101-742: According to the Jain cosmology , the Śalākāpuruṣa ( Sanskrit : शलाकापुरुष ) "illustrious or worthy persons" are 63 illustrious beings who appear during each half-time cycle. They are also known as the triṣaṣṭiśalākāpuruṣa (63 illustrious persons). The Jain universal or legendary history is a compilation of the deeds of these illustrious persons. Their life stories are said to be most inspiring. The śalākāpuruṣa comprise 24 Tirthankaras (Teaching Gods), twelve Chakravartin (universal monarchs, emperors of six continents), nine Balabhadras (gentle heroes), nine Narayanas (warrior heroes) and nine Prati-narayanas (anti-heroes). According to Jain cosmology , time
202-408: A tirthankara . According to the texts, he was born as Marichi (the son of Bharata Chakravartin ) in a previous life. Yativṛṣabha 's Tiloya-paṇṇatti recounts nearly all the events of Mahavira's life in a form convenient for memorisation. Jinasena's Mahapurana (which includes the Ādi purāṇa and Uttara-purāṇa ) was completed by his disciple, Gunabhadra , in the 8th century. In
303-575: A "very elaborate belief in the soul" (unlike the Buddhists, who denied such elaboration). His ascetic teachings have a higher order of magnitude than those of Buddhism or Hinduism, and his emphasis on ahimsa (non-violence) is greater than that in other Indian religions. Mahavira's teachings were compiled by Gautama Swami , his Ganadhara (chief disciple). The canonical scriptures are in twelve parts. Mahavira's teachings were gradually lost after about 300 BCE, according to Jain tradition, when
404-650: A Tirthankara sees 16 auspicious dreams (14 dreams in some traditions) when the soul descends into her womb. The mother of a Vasudeva sees seven dreams, while that of a Balabhadra sees only four dreams. The mother of a Prati-vasudeva sees no dreams. Certain Jain texts also depict the comparative powers of Salakapurusas in the following manner: In Jain universal history, other than these 63 Salakapurusa, there are other classes of 106 people who, though not depicted as salakapurusas, are important enough to be mentioned separately. They are: Jain cosmology Jain cosmology
505-503: A banner of palm tree. Their symbols or weapons are: bow, plough, pestle and arrow. The two brothers are inseparable and they jointly rule three continents as half-Chakravarti. Although Narayana is the mightier of the two, Balabhadra is depicted as superior for his non-violent ways and he achieves liberation. According to the Jain puranas , the Balabhadras lead an ideal Jain life. Out of nine Balabhadra , eight attain liberation and
606-399: A better rebirth, or (ultimately) liberation. According to Chakravarthi, these teachings help improve a person's quality of life. However, Dundas writes that Mahavira's emphasis on non-violence and restraint has been interpreted by some Jain scholars to "not be driven by merit from giving or compassion to other creatures, nor a duty to rescue all creatures" but by "continual self discipline":
707-456: A cleansing of the soul which leads to spiritual development and release. Mahavira is best remembered in the Indian traditions for his teaching that ahimsa is the supreme moral virtue. He taught that ahimsa covers all living beings, and injuring any being in any form creates bad karma (which affects one's rebirth, future well-being, and suffering). According to Mahatma Gandhi , Mahavira
808-420: A creator made the world. The doctrine that the world was created is ill advised and should be rejected. If God created the world, where was he before the creation? If you say he was transcendent then and needed no support, where is he now? How could God have made this world without any raw material? If you say that he made this first, and then the world, you are faced with an endless regression. According to Jains,
909-435: A doctrine about the nature of reality and human existence, not about tolerating religious positions such as sacrificing animals (or killing them for food) or violence against nonbelievers (or any other living being) as "perhaps right". The five vows for Jain monks and nuns are strict requirements, with no "perhaps". Mahavira's Jainism co-existed with Buddhism and Hinduism beyond the renunciant Jain communities, but each religion
1010-451: A few other important classes of 106 persons are recognized: Mahavira Mahavira ( Devanagari : महावीर, Mahāvīra ), also known as Vardhamana (Devanagari: वर्धमान, Vardhamāna ), was the 24th Tirthankara (Supreme Preacher) of Jainism . He was the spiritual successor of the 23rd Tirthankara Parshvanatha . Mahavira was born in the early 6th century BCE to a royal Kshatriya Jain family of ancient India . His mother's name
1111-452: A few years later". The place of his nirvana, Pavapuri in present-day Bihar, is a pilgrimage site for Jains. According to Jain cosmology , 24 Tirthankaras have appeared on earth; Mahavira is the last tirthankara of Avasarpiṇī (the present time cycle ). A tirthankara ( ford -maker, saviour or spiritual teacher) signifies the founding of a tirtha , a passage across the sea of birth-and-death cycles . Tirthankara Mahavira
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#17328013046181212-443: A fire, or wave their arms in the air; such actions might injure other beings living in those states of matter. Mahavira preached that the nature of existence is cyclic, and the soul is reborn after death in one of the trilok – the heavenly, hellish, or earthly realms of existence and suffering. Humans are reborn, depending on one's karma (actions) as a human, animal, element, microbe, or other form, on earth or in
1313-503: A half years in which he did not even sit for a time, attained Kevalgyana and then preached Dharma for thirty years. Where he preached has been a subject of disagreement between the two major traditions of Jainism: Śvētāmbara and Digambara traditions. It is uncertain when Mahavira was born and when he died. One view is that Mahavira was born in 540 BCE and died in 443 BCE. The Barli Inscription in Prakrit language which
