188-528: The pre-Columbian (or prehispanic) history of the territory now making up the country of Mexico is known through the work of archaeologists and epigraphers , and through the accounts of Spanish conquistadores , settlers and clergymen as well as the indigenous chroniclers of the immediate post-conquest period. Human presence in the Mexican region was once thought to date back 40,000 years based upon what were believed to be ancient human footprints discovered in
376-548: A constitutional monarch from Europe. When no member of a European royal house desired the position, Iturbide himself was declared Emperor Agustín I. The United States was the first country to recognize Mexico's independence, sending an ambassador to the court and sending a message to Europe via the Monroe Doctrine not to intervene in Mexico. The emperor's rule was short (1822–1823) and he was overthrown by army officers in
564-765: A loincloth , sometimes augmented with leather hip guards. Loincloths are found on the earliest ballplayer figurines from Tlatilco, Tlapacoya, and the Olmec culture, are seen in the Weiditz drawing from 1528 (below), and, with hip guards, are the sole outfit of contemporary ulama players (above)—a span of nearly 3,000 years. In many cultures, further protection was provided by a thick girdle , most likely of wicker or wood covered in fabric or leather. Made of perishable materials, none of these girdles have survived, although many stone "yokes" have been uncovered. Misnamed by earlier archaeologists due to its resemblance to an animal yoke ,
752-491: A major conflict with the Catholic Church and Catholic guerrilla armies when he strictly enforced anticlerical articles of the 1917 Constitution which ended with an agreement. Although the constitution prohibited the reelection of the president, Obregón wished to run again and the constitution was amended to allow non-consecutive re-election and won the 1928 elections but was assassinated by a Catholic activist, causing
940-519: A ballcourt. The Mesoamerican ballgame was a ritual deeply ingrained in Mesoamerican cultures and served purposes beyond that of a mere sporting event. Fray Juan de Torquemada , a 16th-century Spanish missionary and historian, tells that the Aztec emperor Axayacatl played Xihuitlemoc , the leader of Xochimilco , wagering his annual income against several Xochimilco chinampas . Ixtlilxochitl ,
1128-453: A contemporary of Torquemada, relates that Topiltzin , the Toltec king, played against three rivals, with the winner ruling over the losers. These examples and others are cited by many researchers who have made compelling arguments that the game served as a way to defuse or resolve conflicts without genuine warfare, to settle disputes through a ballgame instead of a battle. Over time, then,
1316-495: A decade of civil war, the "wind that swept Mexico." The Mexican Revolution was a decade-long transformational conflict. It began with scattered uprisings against President Díaz after the fraudulent 1910 election, his resignation in May 1911, demobilization of rebel forces, an interim presidency of a member of the old guard and the democratic election of a rich, civilian landowner, Francisco I. Madero in fall 1911. In February 1913 ,
1504-431: A diverse and cosmopolitan population. Most of the regional ethnicities of Mexico were represented in the city. They lived in rural apartment communities where they worked their trades and contributed to the city's economic and cultural prowess. By AD 500, Teotihuacan had become one of the largest cities in the world with a population of 100,000 people. Teotihuacan's economic pull impacted areas in northern Mexico as well. It
1692-456: A form that changed remarkably little during 2,700 years, over 1,300 Mesoamerican ballcourts have been identified, 60% in the last 20 years alone. All ballcourts have the same general shape, a long narrow playing alley flanked by walls with both horizontal and sloping (or, more rarely, vertical) surfaces. The walls were often plastered and brightly painted. In early ballcourts the alleys were open-ended; later ballcourts had enclosed end-zones, giving
1880-407: A function of elevation. This gives Mexico one of the world's most diverse weather systems. Maritime air masses bring seasonal precipitation from May until August. Many parts of Mexico, particularly the north, have a dry climate with only sporadic rainfall, while parts of the tropical lowlands in the south average more than 2,000 mm (78.7 in) of annual precipitation. For example, many cities in
