticeship was abolished by the various colonial assemblies in 1838, after pressure from the British public, completing the process of emancipation. These were the steps taken by British West Indian planters to solve the labour problems created by
2900-502: The volunteer militia , who fired into the crowd and killed seven people. Later the mob reorganized and returned, setting fire to the Court House and nearby buildings. When the custos, Maximillian von Ketelhodt, and others tried to leave the burning building, the mob killed them. A total of 25 people died on both sides that day. During the next two days the peasants took over St. Thomas parish. The governor declared martial law in
2958-607: The workers in the House of Assembly in Kingston. The governor ordered him arrested and returned to Morant Bay, where he was tried under martial law for conspiracy and hanged on 23 October. The following day Bogle was captured by Jamaican Maroons from Moore Town , handed over to the authorities, and hanged. A public outcry in Great Britain led to the appointment of a Royal Commission to investigate events. Although Eyre
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#17327919192213016-1501: The workers proved reluctant to work primarily due to poor wages. Others sought to perform different types of labour including skilled, mechanical and artisanal trades. The aspiration to become independent cultivators and to grow food to support their families and to turn a profit was ubiquitous among the freed West Indians but their success in this endeavor varied. When at all possible, they purchased, rented, and squatted on land. Some authorities and missionaries believed that land ownership would teach former slaves to be independent and industrious and therefore encouraged their efforts. However, in some regions, colonial officials barred freedmen from acquiring property through legal measures, imposition of high property taxes, and directives that required purchasers to buy substantial acreage which many former slaves could not afford. Freed persons who occupied Crown land without authorization were expelled and their provision grounds, used for subsistence or to grow crops for sale, were sometimes burnt or confiscated. Local ordinances stipulated that those not engaged in agricultural production were considered vagrants and subject to imprisonment. These land and employment measures limited independent cultivation and confined many ex-slaves to wage agricultural labour. The need for more cheap labour also led West Indian planters to turn to alternative labour sources, importing indentured labourers from India . British abolitionists would launch campaigns against
3074-518: Was being systematically withheld from them. However, planters' awareness that apprenticeship's abolition was on the horizon led some to settle on a lower price for manumission outside of the courts. This ensured that planters saw some financial gain. They also hoped that such negotiations would encourage apprentices to continue labouring once freed. A Narrative of Events, since the First of August, 1834, by James Williams, an Apprenticed Labourer in Jamaica
3132-432: Was forced to resign and twice charged with murder, his case never went to trial. In 1969, Paul Bogle was named a National Hero of Jamaica , as were George William Gordon and three others. Saint Thomas is located at latitude 18°05'N, longitude 76°40'W, to the south of Portland , and the east of St. Andrew . With an area of 742.8 square kilometres (286.8 sq mi), it ranks as Jamaica's ninth-largest parish. It
3190-586: Was merely a continuation of slavery. In 1836, Sturge traveled to Jamaica to gather first hand information about the labour system. While there, he and other anti-apprenticeship activists met James Williams, an apprentice from St. Ann's Parish that worked on the Penshurst Plantation for the Senior family, who shared his experience with the abolitionists. Sturge organized to have his narrative recorded by an amanuensis and published it in hopes of informing
3248-528: Was one way that freedmen and women "tested the limits of their freedom." The export of sugar and other staple crops remained central to the economies of the British West Indies. Agricultural production required a substantial labour force and former slaves were expected to meet those labour demands. Some freedmen and women opposed working on their former plantations and all were only willing to labour on their own terms. Planters who were dependent on ex-slaves attributed their unwillingness to work to laziness. Many of
3306-408: Was popular, widely circulated and positively received by the British public. However, it also produced a considerable backlash in the West Indies. The Jamaica Despatch , a pro-planter Jamaican newspaper, criticized James Williams and Joseph Sturge and insisted that the narrative was propaganda and its claims unfounded. In response, anti-apprenticeship proponents published select apprentice interviews in
3364-530: Was tried and executed in 1865 under martial law on suspicion of directing the rebellion. Governor Eyre was forced to resign due to the controversy over his execution of Gordon and violent suppression of the rebellion. Gordon was designated in 1969 as a National Hero. Saint Thomas was densely populated by the Taíno / Arawak when Christopher Columbus first came to the island in 1494. The Spaniards established cattle ranches at Morant Bay and Yallahs. In 1655, when
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