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26-723: Plateau Penutian consists of four languages: Plateau Penutian as originally proposed was one branch of the hypothetical Penutian phylum as proposed by Edward Sapir . The original proposal also included Cayuse (which was grouped with Molala into a Waiilatpuan branch); however, this language has little documentation and that which is documented is inadequately recorded. Thus, the status of Cayuse within Penutian (or any other genealogical relation for that matter) may very well forever remain unclassified . The Sahaptian grouping of Sahaptin and Nez Percé has long been uncontroversial. Several linguists have published mounting evidence in support of

52-599: A Yok-Utian family. There also seems to be convincing evidence for the Plateau Penutian grouping (originally named Shahapwailutan by J. N. B. Hewitt and John Wesley Powell in 1894) which would consist of Klamath–Modoc , Molala , and the Sahaptian languages ( Nez Percé and Sahaptin ). The name Penutian is based on the words meaning "two" in the Wintuan , Maiduan , and Yokutsan languages (where it

78-455: A "positive relationship" among Costanoan, Maidu, Wintun, and Yokuts within a "Central or Maidu Type", from which they excluded Miwokan (their Moquelumnan). In 1910 Kroeber finally recognized the close relationship between the Miwokan and Costanoan languages . In 1916 Edward Sapir expanded Dixon and Kroeber's California Penutian family with a sister stock, Oregon Penutian , which included

104-559: A 1964 conference in Bloomington, Indiana , retained all of Sapir's groups for North America north of Mexico within the Penutian Phylum. The opposite approach was taken following a 1976 conference at Oswego, New York , when Campbell and Mithun dismissed the Penutian phylum as undemonstrated in their resulting classification of North American language families. Consensus was reached at a 1994 workshop on Comparative Penutian at

130-420: A branch of Penutian. A lexicostatistical classification and list of probable Penutian cognates has also been proposed by Zhivlov (2014). Perhaps because many Penutian languages have ablaut , vowels are difficult to reconstruct. However, consonant correspondences are common. For example, the proto-Yokuts (Inland Penutian) retroflexes */ʈ/ */ʈʼ/ correspond to Klamath (Plateau Penutian) /t͡ʃ t͡ʃʼ/ , whereas

156-712: A connection between Klamath (a.k.a. Klamath-Modoc) and Sahaptian. Howard Berman provides rather convincing evidence to include Molala within Plateau Penutian. Recent appraisals of the Penutian hypothesis find Plateau Penutian to be "well supported" by specialists (DeLancey & Golla (1997: 181); Campbell 1997), with DeLancey & Golla (1997: 180) cautiously stating "while all subgroupings at this stage of Penutian research must be considered provisional, several linkages show considerable promise" (Campbell 1997 likewise mentions similar caveats). Other researchers have pointed out promising similarities between Plateau Penutian and

182-725: A member of Boas's Jesup North Pacific Expedition, more specifically with the Huntington Expedition during the 1899-1905 field seasons with Native American groups in northeastern California. Dixon's early papers represent some of the earliest work inspired by Boas' views on culture. However, Boas did not fully articulate his views on culture until 1911, thus Dixon's work is less influenced by Boasian views than that of many of Boas' later students. Indeed, Boas and Dixon's views of culture clashed in numerous instances, in particular, over whether modern 'Stone Age' cultures could be used as analogs for prehistoric archaeological cultures. Boas

208-491: A number of papers jointly, and had an explicit agreement not to duplicate one another's work, Dixon working on languages and cultures in northeastern California and the northern Sierra Nevada, Kroeber in the remainder of the state. Dixon later travelled to . He also carried out ethnographic research in Siberia and Mongolia (1901); New Zealand, Tasmania, Australia, and Fuji (1909); Mexico (1910); Himalayas, Assam and Upper Burma,

234-493: A six-branch family: (Sapir's full 1929 classification scheme including the Penutian proposal can be seen here: Classification of indigenous languages of the Americas#Sapir (1929): Encyclopædia Britannica .) Other linguists have suggested other languages be included within the Penutian grouping: Or have produced hypotheses of relationships between Penutian and other large-scale families: Note: Some linguists link

260-471: Is a proposed grouping of language families that includes many Native American languages of western North America , predominantly spoken at one time in British Columbia , Washington , Oregon , and California . The existence of a Penutian stock or phylum has been the subject of debate among specialists. Even the unity of some of its component families has been disputed. Some of the problems in

286-627: Is even more in need of emphasis, it points up the desirability of pursuing diffusional studies along with genetic studies. This is nowhere more necessary than in the case of the Hokan and Penutian languages wherever they may be found, but particularly in California where they may very well have existed side by side for many millennia. (Haas 1976:359) Despite the concern of Haas and others, the Consensus Classification produced at

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312-484: Is pronounced something like [pen] ) and the Utian languages (where it is pronounced something like [uti] ). Although perhaps originally intended to be pronounced / p ɪ ˈ nj uː t i ə n / , which is indicated in some dictionaries, the term is pronounced / p ɪ ˈ nj uː ʃ ən / by most if not all linguists. The original Penutian hypothesis, offered in 1913 by Roland B. Dixon and Alfred L. Kroeber ,

338-634: The Maiduan family, although this proposal is still not completely demonstrated. A connection with Uto-Aztecan has also been suggested (Rude 2000). The coherence of Plateau Penutian is also supposed in an automated computational analysis ( ASJP 4) by Müller et al. (2013). The analysis also found Algic lexical influence on the Plateau Penutian languages. Below is a comparison of selected basic vocabulary items in Proto-Sahaptian , Klamath , and Molala † . Penutian languages Penutian

