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67-598: When her father Emperor Charles VI died in 1740, Maria Theresa was attacked by several enemies including Frederick the Great of Prussia who seized Silesia . She was then attacked again by a wider coalition led by France . Britain was staunch in backing Maria Theresa, but in his dual role George as Elector of Hanover signed a neutrality with France, a position that caused political controversy in London . Despite his professed neutrality as Elector of Hanover, George agreed to send

134-457: A " valido ", the first being her personal confessor and fellow Austrian, Juan Everardo Nithard . His most urgent task was to end the costly wars with France and Portugal , achieved in the 1668 treaties of Aix-la-Chapelle and Lisbon . Despite acknowledging their necessity, Don Juan forced Mariana to dismiss Nithard in February 1669, who replaced him with Fernando de Valenzuela . He was

201-778: A diplomatic solution to the Succession on Spain and Austria, by the Treaty of the Hague or First Partition Treaty. This made Joseph Ferdinand heir to the bulk of the Spanish monarchy, with France gaining the Kingdoms of Naples and Sicily and other concessions in Italy plus the modern Basque province of Gipuzkoa . Leopold's younger son Archduke Charles became ruler of the Duchy of Milan ,

268-927: A large detachment of the Hanoverian Army along with allied Hessian troops in British pay to take part in the war effort. He justified this by saying that they were wholly under British control, and therefore did not violate his agreement with France. George personally led the Pragmatic forces to victory at the Battle of Dettingen in June 1743, becoming the last serving British monarch to command troops in person. This effectively brought an end to French hopes in Germany where they had been supporting Maria Theresa's rival Charles of Bavaria . Subsequently George's younger son

335-451: A male heir meant they would be divided on his death. The Pragmatic Sanction of 19 April 1713 abolished male-only succession in all Habsburg realms and declared their lands indivisible, although the Diet of Hungary only approved it in 1723. Charles had three daughters, Maria Theresa (1717–1780), Maria Anna (1718–1744) and Maria Amalia (1724–1730) but no surviving sons. When Maria Theresa

402-445: A marriage for him. Their eyes fell upon Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel , the eldest child of Louis Rudolph, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel . She was held to be strikingly beautiful by her contemporaries. When Charles succeeded his brother in 1711, he was the last male Habsburg heir in the direct line. Since Habsburg possessions were subject to Salic law , barring women from inheriting in their own right, his own lack of

469-568: A member of the lower hidalgo class, so his appointment was deeply resented by the Grandees who normally filled such positions. In 1673, Spain was drawn into the Franco-Dutch War , placing additional strain on the economy, and Don Juan renewed efforts to remove Mariana as Regent. A month before Charles became a legal adult on 6 November 1675, he indicated his intention to take control of government, supported by his brother. When

536-538: A possession considered vital to the security of Austria's southern border. The Spanish objected to their empire being divided by foreign powers without consultation, and on 14 November 1698, Charles II made Joseph Ferdinand heir to an independent and undivided Spanish monarchy. Maria Anna was appointed Regent during his minority, an announcement allegedly received by the Spanish councillors in silence. Joseph Ferdinand's death in 1699 ended these arrangements. It also left Louis XIV's eldest son, Louis, Grand Dauphin , heir to

603-610: A trading company, the Ostend Company , which was based in the Austrian Netherlands and that he himself founded in 1722. Other signatories included Britain, France , the Dutch Republic , Spain, Russia , Denmark-Norway and Savoy-Sardinia , but subsequent events underlined Prince Eugene of Savoy 's comment that the best guarantee was a powerful army and full treasury. Charles's nieces were married to

670-408: A union between Spain and France , Maria Theresa had renounced her inheritance rights on her marriage; in return, Louis was promised a dowry of 500,000 gold écus , a huge sum that was never paid. The Nine Years' War showed France could not achieve its objectives on its own; the 1697 Treaty of Ryswick was the result of mutual exhaustion and Louis's search for allies in anticipation of a contest over

737-473: Is debatable how far they can be held responsible for long-term trends predating his reign. The monarchy proved remarkably resilient, and when Charles died, remained largely intact. However, government finances were in perpetual crisis, the Crown declaring bankruptcy nine times between 1557 and 1666, including 1647, 1652, 1662, and 1666. Following the policy established by her husband Philip, Mariana ruled through