1414-410: A half years, after which he attained Kevala Jnana (omniscience). He preached for 30 years and attained moksha (liberation) in the 6th century BCE, although the year varies by sect . Mahavira taught attainment of samyak darshan or self realization through the practice of bhedvijnāna , which involves positioning oneself as a pure soul, separate from body, mind and emotions, and being aware of
1515-454: A heavenly (or hellish) realm. Nothing is permanent; everyone (including gods, demons and earthly beings) dies and is reborn, based on their actions in their previous life. Jinas who have reached Kevala Jnana ( omniscience ) are not reborn; they enter the siddhaloka , the "realm of the perfected ones". Mahavira is erroneously called the founder of Jainism, but Jains believe that the 23 previous tirthankaras also espoused it. Mahavira
1616-484: A key role in the progression towards self-realization. It serves as a stepping stone in the process of spiritual awakening, where the aspirant first becomes aware of their mistaken identity with the non-soul as their witness ( bhed-nasti ), and later become aware of the existence and true nature of the soul itself ( asti ). This process ultimately leads to the direct experience of the soul in a state of pure awareness, destroying karmic attachments. In Jainism, this knowledge
1717-420: A mind. These can be under-developed or developed, a total of 14. Human beings can get any form of existence, but can only attain salvation in a human form. The early Jains contemplated the nature of the earth and universe. They developed a detailed hypothesis on the various aspects of astronomy and cosmology. According to the Jain texts, the universe is divided into 3 parts: The following Upanga āgamas describe
1818-453: A number of aspects. Reality can be experienced, but it is impossible to express it fully with language alone; human attempts to communicate are nayas ("partial expression[s] of the truth"). Language itself is not truth, but a means of expressing it. From truth, according to Mahavira, language returns—not the other way around. One can experience the "truth" of a taste, but cannot fully express that taste through language. Any attempt to express
1919-415: A part of the same cycle of birth and death. The goal of spiritual practice is to liberate the jiva from its karmic accumulation and enter the realm of the siddhas , souls who are liberated from rebirth. Enlightenment, to Mahavira, is the consequence of self awareness, self-cultivation and restraint from materialism. Mahavira also taught the concept of Bhedvijnān, or the science of distinguishing between
2020-491: A piece of burning camphor. Mahavira's previous births are recounted in Jain texts such as the Mahapurana and Tri-shashti-shalaka-purusha-charitra . Although a soul undergoes countless reincarnations in the transmigratory cycle of saṃsāra , the birth of a tirthankara is reckoned from the time he determines the causes of karma and pursues ratnatraya . Jain texts describe Mahavira's 26 births before his incarnation as
2121-533: A severe famine in the Magadha kingdom dispersed the Jain monks. Attempts were made by later monks to gather, recite the canon, and re-establish it. These efforts identified differences in recitations of Mahavira's teachings, and an attempt was made in the 5th century CE to reconcile the differences. The reconciliation efforts failed, with Svetambara and Digambara Jain traditions holding their own incomplete, somewhat-different versions of Mahavira's teachings. In
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#17328013046182222-424: A woman is unable to fully practice asceticism and cannot achieve spiritual liberation because of her gender; she can, at best, live an ethical life so she is reborn as a man. According to this view, women are seen as a threat to a monk's chastity. Mahavira had preached about men and women equality. The Svetambaras have interpreted Mahavira's teaching as encouraging both sexes to pursue a mendicant, ascetic life with
2323-443: Is a constant increase and decrease in the breadth, and the space is 239 cubic Rajlok . Apart from the apex, which is the abode of liberated beings, the universe is divided into three parts. The world is surrounded by three atmospheres: dense-water, dense-wind and thin-wind. It is then surrounded by an infinitely large non-world which is completely empty. The whole world is said to be filled with living beings. In all three parts, there
2424-718: Is an emperor of the world and lord of the material realm. Though he possesses worldly power, he often finds his ambitions dwarfed by the vastness of the cosmos. Jain puranas give a list of twelve chakravartins (universal monarchs). They are golden in complexion. One of the chakravartins mentioned in Jain scriptures is Bharata Chakravartin . Jain texts like Harivamsa Purana and Hindu Texts like Vishnu Purana state that Indian subcontinent came to be known as Bharata varsha in his memory. There are nine sets of balabhadra , narayana , and pratinarayana . The balabhadra and narayana are brothers. Balabhadra are nonviolent heroes, narayana are violent heroes, and pratinarayana
2525-454: Is bound to saṃsāra (transmigration) because of karma (the effects of one's actions). Karma, in Jainism, includes actions and intent; it colors the soul ( lesya ), affecting how, where, and as what a soul is reborn after death. According to Mahavira, there is no creator deity and existence has neither beginning nor end. Deities and demons however exist in Jainism , whose jivas are
