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52-532: The formation is a major source of potash , most of which is used for fertilizer production. Salt is also produced from the formation, and solution caverns are created in its thick salt beds for natural gas storage . The Prairie Evaporite Formation consists thick beds of halite, with interbeds of anhydrite , dolomite , dolomitic mudstone and claystone . In southern Saskatchewan and northern North Dakota it includes major deposits of sylvite and carnallite that are mined for their potassium content. Gypsum

104-708: A catalyst for synthetic rubber manufacturing. Also combined with silica sand to produce potassium silicate , sometimes known as waterglass , for use in paints and arc welding electrodes. These non-fertilizer uses have accounted for about 15% of annual potash consumption in the United States. No substitutes exist for potassium as an essential plant nutrient and as an essential nutritional requirement for animals and humans. Manure and glauconite (greensand) are low-potassium-content sources that can be profitably transported only short distances to crop fields. Keg River Formation The Keg River Formation

156-401: A factor in the growing potash and fertilizer use. With more money in the household budget, consumers added more meat and dairy products to their diets. This shift in eating patterns required more acres to be planted, more fertilizer to be applied and more animals to be fed—all requiring more potash. After years of trending upward, fertilizer use slowed in 2008. The worldwide economic downturn is

208-564: A study conducted between 1977 and 1987 of cardiovascular disease among potash workers, the overall mortality rates were low, but a noticeable difference in above-ground workers was documented. Potassium is the third major plant and crop nutrient after nitrogen and phosphorus . It has been used since antiquity as a soil fertilizer (about 90% of current use). Fertilizer use is the main driver behind potash consumption, especially for its use in fertilizing crops that contribute to high-protein diets. As of at least 2010, more than 95% of potash

260-533: Is caustic and hygroscopic . At the beginning of 2008, potash prices started a meteoric climb from less than US$ 200 a tonne to a high of US$ 875 in February 2009. These subsequently dropped dramatically to an April 2010 low of US$ 310 level, before recovering in 2011–12, and relapsing again in 2013. For reference, prices in November 2011 were about US$ 470 per tonne, but as of May 2013 were stable at US$ 393. After

312-800: Is a stratigraphic unit of Givetian age in the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin . It takes the name from the Keg River , a community along the Peace River , and was first described in the California Standard Steen River 2-22-117-5W6M well (situated north of Zama Lake ) by J. Law in 1955. The Keg River Formation is composed of dark dolomite with intercrystalline or vuggy porosity and wackestone limestone . The Rainbow Member and upper Keg River Member are reef formations deposited in

364-597: Is also a major producer. The Permian Basin deposit includes the major mines outside of Carlsbad , New Mexico, to the world's purest potash deposit in Lea County, New Mexico (near the Carlsbad deposits), which is believed to be roughly 80% pure. ( Osceola County, Michigan , has deposits 90+% pure; the only mine there was converted to salt production, however.) Canada is the largest producer, followed by Russia and Belarus. The most significant reserve of Canada's potash

416-523: Is located in the Dallol area of the Afar Region . Potash was one of the most important industrial chemicals. It was refined from the ashes of broadleaved trees and produced primarily in the forested areas of Europe, Russia , and North America . Although methods for producing artificial alkalis were invented in the late 18th century, these did not become economical until the late 19th century and so

468-414: Is located in the province of Saskatchewan and is mined by The Mosaic Company , Nutrien and K+S . In China , most potash deposits are concentrated in the deserts and salt flats of the endorheic basins of its western provinces, particularly Qinghai . Geological expeditions discovered the reserves in the 1950s but commercial exploitation lagged until Deng Xiaoping 's Reform and Opening Up Policy in

520-693: Is mined for use in agricultural purposes. Elemental potassium does not occur in nature because it reacts violently with water. As part of various compounds, potassium makes up about 2.6% of the Earth's crust by mass and is the seventh most abundant element, similar in abundance to sodium at approximately 1.8% of the crust. Potash is important for agriculture because it improves water retention, yield, nutrient value, taste, color, texture and disease resistance of food crops. It has wide application to fruit and vegetables, rice, wheat and other grains, sugar, corn, soybeans, palm oil and cotton, all of which benefit from