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804-610: Is hard to assess, since little is known for certain, and many claims either unproved or incorrect. While prone to illness, he was extremely active physically, and contemporaries reported he spent much of his time hunting. One often cited example of his alleged mental incapacity is the period he spent sleeping with his father's disinterred body; this was in fact done under instructions from Mariana, whose doctors advised this would help him produce an heir. Although reputedly subject to bouts of depression, his participation in government and reports from his council and foreign observers such as

871-624: The Austrian Netherlands ), and Maria Amalia (who also died in infancy). Four years before the birth of Maria Theresa, faced with his lack of male heirs, Charles provided for a male-line succession failure with the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 . The Emperor favoured his own daughters over those of his elder brother and predecessor, Joseph I, in the succession, ignoring the Mutual Pact of Succession he had signed during

938-623: The Austro-Turkish War (1716–1718) , adding Banat to Hungary and establishing direct Austrian rule over Serbia and Oltenia (Lesser Wallachia ). This extended Austrian rule to the lower Danube . The War of the Quadruple Alliance (1718–1720) followed. It too ended in an Austrian victory; by the Treaty of The Hague (1720) , Charles swapped Sardinia , which went to the Duke of Savoy, Victor Amadeus II , for Sicily ,

1005-646: The British Jacobites launched an uprising in Scotland which enjoyed considerable success, with troops under the Jacobite heir Charles Edward Stuart crossing into England and reaching as far south as Derby . The threat to the homeland led large detachments of the Pragmatic Army to be withdrawn to Britain. Although Cumberland led pro-Hanoverian forces to victory at the Battle of Culloden ,

1072-574: The Count of Oropesa as President of the Council of Castile , the second most powerful position in the state. However, continuing ill-health led him to resign in April 1685, with Oropesa taking over as de facto valido . He retained this position until 1690. The so-called " Little Ice Age " of the 17th century was a period of crisis throughout Europe, leading to poor harvests and economic decline. Spain

1139-621: The Duke of Cumberland , assumed command. In response the French planned an invasion of Britain but this proved abortive. The Pragmatic Army's base shifted from the Rhineland to the Austrian Netherlands , modern Belgium . The two armies fought at the Battle of Fontenoy in May 1745. The battle was hard-fought and resulted in heavy casualties on both sides, but ended in French victory. In summer 1745

1206-449: The Gulf of Mexico for Spanish merchant shipping; the decree was intended to bolster its population, while undermining the neighbouring colony, which claimed the Spanish capital of St. Augustine . Formalised in 1733 by Philip, it led to the founding in 1738 of Santa Teresa de Mose , the first legally sanctioned free black town in the present-day United States . The Caroline Islands and

1273-618: The Hofburg . In his Memoirs Voltaire wrote that Charles's death was caused by consuming a meal of death cap mushrooms. Charles's life opus, the Pragmatic Sanction, was ultimately in vain. Maria Theresa was forced to resort to arms to defend her inheritance from the coalition of Prussia, Bavaria, France, Spain, Saxony and Poland—all party to the sanction—who assaulted the Austrian frontier weeks after her father's death. During

1340-683: The Kingdom of Sardinia —all previously possessions of the Spanish—were ceded to Austria. To prevent a union of Spain and France, Philip was forced to renounce his right to succeed his grandfather's throne. Charles was extremely discontented at the loss of Spain, and as a result, he mimicked the staid Spanish Habsburg court ceremonial, adopting the dress of a Spanish monarch, which, according to British historian Edward Crankshaw , consisted of "a black doublet and hose, black shoes and scarlet stockings". Charles's father and his advisors went about arranging

1407-659: The Spanish Netherlands returned in 1668. Seeking to minimise future conflict between the two countries, in August 1679 Don Juan brokered a match between Charles and the 17-year-old Marie Louise of Orléans , eldest niece of Louis XIV and daughter of Philippe I, Duke of Orléans . Arranging the marriage was Don Juan's last significant act; he died shortly before it took place in November 1679. In February 1680, Juan Francisco de la Cerda, 8th Duke of Medinaceli became

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1474-564: The War of the Spanish Succession formally began on 9 July 1701. Charles' reign has traditionally been viewed as one of decline and decay, while in 1691, a foreign ambassador commented that "it is incomprehensible how this monarchy survives". More recent studies argue "both the myth of decline and an incapable king are simplistic and inexact". Despite their disastrous short-term impact, the financial measures taken by his advisors ended