2068-628: A large core of Aztec warriors and officers. In May 2020, discovery of remains of at least sixty mammoths (included male, female, young mammoths) and 15 people were uncovered by the National Institute of Anthropology and History headed by archaeologist Sánchez Nava under the Mexico City Santa-Lucia airport site named Zumpango, in the former Lake Xaltocan. According to the INAH, mammoth skeletons revealed in what used to be
SECTION 10
#17327662417512256-645: A military coup d'état overthrew Madero's government, with the support of the U.S., resulting in Madero's murder by agents of Federal Army General Victoriano Huerta . During the Revolution, the U.S. Republican administration of Taft supported the Huerta coup against Madero, but when Democrat Woodrow Wilson was inaugurated as president in March 1913, Wilson refused to recognize Huerta's regime and allowed arms sales to
2444-570: A mural at Teotihuacan shows a game which resembles field hockey ), racquets , bats and batons, handstones, and the forearm, perhaps at times in combination. Each of the various types of games had its own size of ball, specialized gear and playing field, and rules. Games were played between two teams of players. The number of players per team could vary, from two to four. Some games were played on makeshift courts for simple recreation while others were formal spectacles on huge stone ballcourts leading to human sacrifice. Even without human sacrifice,
2632-458: A natural southern border between Mexico and Guatemala. The climate of Mexico is varied due to the country's size and topography. Tropic of Cancer effectively divides the country into temperate and tropical zones. Land north of the Tropic of Cancer experiences cooler temperatures during the winter months. South of the Tropic of Cancer, temperatures are fairly constant year-round and vary solely as
2820-530: A new Constitution of 1857 , separating Church and State, stripping the Church and the military of their special privileges ( fueros ); mandating the sale of Church-owned property and sale of indigenous community lands, and secularizing education. Conservatives revolted, touching off civil war between rival Liberal and Conservative governments (1858–1861). The Liberals defeated the Conservative army on
3008-452: A new economic and political order never before seen in Mexico. Its influence stretched across Mexico into Central America , such as Monte Albán , Cerro de las Mesas , Matacapan , Tikal , and Kaminaljuyú . Teotihuacan's influence over the Maya civilization cannot be overstated; it transformed political power, artistic depictions, and the nature of economics. Within the city of Teotihuacan was
3196-508: A new generation of leaders. But his announcement set off a frenzy of political activity, including the unlikely candidacy of the scion of a rich landowning family, Francisco I. Madero . Madero won a surprising amount of political support when Díaz changed his mind and ran in the election, jailing Madero. The September centennial celebration of independence was the last celebration of the Porfiriato . The Mexican Revolution starting in 1910 saw
3384-403: A number of ballplayer figurines, radiocarbon-dated as far back as 1250–1150 BC. A rudimentary ballcourt, dated to a later occupation at San Lorenzo, 600–400 BC, has also been identified. From the tropical lowlands, the game apparently moved into central Mexico. Starting around 1000 BC or earlier, ballplayer figurines were interred with burials at Tlatilco and similarly styled figurines from
3572-561: A peaceful political solution, but the coalition splintered, plunging Mexico again into a civil war. Constitutionalist general Pancho Villa , commander of the Division of the North, broke with Carranza and allied with Zapata. Carranza's best general Alvaro Obregón defeated Villa, his former comrade-in-arms in the Battle of Celaya in 1915, and Villa's northern forces melted away Carranza became
3760-448: A plurality of around 38% and did not have a legislative majority. During the twenty-first century, Mexico has contended with high crime rates , bureaucratic corruption , narcotrafficking , and a stagnant economy. Many state-owned industrial enterprises were privatized starting in the 1990s with neoliberal reforms, but Pemex , the state-owned petroleum company is only slowly being privatized, with exploration licenses being issued. In
3948-557: A political crisis of succession. Calles could not become president again, so he sought to set up a structure to manage presidential succession, founding the Institutional Revolutionary Party , which went on to dominate Mexico for the rest of the 20th century. Despite not holding the presidency, Calles remained the key political figure during the period known as the Maximato (1929–1934), that ended during
SECTION 20