572-481: Is nowhere exposed in outcrop because its minerals are easily dissolved by water. Intact sequences are usually found at depths of more than 500 metres (1,640 ft) below ground surface, where they are protected by overlying aquitards . The potash deposits of Saskatchewan and North Dakota lie at depths exceeding 950 metres (3,120 ft). The Prairie Evaporite Formation is part of the Elk Point Group and

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624-881: Is ongoing today, produced a breccia that consists of fragments of overlying formations that collapsed when their support was removed, as well as insoluble material from within the Prairie Evaporite itself. The Prairie Evaporite Formation is present in the subsurface in the Western Canada and Williston sedimentary basins , extending from northern Alberta to northern North Dakota, a distance of more than 1,500 kilometres (930 mi). It reaches thicknesses of more than 200 metres (660 ft) near Saskatoon in Saskatchewan, and more than 300 metres (980 ft) north of Fort McMurray in Alberta. The formation

676-601: Is particularly suitable for surface mining. It was explored in the 1960s but the works stopped due to flooding in 1967. Attempts to continue mining in the 1990s were halted by the Eritrean–Ethiopian War and have not resumed as of 2009. All commercial potash deposits come originally from evaporite deposits and are often buried deep below the earth's surface. Potash ores are typically rich in potassium chloride (KCl), sodium chloride (NaCl) and other salts and clays, and are typically obtained by conventional shaft mining with

728-556: Is present in areas where anhydrite has been altered by reaction with groundwater . The Prairie Evaporite Formation was deposited in an embayment called the Elk Point Basin . It extended from an open ocean in the present-day Northwest Territories in Canada to northern North Dakota in the United States, covering an area roughly 30% to 40% as large as that covered by today's Mediterranean Sea . An extensive reef complex called

780-505: Is skimmed for the amine + KCl, which is then dried and packaged for use as a K rich fertilizer—KCl dissolves readily in water and is available quickly for plant nutrition . Recovery of potassium fertilizer salts from sea water has been studied in India . During extraction of salt from seawater by evaporation, potassium salts get concentrated in bittern , an effluent from the salt industry. Potash deposits are distributed unevenly throughout

832-417: Is used at greater depths. Reserves suitable for underground and solution mining have been estimated at 14 billion tonnes (15 billion short tons) and more than 42 billion tonnes (46 billion short tons), respectively. As of 2003, there were 2 solution mines and 8 conventional mines operating in Saskatchewan. Salt is produced primarily as a byproduct of potash mining. For practical purposes, the salt reserves of

884-402: Is used for industrial water treatment and is the precursor of potassium carbonate, several forms of potassium phosphate, many other potassic chemicals, and soap manufacturing. Potassium carbonate is used to produce animal feed supplements, cement , fire extinguishers , food products, photographic chemicals , and textiles. It is also used in brewing beer , pharmaceutical preparations, and as

936-436: Is usually divided into three members in Alberta. The Whitkow Member at the base, which is present locally in the deepest parts of the basin, consists of coarsely crystalline halite with minor anhydrite. The overlying Shell Lake Member consists primarily of anhydrite interbedded with dolomite. The Leofnard Member at the top consists of halite with minor interbeds of dolomite, anhydrite and mudstone. Additional units are present in

988-560: The Belarusian Potash Company . The latter was a joint venture between Belaruskali and Uralkali , but on July 30, 2013, Uralkali announced that it had ended the venture. Potash is water soluble and transporting it requires special transportation infrastructure. Excessive respiratory disease due to environmental hazards, such as radon and asbestos , has been a concern for potash miners throughout history. Potash miners are liable to develop silicosis . Based on

1040-806: The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance countries. After the dissolution of the USSR , Russian and Belarusian potash producers entered into direct competition with producers elsewhere in the world for the first time. In the beginning of the 20th century, potash deposits were found in the Dallol Depression in the Musely and Crescent localities near the Ethiopean- Eritrean border. The estimated reserves in Musely and Crescent are 173 and 12 million tonnes respectively. The latter