364-666: The University of Oregon that the families within the proposed phylum's California, Oregon, Plateau, and Chinookan clusters would eventually be shown to be genetically related. Subsequently, Marie-Lucie Tarpent reassessed Tsimshianic , a geographically isolated family in northern British Columbia, and concluded that its affiliation within Penutian is also probable. Earlier groupings, such as California Penutian and Takelma–Kalapuyan ("Takelman") are no longer accepted as valid nodes by many Penutian researchers. However, Plateau Penutian, Coast Oregon Penutian, and Yok-Utian (comprising

390-458: The Utian and Yokutsan languages ) are increasingly supported. Scott DeLancey suggests the following relationships within and among language families typically assigned to the Penutian phylum: The Wintuan languages , Takelma , and Kalapuya , absent from this list, continue to be considered Penutian languages by most scholars familiar with the subject, often in an Oregonian branch, though Takelma and Kalapuya are no longer considered to define

416-670: The Coosan languages and also the isolates Siuslaw and Takelma: Later Sapir and Leo Frachtenberg added the Kalapuyan and the Chinookan languages and then later the Alsean and Tsimshianic families, culminating in Sapir's four-branch classification (Sapir 1921a:60): By the time Sapir's 1929 Encyclopædia Britannica article was published, he had added two more branches: resulting in

442-487: The Malay Peninsula and Java, China and Japan (1912-13). Dixon was influenced in his ideas about race by his mentor, Putnam, who had been trained by Louis Agassiz and both of these 19th century anthropologists handed down a tradition of viewing the races as separate species. In his 1923 book, The Racial History of Man , Dixon disavowed earlier creationist polygenism while embracing a new evolutionary view of

468-483: The Penutian hypothesis to the Zuni language . This link, proposed by Stanley Newman, is now generally rejected, and may have even been intended as a hoax by Newman. Scholars in the mid-twentieth century became concerned that similarities among the proposed Penutian language families may be the result of borrowing that occurred among neighboring peoples, not of a shared proto-language in the distant past. Mary Haas states

494-643: The Proto-Yokuts dental */t̪/ */t̪ʰ/ */t̪ʼ/ correspond to Klamath alveolar /d t tʼ/ . Kalapuya, Takelma, and Wintu do not show such obvious connections. Below are some Penutian sound correspondence proposed by William Shipley , cited in Campbell (1997). Roland Burrage Dixon Roland Burrage Dixon (November 6, 1875 – December 19, 1934) was an American anthropologist . Born at Worcester , Mass , in 1897 he graduated from Harvard University , where he remained as an assistant in anthropology, taking

520-490: The comparative study of languages within the phylum are the result of their early extinction and limited documentation. Some of the more recently proposed subgroupings of Penutian have been convincingly demonstrated. The Miwokan and the Costanoan languages have been grouped into a Utian language family by Catherine Callaghan . Callaghan has more recently provided evidence supporting a grouping of Utian and Yokutsan into

546-665: The degree of Ph. D. in 1900 and then serving as instructor and after 1906 as an assistant professor, rising to professor in 1915. Dixon spent his entire career at Harvard. In 1904, Dixon became Librarian of Harvard's Peabody Museum and has been credited for creating one of the most "comprehensive and functional anthropological libraries in the world". In 1909 he became the Peabody Museum's Secretary and in 1912 its Curator of Ethnology. Dixon studied linguistics and ethnology under Franz Boas after working with Fredric Ward Putnam to obtain his PhD at Harvard. Dixon worked as

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572-477: The following regarding this borrowing: Even where genetic relationship is clearly indicated ... the evidence of diffusion of traits from neighboring tribes, related or not, is seen on every hand. This makes the task of determining the validity of the various alleged Hokan languages and the various alleged Penutian languages all the more difficult ... [and] point[s] up once again that diffusional studies are just as important for prehistory as genetic studies and what

598-812: The races as coming from different fossil ancestors giving rise to different species of humans. In 1910, Dixon was elected to the American Philosophical Society . He was vice president of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1910–1911 and president of the American Folklore Society from 1907 to 1908. He was professor at Harvard after 1916 and member of the American Commission to Negotiate Peace (1916–1918) in Paris . Professor Dixon

624-413: The standard methods used to determine genetic relationships. Starting from this early date, the Penutian hypothesis was controversial. Prior to the 1913 Penutian proposal of Dixon and Kroeber, Albert S. Gatschet had grouped Miwokan and Costanoan into a Mutsun group (1877). That grouping, now termed Utian , was later conclusively demonstrated by Catherine Callaghan . In 1903 Dixon & Kroeber noted

650-486: Was based on similarities observed between five California language families: That original proposal has since been called alternately Core Penutian , California Penutian , or the Penutian Kernel . In 1919 the same two authors published their linguistic evidence for the proposal. The grouping, like many of Dixon & Kroeber's other phylum proposals, was based mostly on shared typological characteristics and not

676-433: Was strongly opposed to this view. Dixon's approach towards cultures was geographic in orientation, and generally viewed cultures as static entities, with change primarily being induced by migration. Dixon's geographical-historical approach was not taken up by any later anthropologists. Dixon was fellow Boas student Alfred Kroeber 's closest professional colleague from 1897 until about 1906. They coordinated closely, published

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