2626-470: Is broad at the top, narrow at the middle and once again becomes broad at the bottom. According to Jains, the Universe is made up of six simple and eternal substances called dravya which are broadly categorized under Jiva (Living Substances) and Ajiva (Non Living Substances) as follows: Jīva (Living Substances) Ajīva (Non-Living Substances) Conventional time ( vyavahāra kāla ) is perceived by
2727-574: Is called Nigantha Nātaputta), and is a key difference between the teachings of Mahavira and those of the Buddha. The Buddha taught the Middle Way , rejecting the extremes of "it is" or "it is not"; Mahavira accepted both "it is" and "it is not", with reconciliation and the qualification of "perhaps". The Jain Agamas suggest that Mahavira's approach to answering metaphysical , philosophical questions
2828-668: Is celebrated as Mahavir Janma Kalyanak and his nirvana (liberation) and also his first shishya of Gautama Swami is observed by Jains as Diwali . Historically, Mahavira, who revived and preached Jainism in ancient India, was an older contemporary of Gautama Buddha . Jains celebrate Mahavir Janma Kalyanak every year on the 13th day of the Indian Calendar month of Chaitra . Surviving early Jain and Buddhist literature uses several names (or epithets ) for Mahavira, including Nayaputta , Muni , Samana , Nigantha , Brahman , and Bhagavan . In early Buddhist sutras , he
2929-457: Is considered the foundation for developing right belief (samyak darshan) and attaining samyak gyan ( omniscience ). Mahavira taught the doctrine of anekantavada (many-sided reality). Although the word does not appear in the earliest Jain literature or the Agamas, the doctrine is illustrated in Mahavira's answers to questions posed by his followers. Truth and reality are complex, and have
3030-472: Is further sub-divided into six aras or epochs of unequal periods. Currently, the time cycle is in avasarpiṇī or descending phase with the following epochs. In utsarpiṇī the order of the eras is reversed. Starting from duṣamā-duṣamā , it ends with suṣamā-suṣamā and thus this never ending cycle continues. By the calculation of height, we are 11,000 years into the Duḥṣamā ara. Each of these aras progress into
3131-599: Is often translated as illustrious persons or worthy persons or mighty persons. It is derived from the Sanskrit compound of words Salaka and purusa . " Purusa " means person, but " salaka " is of ambiguous etymology in this context. The primary meaning of the word salaka (Sanskrit: Śalākā , Pali: salākā , Prakrit: salāgā , salāyā ) is "stick". In the Buddhist context it meant a ticket consisting of wooden sticks meant for voting or to distribute food; but in Jain context it
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3232-468: Is placed in Parshvanatha's lineage as his spiritual successor and ultimate leader of shraman sangha. Parshvanatha was born 273 years before Mahavira. Parshvanatha , a tirthankara whom modern Western historians consider a historical figure, lived in about the 8th century BCE. Jain texts suggest that Mahavira's parents were lay devotees of Parshvanatha. When Mahavira revived the Jain community in
3333-487: Is possible and the Tirthankaras preach the Jain doctrine. The other three zones, Ramyaka Kshetra, Hairanyavata Kshetra, and Haimavata Kshetra are known as akarmabhumi or bhogabhumi as humans live a sinless life of pleasure and no religion or liberation is possible. Nandishvara Dvipa is not the edge of cosmos, but it is beyond the reach of humans. Humans can reside only on Jambudvipa , Dhatatikhanda Dvipa , and
3434-522: Is referred to as Araha ("worthy") and Veyavi (derived from "Vedas", but meaning "wise"). He is known as Sramana in the Kalpa Sūtra , "devoid of love and hate". According to later Jain texts, Mahavira's childhood name was Vardhamāna ("the one who grows") because of the kingdom's prosperity at the time of his birth. According to the Kalpasutras , he was called Mahavira ("the great hero") by
3535-566: Is revered as the twenty fourth tīrthankara of avasarpiṇī . Jain texts state that Jainism has always existed and will always exist. During each motion of the half-cycle of the wheel of time, 63 Śalākāpuruṣa or 63 illustrious men, consisting of the 24 Tīrthaṅkaras and their contemporaries regularly appear. The Jain universal or legendary history is basically a compilation of the deeds of these illustrious men. They are categorised as follows: Balabhadra and Narayana are half brothers who jointly rule over three continents. Besides these,
3636-528: Is said to have lived in Rajagriha during the rainy season of the forty-first year of his ascetic life, which is traditionally dated to 491 BCE. According to traditional accounts, Mahavira achieved Kevala Jnana (omniscience, or infinite knowledge) under a Sāla tree on the bank of the River Rijubalika near Jrimbhikagrama at age 43 after twelve years of rigorous penance. The details of
3737-442: Is seven Rajlok s long at the bottom and decreases gradually towards the middle, where it is one Rajlok long . The width then increases gradually until it is five Rajloks long and again decreases until it is one Rajlok long. The apex of the universe is one Rajlok long, one Rajlok wide and eight Rajloks high. The total space of the world is thus 343 cubic Rajlok s. The Svetambara view differs slightly and postulates that there
3838-513: Is supported by much ancient Buddhist literature. A firmly-established part of the Jain tradition is that the Vira Nirvana Samvat era began in 527 BCE (with Mahavira's nirvana). The 12th-century Jain scholar Hemachandracharya placed Mahavira in the 6th century BCE. According to Jain tradition, the traditional date of 527 BCE is accurate; the Buddha was younger than Mahavira and "might have attained nirvana
3939-509: Is the description of the shape and functioning of the Universe ( loka ) and its constituents (such as living beings, matter, space, time etc.) according to Jainism . Jain cosmology considers the universe as an uncreated entity that has existed since infinity with neither beginning nor end. Jain texts describe the shape of the universe as similar to a man standing with legs apart and arms resting on his waist. This Universe, according to Jainism,