1092-482: The Industrial Era . The word potassium is derived from potash . Potash is produced worldwide in amounts exceeding 71.9 million tonnes (~45.4 million tonnes K 2 O equivalent ) per year as of 2021, with Canada being the largest producer, mostly for use in fertilizer . Various kinds of fertilizer-potash constitute the single greatest industrial use of the element potassium in the world. Potassium

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1144-453: The Presqu'ile Barrier developed across the mouth of the embayment, blocking it from the open ocean and restricting the inflow of sea water. Low water levels and excessive evaporation resulted in the deposition of halite and other evaporite minerals in sabkha , supratidal flat and coastal lagoon environments, ultimately leading to the accumulation of potash minerals in the southern part of

1196-533: The 1970s. In 1964 the Canadian company Kalium Chemicals established the first potash mine using the solution process. The discovery was made during oil reserve exploration. The mine was developed near Regina, Saskatchewan. The mine reached depths greater than 1500 meters. It is now the Mosaic Corporation's Belle Plaine unit. The USSR's potash production had largely been for domestic use and use in

1248-534: The 1980s. The 1989 opening of the Qinghai Potash Fertilizer Factory in the remote Qarhan Playa increased China's production of potassium chloride sixfold, from less than 40,000 t (39,000 long tons; 44,000 short tons) a year at Haixi and Tanggu to just under 240,000 t (240,000 long tons; 260,000 short tons) a year. In 2013, almost 70% of potash production was controlled by Canpotex , an exporting and marketing firm, and

1300-490: The Prairie Evaporite Formation are essentially unlimited. The thick halite beds of the Prairie Evaporite Formation are essentially impermeable , and numerous solution caverns have been artificially created in them to store natural gas and liquified petroleum gas products. Storage of nuclear waste , carbon dioxide , and other waste products has also been discussed. Because of their impermeability,

1352-668: The Rainbow, Zama and Bitscho sub-basins. The Keg River Formation occurs in the subsurface from northeastern to northwestern Alberta and its southern border is defined by the Peace River Arch . It varies in depth from 10 metres (30 ft) to 300 metres (980 ft). The Keg River Formation is conformably overlain by the Muskeg Formation and unconformably overlays the Chinchaga Formation . It

1404-458: The anyhdritic Muskeg Formation through a decrease in its halite content and an increase in its anhydrite content. Along its eastern and southern margins the formation grades into the breccia that results from the dissolution of its halite and anhydrite. Along its western margin it thins to zero at its depositional limit. In Saskatchewan, underground mining of potash is conducted to depths of about 1,100 metres (3,610 ft), and solution mining

1456-572: The area. These events can be compared to the drying of the Mediterranean Sea that occurred during late Miocene time. That event, called the Messinian salinity crisis , resulted in the deposition of sequences of evaporite minerals up to 1,600 metres (5,250 ft) thick. Groundwater has gained access to Prairie Evaporite Formation along its eastern and southern margins, dissolving the halite and other soluble minerals. That process, which

1508-469: The ashes, and then evaporating the resulting solution in large iron pots, which left a white residue denominated "pot ash". Approximately 10% by weight of common wood ash can be recovered as potash. Later, "potash" became widely applied to naturally occurring minerals that contained potassium salts and the commercial product derived from them. The following table lists a number of potassium compounds that have "potash" in their traditional names: Most of

1560-462: The dependence on organic sources of potash remained. Potash became an important international trade commodity in Europe from at least the early 14th century. It is estimated that European imports of potash required 6 or more million cubic metres each year from the early 17th century. Between 1420 and 1620, the primary exporting cities for wood-derived potash were Gdańsk , Königsberg and Riga . In

1612-542: The earth changed, these deposits were covered by thousands of feet of earth. Potash (especially potassium carbonate) has been used in bleaching textiles, making glass , ceramic, and making soap , since the Bronze Age . Potash was principally obtained by leaching the ashes of land plants. Beginning in the 14th century potash was mined in Ethiopia . One of the world's largest deposits, 140 to 150 million tons,