1541-478: The Americas increased, the vast majority went to paying off foreign debtors. The globalisation of the Spanish trading system meant outsiders often had the most to lose from its collapse. By the 1670s, the bulk of foreign trade was controlled by Dutch and English merchants, while the domestic economy relied on French labour and imported wheat. The Marqués de Varinas, a senior colonial official, observed in 1687 that

1608-491: The Castilian nobility disliked Maria Anna and her German courtiers and viewed a French candidate as more likely to ensure their independence. In September 1700, Charles became ill again; by 28 September he was no longer able to eat, and Luis Manuel Fernández de Portocarrero persuaded him to alter his will in favour of Louis XIV's grandson, Philip of Anjou . He died on 1 November 1700, at age 38. The autopsy records his "heart

1675-550: The Empire continued to exist in its present form "only because it enables the English, Dutch and French to exploit [it] more cheaply". In the 1680s, Spanish officials issued a series of drastic deflationary decrees, revaluing the coinage at 25% of its previous value. The immediate impact was the total disruption of commerce and collapse of financial credit; in response, debtors were given three months to repay government debts using

1742-639: The French ambassador Jean-Baptiste Colbert, Marquess of Torcy , indicate his mental capacities remained intact. A report from 1691 submitted by an envoy from the Sultan of Morocco , relates that he was received by Charles himself, who played a full part in the discussions. Costanzo Operti, a Savoyard diplomat who held regular audiences with Charles during the Nine Years' War , described him as affable and generous but shy and lacking self-confidence, characteristics noted by other foreign diplomats. Since Charles

1809-742: The French following the Invasion of Hanover . Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI ( German : Karl ; Latin : Carolus ; 1 October 1685 – 20 October 1740) was Holy Roman Emperor and ruler of the Austrian Habsburg monarchy from 1711 until his death, succeeding his elder brother, Joseph I . He unsuccessfully claimed the throne of Spain following the death of his relative, Charles II . In 1708, he married Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel , by whom he had his four children: Leopold Johann (who died in infancy), Maria Theresa , Maria Anna (Governess of

1876-427: The French under Maurice de Saxe were able to take advantage of his absence to besiege Brussels and then followed this up by taking Ghent , Mons and Namur . The Pragmatic army suffered a loss at the Battle of Rocoux (October 1746) and then again following the return of Cumberland and British reinforcements at the Battle of Lauffeld (July 1747). France had seized control of much of the Austrian Netherlands, but

1943-508: The Horse, Prince Schwarzenberg, and a hunter's boy. The love of his life was Michael Joseph, Count Althann, a groom of the bedchamber, whom he called "my only heart, my comfort...my soul mate", and with whom he slept regularly. Althann's death in 1722, after a relationship of nineteen years, devastated him. In 1737, the Emperor embarked on another Turkish War in alliance with Russia. Unlike

2010-608: The Inquisitor General Baltasar de Mendoza y Sandoval , an ally of Maria Anna, arrested his personal confessor Froilán Díaz on a charge of 'bewitching' the King. When Díaz was found not guilty, Mendoza attempted to arrest those who voted for his acquittal, resulting in the establishment of a Council to investigate the Inquisition; although it survived until 1834, its influence had ended. Though not as fond of

2077-648: The Regency Council requested a two-year extension of their office on 4 November, Charles initially refused, but was later pressured into accepting. He was also forced to issue a Royal Decree ordering Don Juan to leave Madrid. Don Juan finally gained control of the government in January 1678 and exiled Valenzuela to the Philippines . His first action was to make peace with France in the 1678 Treaties of Nijmegen , with Spain ceding Franche-Comté and areas of

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2144-521: The Spanish throne, once again implying union between Spain and France. In March 1700, France, England and the Dutch agreed an alternative ; Archduke Charles replaced Joseph Ferdinand, with Spanish possessions in Europe split between France, Savoy and Austria. Charles reacted by altering his will in favour of Archduke Charles, but once again stipulating an undivided and independent Spanish monarchy. Most of

2211-552: The Spanish throne. Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor refused to sign since it left the issue unresolved; he reluctantly did so in October 1697, but viewed it as a pause in hostilities. In 1685, Leopold and Margaret's daughter Maria Antonia married Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria ; she died in 1692, leaving one surviving son, Joseph Ferdinand . In October 1698, France, England and the Dutch Republic attempted to impose