4040-458: Is the emperor of the world, lord of the material realm. Though he possesses worldly power, he often finds his ambitions dwarfed by the enormity of the cosmos. Jain purunas give a list of 12 Chakravartins who flourished in this descending time cycle. Golden in complexion, they all belonged to Kasyapa gotra. One of the greatest Chakravartis mentioned in Jain scriptures is Bharata in whose memory India came to be known as "Bharata-varsha". After conquering
4141-475: Is the existence of very small living beings called nigoda. Nigoda are of two types: nitya-nigoda and Itara-nigoda. Nitya-nigoda are those which will reincarnate as nigoda throughout eternity, where as Itara-nigoda will be reborn as other beings. The mobile region of universe (Trasnaadi) is one Rajlok wide, one Rajlok broad and fourteen Rajlok s high. Within this region, there are animals and plants everywhere, where as human beings are restricted to 2 continents of
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4242-530: Is the focus of Jain temple devotion. Of the 24 tirthankaras , Jain iconography has celebrated Mahavira and Parshvanatha the most; sculptures discovered at the Mathura archaeological site have been dated to the 1st century BCE. According to Moriz Winternitz , Mahavira may be considered a reformer of an existing Jain sect known as Niganthas (fetter-less) which was mentioned in early Buddhist texts. The Barli Inscription dating back to 443 BCE contains
4343-400: Is without beginning and eternal. The Kālacakra , the cosmic wheel of time, rotates ceaselessly. The wheel of time is divided into two half-rotations, Utsarpiṇī or ascending time cycle and Avasarpiṇī , the descending time cycle, occurring continuously after each other. Utsarpiṇī is a period of progressive prosperity and happiness where the time spans and ages are at an increasing scale while
4444-559: The Avasarpiṇī is a period of increasing sorrow and immorality with decline in time spans of the epochs. During each such time cycle, these 63 illustrious persons appear and establish the religion and order in society. According to Jain cosmology, since time is eternal, infinite kalacakras have elapsed and will occur in future and hence infinite sets of these 63 illustrious persons have appeared, and will appear, to establish order and religion in their respective eras. The word salakapurusa
4545-421: The mahavratas (Five Vows). He delivered fifty-five pravachana (recitations) and a set of lectures ( Uttaraadhyayana-sutra ). Chandana is believed to be the leader of female monastic order. According to Jain texts, Mahavira's nirvana (death) occurred in the town of Pawapuri in present-day Bihar . His life as a spiritual light and the night of his nirvana are commemorated by Jains as Diwali at
4646-434: The Ācārāṅga Sūtra recounts his asceticism. Colonial-era Indologists considered Jainism (and Mahavira's followers) a sect of Buddhism because of superficial similarities in iconography and meditative and ascetic practices. As scholarship progressed, differences between the teachings of Mahavira and the Buddha were found so divergent that the religions were acknowledged as separate. Mahavira, says Moriz Winternitz, taught
4747-603: The Gregorian calendar , and is celebrated by Jains as Mahavir Janma Kalyanak . Kshatriyakund (the place of Mahavira's birth) is traditionally believed to be near Vaishali, an ancient town on the Indo-Gangetic Plain . Its location in present-day Bihar is unclear, partly because of migrations from ancient Bihar for economic and political reasons. According to the "Universal History" in Jain texts, Mahavira underwent many rebirths (total 27 births) before his birth in
4848-543: The Jain Agamas . The texts, transmitted orally by Jain monks, are believed to have been largely lost by about the 1st century CE. Mahavira is usually depicted in a sitting or standing meditative posture, with the symbol of a lion beneath him. His earliest iconography is from archaeological sites in the North Indian city of Mathura , and is dated from between the 1st century BCE and the 2nd century CE. His birth
4949-675: The Jinacharitra (lives of the Jina s) by Bhadrabahu (3–4th century BCE). A notable hagiography of these individuals is Hemachandra 's Triṣaṣṭiśalākāpuruṣacaritra . The following Jain texts chronicle the deeds of the salakapurusas : All traditions of Jainism now agree to the figure of 63 salakapurusas . However, the number of persons is 60 as three persons ( Shantinath , Kunthunath and Aranath ) were Chakravartins who later on became Tirthankaras . Tīrthankaras (also known as Jinas ) are Arhatas who are teachers and revivers of
5050-458: The Uttara-purāṇa , Mahavira's life is described in three parvans , or sections, (74–76) and 1,818 verses. Vardhamacharitra is a Sanskrit kāvya poem, written by Asaga in 853 CE , which narrates the life of Mahavira. The Kalpa Sūtra is a collection of biographies of tirthankaras , notably Parshvanatha and Mahavira. Samavayanga Sutra is a collection of Mahavira's teachings, and
5151-421: The 1st century CE, guided the Āchāryas Pushpadant and Bhutabali as they wrote down the teachings. The two Āchāryas wrote Ṣaṭkhaṅḍāgama , among the oldest-known Digambara texts, on palm leaves. The Jain Agamas enumerate five vratas (vows) which ascetics and householders must observe. These ethical principles were preached by Mahavira: The goal of these principles is to achieve spiritual peace,
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#17328013046185252-415: The 6th century BCE, ahimsa was already an established, strictly observed rule. The followers of Parshvanatha vowed to observe ahimsa ; this obligation was part of their caujjama dhamma (Fourfold Restraint). According to Dundas, Jains believe that the lineage of Parshvanatha influenced Mahavira. Parshvanatha, as the one who "removes obstacles and has the capacity to save", is a popular icon; his image