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1664-503: The evaporation method, hot water is injected into the potash, which is dissolved and then pumped to the surface where it is concentrated by solar induced evaporation. Amine reagents are then added to either the mined or evaporated solutions. The amine coats the KCl but not NaCl. Air bubbles cling to the amine + KCl and float it to the surface while the NaCl and clay sink to the bottom. The surface

1716-560: The extracted ore ground into a powder. Most potash mines today are deep shaft mines as much as 4,400 feet (1,400 m) underground. Others are mined as strip mines, having been laid down in horizontal layers as sedimentary rock . In above-ground processing plants, the KCl is separated from the mixture to produce a high-analysis potassium fertilizer. Other potassium salts can be separated by various procedures, resulting in potassium sulfate and potassium-magnesium sulfate. Other methods include dissolution mining and evaporation methods from brines. In

1768-514: The late 15th century, London was the lead importer due to its position as the centre of soft soap making while the Dutch dominated as suppliers and consumers in the 16th century. From the 1640s, geopolitical disruptions (i.e. Russo-Polish War (1654–1667) ) meant that the centres of export moved from the Baltic to Archangelsk , Russia. In 1700, Russian ash was dominant though Gdańsk remained notable for

1820-424: The need to clear land for agriculture . From 1767, potash from wood ashes was exported from Canada. By 1811, 70% of the total 19.6 million lbs of potash imports to Britain came from Canada. Exports of potash and pearl ash reached 43,958 barrels in 1865. There were 519 asheries in operation in 1871. The wood-ash industry declined in the late 19th century when large-scale production of potash from mineral salts

1872-580: The nutrient's quality-enhancing properties. Demand for food and animal feed has been on the rise since 2000. The United States Department of Agriculture 's Economic Research Service (ERS) attributes the trend to average annual population increases of 75 million people around the world. Geographically, economic growth in Asia and Latin America greatly contributed to the increased use of potash-based fertilizer. Rising incomes in developing countries also were

1924-645: The potash-bearing areas of Saskatchewan and North Dakota. They overlie, or are considered to be submembers of, the Leofnard Member. From base to top, they are the Esterhazy, White Bear, Belle Plaine, Patience Lake Members which, in North Dakota, are overlain by the Mountrail and White Lake Members. They are separated by unnamed zones of halite. The contact between the Prairie Evaporite Formation and

1976-489: The primary reason for the declining fertilizer use, dropping prices, and mounting inventories. The world's largest consumers of potash are China, the United States, Brazil, and India. Brazil imports 90% of the potash it needs. Potash consumption for fertilizers is expected to increase to about 37.8 million tonnes by 2022. Potash imports and exports are often reported in K 2 O equivalent , although fertilizer never contains potassium oxide, per se, because potassium oxide

2028-740: The quality of its potash. On the Orkney islands, kelp ash provided potash and soda ash , production starting "possibly as early as 1719" and lasting for a century. The products were "eagerly sought after by the glass and soap industries of the time." By the 18th century, higher quality American potash was increasingly exported to Britain. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, potash production provided settlers in North America badly needed cash and credit as they cleared wooded land for crops. To make full use of their land, settlers needed to dispose of excess wood. The easiest way to accomplish this

2080-441: The salt and anhydrite beds of Prairie Evaporite also act as a seal for petroleum and natural gas reservoirs in underlying formations. Potash Potash ( / ˈ p ɒ t æ ʃ / POT -ash ) includes various mined and manufactured salts that contain potassium in water- soluble form. The name derives from pot ash , plant ashes or wood ash soaked in water in a pot, the primary means of manufacturing potash before

2132-501: The same rate as hiring a laborer to clear the same area. Potash making became a major industry in British North America. Great Britain was always the most important market. The American potash industry followed the woodsman's ax across the country. The first US patent of any kind was issued in 1790 to Samuel Hopkins for an improvement "in the making of Pot ash and Pearl ash by a new Apparatus and Process". Pearl ash