2278-459: The acquisition of an undivided Spanish Empire by either France or Austria threatened the European balance of power . Failure to resolve these issues through diplomacy resulted in the 1701 to 1714 War of the Spanish Succession . Born 6 November 1661, Charles was the only surviving son of Philip IV of Spain and his niece , Mariana of Austria . While marriage within the same extended family

2345-668: The age of four, but for reasons that are still debated, he experienced extended periods of ill health throughout his life. This made the question of his successor central to European diplomacy for much of his reign, historian John Langdon-Davies writing that, "from the day of his birth, they were waiting for his death". The two main candidates were the Austrian Habsburg Archduke Charles , and 16-year-old Philip of Anjou , grandson of Maria Theresa of Spain and Louis XIV of France . Shortly before his death in November 1700, Charles named Philip his heir, but

2412-692: The arts as his father, Charles employed artists like the Italian painter Luca Giordano and Claudio Coello to decorate El Escorial . In 1690, the latter created one of the last and most significant examples of Spanish Baroque painting , Charles II adores the Holy Eucharist. On 7 November 1693, a Royal Decree provided sanctuary in Spanish Florida for escaped slaves from the nearby colony of South Carolina . Despite its relative poverty, Spanish Florida provided protection from storms in

2479-595: The challenges facing the Empire was hampered by an ongoing power struggle with John Joseph of Austria , hereafter referred to as Don Juan, Charles's older, illegitimate half-brother. In addition, enacting essential reforms was complicated since Spain was a personal union between the Crown of Castile and Crown of Aragon , each with very distinct political cultures and traditions. Infighting between those who ruled in Charles's name during his regency did little to help, but it

2546-543: The chronic instability which had affected the Spanish currency throughout the 17th century, and helped drive sustainable economic growth. Many of the commercial and political policies initiated under Charles formed the basis for reforms enacted by his Bourbon successors. His reign also saw the final political eclipse of the Spanish Inquisition , precipitated by its intervention in the succession crisis. When Charles changed his will in favour of Philip in 1700,

2613-430: The early 16th century, which remained in use until the 1860s. Inter-marriage accentuated the so-called ' Habsburg jaw ', a physical characteristic common in both Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs. One contemporary reported this was so pronounced in Charles that he swallowed his food without thoroughly chewing, leading to frequent stomach problems. A 2019 study based on an analysis of Habsburg portraits concluded this feature

2680-583: The engagement to Francis. At the end of the War of the Polish Succession, France demanded that Francis surrender the Duchy of Lorraine (his hereditary domain), to Stanisław Leszczyński, the deposed king of Poland, who would bequeath it to France at his death. Charles compelled Francis to renounce his rights to Lorraine and told him: "No renunciation, no archduchess." Charles had a number of sexual relationships with male courtiers, including his Master of

2747-590: The ensuing War of the Austrian Succession , Maria Theresa saved her crown and most of her territory but lost the mineral-rich Duchy of Silesia to Prussia and the Duchy of Parma to Spain. Emperor Charles VI has been the main motif of many collectors' coins and medals. One of the most recent samples is high-value collectors' coin the Austrian Göttweig Abbey commemorative coin , minted on 11 October 2006. His portrait can be seen in

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2814-475: The existing rate, later extended to six months. Having stabilised the position, in 1686, the coinage was readjusted to a more favourable rate and thereafter left unaltered. Marie Louise was blamed for Charles' failure to produce an heir, while primitive fertility treatments gave her severe intestinal problems. She died in February 1689, shortly after the outbreak of the Nine Years' War with France. Based on her recorded symptoms, modern doctors believe her illness

2881-576: The foreground of the reverse of the coin. Charles II of Spain Charles II of Spain (6 November 1661 – 1 November 1700), also known as El Hechizado , or the Bewitched , was King of Spain from 1665 to 1700. The last monarch from the House of Habsburg which had ruled Spain since 1516, he died without children, leading to a European conflict over his successor. Charles became king at

2948-474: The imperial crown. Not wanting to see Austria and Spain in personal union again, the new Kingdom of Great Britain withdrew its support from the Austrian coalition, and the war culminated with the Treaties of Utrecht , Rastatt and Baden three years later. The former, ratified in 1713, recognised Philip as King of Spain; however, the Kingdom of Naples , the Duchy of Milan , the Austrian Netherlands and

3015-465: The largest island in the Mediterranean, which was harder to defend than Sardinia. The treaty also recognised Philip V of Spain 's younger son, Don Carlos (the future Charles III of Spain ) as heir to the Duchy of Parma and Grand Duchy of Tuscany ; Charles had previously endorsed the succession of the incumbent Grand Duke's daughter, Anna Maria Luisa, Electress Palatine . Peace in Europe