5353-418: The 6th-century BCE. They included a denizen of hell, a lion, and a god ( deva ) in a heavenly realm just before his last birth as the 24th tirthankara . Svetambara texts state that his embryo first formed in a Brahman woman before it was transferred by Hari-Naigamesin (the divine commander of Indra's army) to the womb of Trishala, Siddhartha's wife. The embryo-transfer legend is not believed by adherents of
5454-510: The Anuttara abodes, at the apex of the universe is the realm of the liberated souls, the perfected omniscient and blissful beings, who are venerated by the Jains. Madhya Loka consists of 900 yojanas above and 900 yojanas below earth surface. It is inhabited by: Madhyaloka consists of many continent-islands surrounded by oceans, first eight whose names are: Mount Meru (also Sumeru ) is at
5555-653: The Digambara believe that he remained in his Samavasarana and delivered sermons to his followers. Jain texts document eleven Brahmanas as Mahavira's first disciples, traditionally known as the eleven Ganadharas . Indrabhuti Gautama is believed to have been their leader, and the others included Agnibhuti, Vayubhuti, Akampita, Arya Vyakta, Sudharman , Manditaputra, Mauryaputra, Acalabhraataa, Metraya, and Prabhasa. The Ganadharas are believed to have remembered and to have verbally transmitted Mahavira's teachings after his death. His teachings became known as Gani-Pidaga , or
5656-461: The Digambara tradition holds that date of 468 BCE. In both traditions, his jiva (soul) is believed to abide in Siddhashila (the home of liberated souls). Mahavira's Jal Mandir stands at the place where he is said to have attained nirvana ( moksha ). Artworks in Jain temples and texts depict his final liberation and cremation, sometimes shown symbolically as a small pyre of sandalwood and
5757-477: The Digambara tradition. Jain texts state that after Mahavira was born, the god Indra came from the heavens along with 56 digkumaries , anointed him, and performed his abhisheka (consecration) on Mount Meru . These events, illustrated in a number of Jain temples, play a part in modern Jain temple rituals. Although the Kalpa Sūtra accounts of Mahavira's birth legends are recited by Svetambara Jains during
5858-495: The Hindu Puranas, the names Balabhadra and Narayana are not restricted to Balarama and Krishna in Jain puranas. Instead they serve as names of two distinct classes of mighty half brothers, who appear nine times in each half of the time cycles of the Jain cosmology and jointly rule half the earth as half-chakravarti. Ultimately Prati-naryana is killed by Narayana for his unrighteousness and immorality. Jaini traces
5959-503: The Jain Agamas . According to Kalpa Sutra , Mahavira had 14,000 sadhus (male ascetic devotees), 36,000 sadhvis (female ascetics), 159,000 sravakas (male lay followers), and 318,000 sravikas (female lay followers). Jain tradition mentions Srenika and Kunika of Haryanka dynasty (popularly known as Bimbisara and Ajatashatru ) and Chetaka of Videha as his royal followers. Mahavira initiated his mendicants with
6060-1053: The Jain cosmology and geography in a great detail: Additionally, the following texts describe the Jain cosmology and related topics in detail: The Upper World (Urdhva Loka) is divided into different abodes and are the realms of the heavenly beings (Gods) who are non-liberated souls. The Upper World is divided into sixteen Kalpas, nine Graiveyaka, nine Anudisha, and five Anuttara abodes: The sixteen Kalpa abodes are: Saudharma, Aishana, Sanatkumara, Mahendra, Brahma, Brahmottara, Lantava, Kapishta, Shukra, Mahashukra, Shatara, Sahasrara, Anata, Pranata, Arana, and Achyuta. The nine Graiveyaka abodes are Sudarshana, Amogha, Suprabuddha, Yashodhara, Subhadra, Suvishala, Sumanasa, Saumanasa. and Pritikara. The nine Anudisha abodes are Aditya, Archi, Archimalini, Vaira, Vairochana, Sauma, Saumarupa, Arka, and Sphatika. The five Anuttara abodes are Vijaya, Vaijayanta, Jayanta, Aparajita, and Sarvarthasiddhi. The sixteen heavens in Devalokas are also called Kalpas and
6161-430: The Jain philosophy. There are 24 Tīrthankaras in each half time cycle; Mahāvīra was the 24th and last Tīrthankara of the current descending time cycle and Rishabhanatha was the first Tirthankara. Tīrthankaras are literally "the ford makers", who have shown the way to cross the ocean of rebirth and transmigration and hence have become a focus of reverence and worship amongst Jains. The Tirthankara provides all creatures with
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#17328013046186262-528: The annual Paryushana festival, the same festival is observed by the Digambaras without the recitation. Mahavira grew up as a prince. According to the second chapter of the Śvētāmbara text Ācārāṅga Sūtra , his parents were lay devotees of Parshvanatha . Jain traditions differ about whether Mahavira married. The Digambara tradition believes that his parents wanted him to marry Yashoda, but he refused to marry. The Śvētāmbara tradition believes that he
6363-487: The biographies of the Tirthankaras . Kalpasutra gives the names and brief biographies of only tirthankaras. It does not use the word salakapurusa s or mention them by name, but does say that the categories of Arihants , Chakravartins , Balabhadras and Vasudevas are always born in royal families, thus foreshadowing 54 of the 63 salakapurusas . Furthermore, Jaini traces the origin of list of Baladeva and Vasudeva to