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2184-439: The short-run and even in the long run. In addition to its use as a fertilizer, potassium chloride is important in many industrialized economies, where it is used in aluminium recycling , by the chloralkali industry to produce potassium hydroxide, in metal electroplating , oil-well drilling fluid , snow and ice melting, steel heat-treating, in medicine as a treatment for hypokalemia , and water softening . Potassium hydroxide

2236-450: The surprise breakup of the world's largest potash cartel at the end of July 2013, potash prices were poised to drop some 20 percent. At the end of December 2015, potash traded for US$ 295 a tonne. In April 2016 its price was US$ 269. In May 2017, prices had stabilised at around US$ 216 a tonne down 18% from the previous year. By January 2018, prices have been recovering to around US$ 225 a tonne. World potash demand tends to be price inelastic in

2288-548: The underlying Keg River Formation (in the north) and Winnipegosis Formation (in the south) is sharp and conformable. The contact with the overlying Watt Mountain Formation (in the north) and Second Red Bed Member of the Dawson Bay Formation (in the south) is sharp and disconformable . The northern limit of the formation occurs at about 58° north latitude in Alberta, where the Prairie Evaporite grades into

2340-405: The world reserves of potassium (K) were deposited as sea water in ancient inland oceans . After the water evaporated, the potassium salts crystallized into beds of potash ore. These are the locations where potash is being mined today. The deposits are a naturally occurring mixture of potassium chloride (KCl) and sodium chloride (NaCl), more commonly known as table salt . Over time, as the surface of

2392-604: The world. As of 2015 , deposits are being mined in Canada, Russia, China, Belarus, Israel, Germany, Chile, the United States, Jordan, Spain, the United Kingdom, Uzbekistan and Brazil, with the most significant deposits present under the great depths of the Prairie Evaporite Formation in Saskatchewan , Canada. Canada and Russia are the countries where the bulk of potash is produced; Belarus

2444-511: Was a purer quality made by calcination of potash in a reverberatory furnace or kiln. Potash pits were once used in England to produce potash that was used in making soap for the preparation of wool for yarn production. After about 1820, New York replaced New England as the most important source; by 1840 the center was in Ohio. Potash production was always a by-product industry, following from

2496-481: Was discovered in Saskatchewan , Canada, during oil drilling. Active exploration began in 1951. In 1958, the Potash Company of America became the first potash producer in Canada with the commissioning of an underground potash mine at Patience Lake . As numerous potash producers in Canada developed, the Saskatchewan government became increasingly involved in the industry, leading to the creation of Canpotex in

2548-472: Was established in Germany . In the early 20th century, the potash industry was dominated by a cartel in which Germany had the dominant role. WWI saw a brief resurgence of American asheries, with their product typically consisting of 66% hydroxide, 17% carbonate, 16% sulfate and other impurities. Later in the century, the cartel ended as new potash producers emerged in the USSR and Canada. In 1943, potash

2600-514: Was first derived in 1807 by electrolysis of caustic potash ( potassium hydroxide ). Potash refers to potassium compounds and potassium-bearing materials, most commonly potassium carbonate. The word "potash" originates from the Middle Dutch potaschen , denoting "pot ashes" in 1477. The old method of making potassium carbonate ( K 2 CO 3 ) was by collecting or producing wood ash (the occupation of ash burners ), leaching

2652-413: Was named by A.D. Baillie in 1953 based on a core from a well (Imperial Davidson No. 1, 16-8-27-1W3) that was drilled in southern Saskatchewan. There are no geophysical well logs for that core, however, and some intervals were removed for analysis, so in 1969 M.E. Holter designated a more complete reference section from another well (White Rose et al. Drake 4-29-32-22W2) to supplement it. The formation

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2704-419: Was to burn any wood not needed for fuel or construction. Ashes from hardwood trees could then be used to make lye , which could either be used to make soap or boiled down to produce valuable potash. Hardwood could generate ashes at the rate of 60 to 100 bushels per acre (500 to 900 m /km ). In 1790, the sale of ashes could generate $ 3.25 to $ 6.25 per acre ($ 800 to $ 1,500/km ) in rural New York State – nearly

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