3082-548: The majority of the Holy Roman Empire endorsed Charles's candidature. He also received support in the Crown of Aragon , but not the Crown of Castile , which favoured Philip. Charles III, as he was known, disembarked in his kingdom in 1705, and stayed there for six years, only being able to exercise his rule in Catalonia , until the death of his brother, Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor ; he returned to Vienna to assume

3149-462: The marriage of Margaret Theresa of Spain to her maternal uncle Leopold I , had similar health issues. After his birth, he was entrusted to the royal governess Mariana Engracia Álvarez de Toledo Portugal y Alfonso-Pimentel . Under her careful supervision, he survived childhood attacks of measles , chickenpox , rubella and smallpox , any one of which was then potentially fatal. He also had rickets , which left him unable to walk unaided until he

3216-501: The much smaller Duchy of Parma and Grand Duchy of Tuscany. The question of Charles's elder daughter's marriage was raised early in her childhood. She was first betrothed to Léopold Clément of Lorraine , who was supposed to come to Vienna and meet Maria Theresa. Instead, he died of smallpox in 1723, which upset Maria Theresa. Léopold Clément's younger brother, Francis Stephen , then came to Vienna to replace him. Charles considered other possibilities (such as Don Carlos) before announcing

3283-472: The new valido . He clashed with Marie-Louise over the alleged influence exerted over her by the French ambassador, Pierre de Villars , who was expelled from Madrid in 1681, badly affecting the relationship between the two. Medinaceli was further undermined by economic problems and the loss of Luxembourg following the 1683 War of the Reunions . In June 1684, he sought to bolster his support by appointing

3350-642: The previous Austro-Turkish War, it ended in a decisive Austrian defeat. Much of the territory gained in 1718 (except for the Banat) was lost. Popular discontent at the costly war reigned in Vienna; Francis of Lorraine, Maria Theresa's husband, was dubbed a French spy by the Viennese. At the time of Charles's death, the Habsburg lands were saturated in debt; the exchequer contained a mere 100,000 florins; and desertion

3417-483: The reign of his father, Leopold I . Charles sought the other European powers' approval. They demanded significant terms, among which were that Austria close the Ostend Company . In total, Great Britain , France , Saxony - Poland , the Dutch Republic , Spain , Venice , Papal States , Prussia , Russia , Denmark , Savoy-Sardinia , Bavaria , and the Diet of the Holy Roman Empire recognised

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3484-518: The rulers of Saxony and Bavaria, both of whom ultimately refused to be bound by the decision of the Imperial Diet. France, despite publicly agreeing to the Pragmatic Sanction in 1735, signed a secret treaty with Bavaria in 1738 promising to back the 'just claims' of Charles Albert of Bavaria. In the first part of his reign, the Habsburg monarchy continued to expand thanks to the success in

3551-489: The sanction. France, Spain, Saxony-Poland, Bavaria and Prussia later reneged. Charles died in 1740, sparking the War of the Austrian Succession , which plagued his successor, Maria Theresa, for eight years. Archduke Charles (baptized Carolus Franciscus Josephus Wenceslaus Balthasar Johannes Antonius Ignatius ), the second son of the Emperor Leopold I and of his third wife, Princess Eleonore Magdalene of Neuburg ,

3618-704: The town of Charleroi in modern Belgium were named after him in 1666 and 1686 respectively. Decrees were also issued in his name approving universities in South America which still exist. In Peru , they include San Cristóbal , established in 1680, and the National University ; in Guatemala , the Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala , the fourth-oldest university on the continent. Others include Santo Tomas Aquino in 1688, now part of

3685-453: Was atrophied . His mother died on 16 May 1696, by which time Charles' health was clearly failing, making the succession increasingly urgent. Since the Crown of Spain passed according to cognatic primogeniture , it could be inherited through the female line. This enabled Charles's sisters Maria Theresa (1638–1683) and Margaret Theresa to pass their rights to the children of their marriages with Louis XIV and Emperor Leopold. However, to prevent

3752-416: Was a legal minor when Philip died on 17 September 1665, Mariana was appointed Queen Regent by the Council of Castile . The Spanish Empire remained an enormous global confederation, but its economic supremacy was increasingly challenged by the Dutch Republic and England , and its position in Europe destabilised by the expansionist policies of Louis XIV of France . Her ability to respond effectively to