6464-596: The centre of the world surrounded by Jambūdvīpa , in form of a circle forming a diameter of 100,000 yojanas. There are two sets of sun, moon and stars revolving around Mount Meru; while one set works, the other set rests behind the Mount Meru. The Jambūdvīpa continent has 6 mighty mountains, dividing the continent into 7 zones (kshetras). The names of these zones are: The three zones of Bharata Kshetra, Mahavideha Kshetra, and Airavata Kshetra are also known as karmabhumi because practice of austerities and liberation
6565-417: The descending time cycle, occurring continuously after each other. Utsarpiṇī is a period of progressive prosperity and happiness where the time spans and ages are at an increasing scale, while Avsarpiṇī is a period of increasing sorrow and immorality with decline in timespans of the epochs. Each of this half time cycle consisting of innumerable period of time (measured in sagaropama and palyopama years)
6666-453: The early centuries of the common era, Jain texts containing Mahavira's teachings were written in palm-leaf manuscripts . According to the Digambaras, Āchārya Bhutabali was the last ascetic with partial knowledge of the original canon. Later, some learned achāryas restored, compiled, and wrote down the teachings of Mahavira which were the subjects of the Agamas . Āchārya Dharasena, in
6767-571: The event are described in the Jain Uttar-purāņa and Harivamśa-purāņa texts. The Ācārāṅga Sūtra describes Mahavira as all-seeing. The Sutrakritanga expands it to all-knowing, and describes his other qualities. Jains believe that Mahavira had a most auspicious body ( paramaudārika śarīra ) and was free from eighteen imperfections when he attained omniscience. According to the Śvētāmbara, he traveled throughout India to teach his philosophy for thirty years after attaining omniscience. However,
6868-472: The experience is syāt : valid "in some respect", but still a "perhaps, just one perspective, incomplete". Spiritual truths are also complex, with multiple aspects, and language cannot express their plurality; however, they can be experienced through effort and appropriate karma. Mahavira's anekantavada doctrine is also summarized in Buddhist texts such as the Samaññaphala Sutta (in which he
6969-483: The false identification of the soul with material objects, including the body and mind. The teachings of bhedvijnān guide an individual to recognize what is truly the soul and what is not. By distinguishing between the pure soul and the transient elements of life, one can cultivate detachment (vairagya) and move toward liberation (moksha). This was expounded in detail in works of Acharya Kundkund , Acharya Haribhadra , Yashovijaya and Shrimad Rajchandra . Bhedvigyan plays
7070-647: The gods in the Kalpa Sūtra because he remained steadfast in the midst of dangers, fears, hardships and calamities. He is also known as a tirthankara . It is universally accepted by scholars of Jainism that Mahavira lived in ancient India. According to the Digambara Uttarapurana text, Mahavira was born in Kundagrama in the Kingdom of the Videhas ; the Śvētāmbara Kalpa Sūtra uses
7171-408: The human realm to discover and teach the Jain doctrine appropriate for that era. The word tīrthankara signifies the founder of a tirtha , which means a fordable passage across a sea. The tīrthaṅkaras show the 'fordable path' across the sea of interminable births and deaths. Rishabhanatha is said to be the first tīrthankara of the present half-cycle ( avasarpiṇī ). Mahāvīra (6th century BC)
7272-420: The impulse of their own karmas . According to Jain texts, sixty-three illustrious beings, called śalākāpuruṣas , are born on this earth in every Dukhama-sukhamā ara . The Jain universal history is a compilation of the deeds of these illustrious persons. They comprise twenty-four Tīrthaṅkaras , twelve chakravartins , nine balabhadra , nine narayana , and nine pratinarayana . A chakravartī
7373-429: The inner half of Pushkara Dvipa . The lower world consists of seven hells , which are inhabited by Bhavanpati demigods and the hellish beings. Hellish beings reside in the following hells: According to Jainism, time is beginningless and eternal. The Kālacakra , the cosmic wheel of time, rotates ceaselessly. The wheel of time is divided into two half-rotations, Utsarpiṇī or ascending time cycle and Avasarpiṇī ,
7474-762: The last one goes to heaven. On the other hand, Narayana go to hell on account of their violent exploits, even though they did these in order to uphold righteousness. The list of Baladeva, Vasudeva and Prativasudeva are: Out of the above five classes of illustrious persons, Tirthankaras are placed at the top. They establish the religion and attain liberation. The Chakravarti attain liberation if they renounce their kingdom, or else go to hell if they indulge in sensual pleasures. Next in rank are Baladevas who are gentle heroes and devout laymen, who attain liberation corresponding to Tirthankaras. Vasudevas are also devout Jain laymen and ultimately attain liberation, but are first reborn in hell because of their violent actions. The mother of
7575-556: The main battle is not the Mahabharata, but the fight between Krishna and Jarasandha who is killed by Krishna. According to Jain texts, Narayana are generally of dark complexion and wear yellow garments. There are seven weapons and symbols of Narayana , namely: conch, discus ( sudarshana chakra ), club, bow, sword, jewel (kaustubha mani) and a garland of flowers (vanamala). Baladevas, half-brothers of Vasudevas, are described as fair in complexion and wear garments of dark blue and have
7676-409: The means to liberate the soul from the confines of the body and to rise towards bliss, enlightenment and release from the eternal cycle of rebirth. He advocates continence, truth, non-violence, simplicity and purity for those who seek liberation. Tīrthankaras ultimately become Siddhas on liberation. The twenty four Tīrthankaras of this descending time cycle are: A Chakravartin (Universal Monarch)