3819-481: Was almost certainly appendicitis . A new wife was selected from a family famous for its fertility, Maria Anna of Neuburg , daughter of Philip William, Elector Palatine , and sister-in-law to Emperor Leopold. A proxy marriage took place in August 1689, before a formal ceremony in May 1690. Maria Anna also failed to produce an heir, almost certainly because Charles was by now physically incapable of doing so; his autopsy later revealed his sole remaining testicle

3886-452: Was born on 1 October 1685. Following the death of Charles II of Spain , in 1700, without any direct heir, Charles declared himself King of Spain—both were members of the House of Habsburg . The ensuing War of the Spanish Succession , which pitted France's candidate, Philip, Duke of Anjou , Louis XIV of France's grandson, against Austria's Charles, lasted for almost 14 years. The kingdoms of Portugal , England , Scotland , Ireland and

3953-422: Was born, he disinherited his nieces who were the daughters of his elder brother Joseph, Maria Josepha and Maria Amalia . It was this act that undermined the chances of a smooth succession as set out in a Pact arranged by his father, and obliged Charles to spend the rest of his reign seeking to ensure enforcement of the sanction from other European powers. Charles agreed to a demand from Britain that he close

4020-617: Was especially affected, due in part to the parlous economic situation, particularly in Castile, where the population dropped from 6.5 million in 1600 to less than 5 million in 1680, while figures for Spain as a whole were 8.5 to 6.6 million. This was exacerbated by a series of wars with France and the need to defend the Empire, which were a constant drain on public expenditure. In 1663, Philip IV had converted state debt into government bonds , or juros , but high rates of interest meant taxes were often assigned to creditors years in advance to pay current liabilities. Although silver bullion imports from

4087-474: Was four and to wear leg braces until the age of five. Suggestions that he was largely uneducated until his teens appear to be incorrect; Ramos del Manzano, a professor at the University of Salamanca and legal expert, was appointed his tutor when he was six. From the age of 12, he received lessons in music from Juan del Vado , and in mathematics by Jose Zaragoza, Professor at the Colegio Imperial de Madrid . The extent of his physical and mental disabilities

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4154-482: Was likely due to a recessive trait , but in the absence of genetic material, such claims remain speculative. The precise cause of Charles' ill-health remains disputed. Based on an analysis of contemporary accounts, some modern researchers argue they may have been due to genetic mutations, others suggest an herpetic infection incurred as an infant, causing hydrocephalus . Neither his elder sister Margaret Theresa of Spain , nor his niece Maria Antonia , daughter of

4221-408: Was rife in Austria's sporadic army, spread across the Empire in small, ineffective barracks. Contemporaries expected that Hungary would wrench itself from the Habsburg yoke upon his death. The Emperor, after a hunting trip across the Hungarian border in "a typical day in the wettest and coldest October in memory", fell seriously ill at the Favorita Palace , Vienna, and he died on 20 October 1740 in

4288-421: Was shattered by the War of the Polish Succession (1733–1738), a dispute over the throne of Poland between Augustus of Saxony , the previous king's elder son, and Stanisław Leszczyński . Austria supported the former, France the latter; thus, a war broke out. By the Treaty of Vienna (1738) , Augustus ascended the throne, but Charles had to give the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily to Don Carlos, in exchange for

4355-432: Was suffering from war exhaustion and strung by naval and colonial defeats and took part in covert talks with Britain in Breda to end the war. At the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748 France agreed to evacuate all the occupied territory of Belgium, in exchange for Britain handing back the captured Canadian stronghold of Louisbourg . In 1757 during the Seven Years' War British and allied German forces again battled

4422-406: Was the size of a peppercorn; his lungs corroded; his intestines rotten and gangrenous; he had a single testicle, black as coal, and his head was full of water." As suggested previously, the last of these symptoms is indicative of hydrocephalus, a disease often associated with childhood measles, one of many illnesses contracted by Charles. Philip was proclaimed king of Spain on 16 November 1700, and

4489-432: Was then common, the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs were unusual in the extent to which they followed this practice. Of eleven marriages contracted by Spanish monarchs between 1450 and 1661, the vast majority contained some element of consanguinity , Philip and Mariana being one of two unions between uncle and niece. This policy may also have been driven by limpieza de sangre or "blood purity" statutes enacted in

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