7777-475: The middle world. The beings inhabiting the lower world are called Narak (Hellish beings). The Deva (roughly demi-gods) live in the whole of the top and middle worlds, and top three realms of the lower world. Living beings are divided in fourteen classes (Jivasthana) : Fine beings with one sense, crude beings with one sense, beings with two senses, beings with three senses, beings with four senses, beings with five senses and no mind, and beings with five senses and
7878-465: The nails and hair of tirthankaras are left behind; the rest of the body dissolves in the air like camphor . In some texts Mahavira is described, at age 72, as delivering his final preaching over a six-day period to a large group of people. The crowd falls asleep, awakening to find that he has disappeared (leaving only his nails and hair, which his followers cremate). The Jain Śvētāmbara tradition believes that Mahavira's nirvana occurred in 527 BCE, and
7979-401: The name "Kundagrama", said to be located in present-day Bihar, India. Although it is thought to be the town of Basu Kund, about 60 kilometres (37 miles) north of Patna (the capital of Bihar), his birthplace remains a subject of dispute. Mahavira renounced his material wealth and left home when he was twenty-eight, by some accounts (thirty by others), lived an ascetic life for twelve and
8080-429: The next phase seamlessly without any apocalyptic consequences. The increase or decrease in the happiness, life spans and length of people and general moral conduct of the society changes in a phased and graded manner as the time passes. No divine or supernatural beings are credited or responsible with these spontaneous temporal changes, either in a creative or overseeing role, rather human beings and creatures are born under
8181-631: The origin of this list of brothers to the Jinacaritra (lives of the Jinas ) by Bhadrabahu swami (3–4th century BCE). Jain Ramayana is based on the stories of Rama , Lakshmana and Ravana who are the eighth Baladeva , Narayana , Pratinarayana and respectively. Similarly Harivamsa Purana is based on the stories of Balarama , Krishna and Jarasandha , who are the ninth and the last set of Balabhadra , Narayana , and Pratinarayana . However,
8282-492: The possibility of moksha ( kaivalya , spiritual liberation). Rebirth and realms of existence are fundamental teachings of Mahavira. According to the Acaranga Sutra , Mahavira believed that life existed in myriad forms which included animals, plants, insects, bodies of water, fire, and wind. He taught that a monk should avoid touching or disturbing any of them (including plants) and never swim, light (or extinguish)
8383-602: The pursuit of spiritual awakening. He undertook severe fasts and bodily mortifications, meditated under the Ashoka tree , and discarded his clothes. The Ācārāṅga Sūtra has a graphic description of his hardships and self-mortification. According to the Kalpa Sūtra , Mahavira spent the first forty-two monsoons of his life in Astikagrama, Champapuri , Prstichampa, Vaishali, Vanijagrama, Nalanda , Mithila , Bhadrika, Alabhika, Panitabhumi, Shravasti , and Pawapuri . He
8484-787: The rest are called Kalpatitas. Those living in Kalpatitas are called Ahamindra and are equal in grandeur. There is increase with regard to the lifetime, influence of power, happiness, lumination of body, purity in thought-colouration, capacity of the senses and range of clairvoyance in the heavenly beings residing in the higher abodes. But there is decrease with regard to motion, stature, attachment and pride. The higher groups, dwelling in nine Graiveyaka and five Anuttara abodes are independent and dwell in their own vehicles. The Anuttara souls attain liberation within one or two lifetimes. The lower groups, organized like earthly kingdoms—rulers (Indra), counselors, guards, queens, followers, armies etc. Above
8585-542: The root meaning of voting sticks and concludes that a salakapurusa is a great person, as his greatness has been accepted by general public. Certain Śvētāmbara texts use the word Baladeva , Vāsudeva and Prativasudeva to refer Balabhadra , Narayana and Pratinarayana respectively. A 1975 treatise, detailing Mahavira 's life and doctrine seems to imply the voting-etymology of the word, i.e. they are called salakapurusa , because they are men-that-count. The tradition of salakapurusas or Jain universal history started with
8686-549: The same time that Hindus celebrate it. His chief disciple, Gautama, is said to have attained omniscience the night that Mahavira achieved nirvana from Pawapuri. Accounts of Mahavira's nirvana vary among Jain texts, with some describing a simple nirvana and others recounting grandiose celebrations attended by gods and kings. According to the Jinasena 's Mahapurana , heavenly beings arrived to perform his funeral rites. The Pravachanasara of Digambara tradition says that only
8787-432: The senses through the transformations and modifications of substances. Real time ( niścaya kāla ), however, is the cause of imperceptible, minute changes (called vartanā ) that go on incessantly in all substances. The Jain doctrine postulates an eternal and ever-existing world which works on universal natural laws. The existence of a creator deity is overwhelmingly opposed in the Jain doctrine. Some foolish men declare that
8888-473: The soul (jiva) and the non-soul (ajiva). Central to his teachings, bhedvijnān is the practice of realizing the distinction between the pure soul, which is eternal, formless, and independent, and the temporary, external aspects of existence such as body, thoughts, emotions, and karmic influences. According to Mahavira, this understanding is crucial for attainment of nischay Samyak darshan (experiential self realization). He emphasized that human suffering arises from
8989-566: The soul's true nature; and to remain grounded and steadfast in soul's unchanging essence during varying auspicious or inauspicious external circumstances. He also preached that the observance of the vows of ahimsa (non-violence), satya (truth), asteya (non-stealing), brahmacharya (chastity), and aparigraha (non-attachment) are necessary for spiritual liberation. He taught the principles of Anekantavada (many-sided reality): syadvada and nayavada . Mahavira's teachings were compiled by Indrabhuti Gautama (his chief disciple) as
9090-420: The universe has a firm and an unalterable shape, which is measured in the Jain texts by means of a unit called Rajlok , which is supposed to be very large. This unit of measurement is the distance covered by a god flying at ten million miles per second for six months. The Digambara sect of Jainism postulates that the universe is fourteen Rajloks high and extends seven Rajloks from north to south. Its breadth
9191-487: The villains. According to the legends, the narayana ultimately kill the pratinarayana . Of the nine balabhadra , eight attain liberation and the last goes to heaven. On death, the narayana go to hell because of their violent exploits, even if these were intended to uphold righteousness. Jain cosmology divides the worldly cycle of time into two parts ( avasarpiṇī and utsarpiṇī ). According to Jain belief, in every half-cycle of time, twenty-four tīrthaṅkaras are born in
9292-483: The whole world, King Bharata, brimming with pride, sought to inscribe his great feat on the slopes of Mount Meru. To his great dismay, he found the names of many other kings carved on Meru. Like him, they too had conquered the world. He was not the first man to do so. He was not the last. There were many before him, there were many after him. Bharata, humbled by the experience, returned to his kingdom to do his duty, aware that his actions were not unique and that his existence
9393-399: Was Trishala and his father's name was Siddhartha . According to the second chapter of the Śvētāmbara Ācārāṅga Sūtra , Siddhartha and his family were devotees of Parshvanatha . Mahavira abandoned all worldly possessions at the age of about 30 and left home in pursuit of spiritual awakening, becoming an ascetic . Mahavira practiced intense meditation and severe austerities for twelve and
9494-484: Was "highly critical of the knowledge systems and ideologies of their rivals". A historically contentious view in Jainism is partially attributed to Mahavira and his ascetic life; he did not wear clothing, as a sign of renunciation (the fifth vow, aparigraha ). It was disputed whether a female mendicant ( sadhvi ) could achieve the spiritual liberation like a male mendicant ( sadhu ) through asceticism. The digambar sect (the sky-clad, naked mendicant order) believed that
9595-544: Was a "qualified yes" ( syāt ). A version of this doctrine is also found in the Ajivika school of ancient Indian philosophy. According to Dundas, the anekantavada doctrine has been interpreted by many Jains as "promot[ing] a universal religious tolerance ... plurality ... [and a] ... benign attitude to other [ethical, religious] positions"; however, this misreads Jain historical texts and Mahavira's teachings. Mahavira's "many pointedness, multiple perspective" teachings are
9696-669: Was born into a royal Kshatriya family of King Siddhartha of the Ikshvaku Dynasty and Queen Trishala of the Licchavi republic . The Ikshvaku Dynasty was founded by the First tirthankara Rishabhanatha . According to Jains, Mahavira was born in 599 BCE. His birth date falls on the thirteenth day of the rising moon in the month of Chaitra in the Vira Nirvana Samvat calendar era . It falls in March or April of
9797-550: Was inscribed in 443 BCE (year 84 of the Vira Nirvana Samvat ), contains the line Viraya Bhagavate chaturasiti vase , which can be interpreted as "dedicated to Lord Vira in his 84th year", 84 years after the Nirvana of the Mahavira. However, palaeographic analysis dates the inscription to the 2nd-1st century BCE. According to Buddhist and Jain texts, Buddha and Mahavira are believed to have been contemporaries which
9898-663: Was married to Yashoda at a young age and had one daughter, Priyadarshana, also called Anojja. Jain texts portray Mahavira as tall; his height was given as four cubits (6 feet ) in the Aupapatika Sutra . According to Jain texts, he was the shortest of the twenty-four tirthankaras ; earlier arihants were believed to have been taller, with Neminatha or Aristanemi —the 22nd tirthankara , who lived for 1,000 years—said to have been sixty-five cubits (98 feet) in height. At age thirty, Mahavira abandoned royal life and left his home and family to live an ascetic life in
9999-528: Was not special. The names of the twelve Chakravartins as per Jain Texts are: In Jainism, a chakravarti was characterised by possession of saptaratna , or "seven jewels": Some texts cite navaratna or "nine jewels" instead, adding "prime minister" and "son". Some texts even further expands to 14 Ratna , jewels. In every half time cycle, there are 9 sets of Balabhadras (gentle heroes), Vasudevas (violent heroes) and Prativāsudevas (anti-heroes). Unlike in
10100-465: Was the greatest authority on ahimsa . Mahavira taught that the soul exists. There is no soul (or self) in Buddhism, and its teachings are based on the concept of anatta (non-self). Mahavira taught that the soul is dravya (substantial), eternal, and yet temporary. To Mahavira, the metaphysical nature of the universe consists of dravya , jiva , and ajiva (inanimate objects). The jiva
10201-430: Was used to mean a stick and also a measurement and when combined with "purusa" to denote great heroes. According to 11th century Jain author, monk Acharya Hemachandra , these persons are called salaka as they have been specially marked among men. This emphasised that the names of the salakapurusas were underlined or specially significant due to their deeds. John Cort also quotes another author, S. D. Parekh, who emphasises
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