#17327662417514136-646: A power vacuum, so too did the Toltec civilization, which took the reins of cultural and political power in Mexico from about 700. The Toltec empire established contact as far south as Central America , and as far north as the Anasazi corn culture in the Southwestern United States . The Toltec established a prosperous turquoise trade route with the northern civilization of Pueblo Bonito , in modern-day New Mexico . The Mayan city of Chichen Itza
4324-402: A push against government corruption, the ex-CEO of Pemex, Emilio Lozoya Austin , was arrested in 2020. After founding the new political party MORENA , Andrés Manuel López Obrador (commonly known as AMLO) won the 2018 presidential election with over 50% of the vote. His political coalition, led by his left-wing party founded after the 2012 elections, included parties and politicians from across
4512-619: A shift towards neoliberal policies, exemplified by the signing of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) in 1994, amidst unrest in Chiapas . Mexico is a newly industrialized and developing country , with the world's 12th-largest economy by nominal GDP and 12th-largest by PPP . Mexico ranks first in the Americas and seventh in the world by the number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites . It
4700-466: A signatory of the Plan of Iguala that achieved independence, became president in a disputed election. During his short term in office, from April to December 1829, he abolished slavery. His Conservative vice president, former Royalist General Anastasio Bustamante , led a coup against him and Guerrero was judicially murdered . Mexico's ability to maintain its independence and establish a viable government
4888-465: A site. For example, the Aztec Empire, with a strong centralized state and few external rivals, had relatively few ballcourts while Middle Classic Cantona , with 24 ballcourts, had many diverse cultures residing there under a relatively weak state. Other scholars support these arguments by pointing to the warfare imagery often found at ballcourts: The association between human sacrifice and
5076-520: A system of parallel voting that includes plurality and proportional representation . The Chamber of Deputies has 500 deputies. Of these, 300 are elected by plurality vote in single-member districts (the federal electoral districts ) and 200 are elected by proportional representation with closed party lists for which the country is divided into five electoral constituencies. The Senate comprises 128 senators: 64 (two for each state and two for Mexico City) are elected by plurality vote in pairs, 32 are
5264-530: A tradition of precise observing, recording, and commemorating astronomical events that later become a hallmark of Mexican civilized achievements. Cities would be founded and built on astronomical principles, leaders would be appointed on celestial events, wars would be fought according to solar-calendars, and a complex theology using astronomical metaphors would organize the daily lives of millions of people. At some different points in time, three Mexican cities ( Teotihuacan , Tenochtitlan , and Cholula ) were among
5452-480: A variety of elite cultural events and ritual activities like musical performances and festivals, and, of course, the ballgame. Pictorial depictions often show musicians playing at ballgames, and votive deposits buried at the Main Ballcourt at Tenochtitlan contained miniature whistles, ocarinas , and drums . A pre-Columbian ceramic from western Mexico shows what appears to be a wrestling match taking place on
5640-926: Is a member of United Nations , the G20 , the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the World Trade Organization (WTO), the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum, the Organization of American States , Community of Latin American and Caribbean States , and the Organization of Ibero-American States . Mēxihco is the Nahuatl term for the heartland of the Aztec Empire , namely
5828-815: Is also one of the world's 17 megadiverse countries , ranking fifth in natural biodiversity . It is a major tourist destination: as of 2022, it is the sixth most-visited country in the world , with 42.2 million international arrivals. Mexico's large economy and population, global cultural influence, and steady democratization make it a regional and middle power , increasingly identifying as an emerging power . Mexico has made significant political and socioeconomic gains in recent decades. However, as with much of Latin America , Mexico continues to struggle with poverty , systemic corruption , and extensive crime . Since 2006, an ongoing conflict between drug trafficking syndicates has led to over 127,000 deaths. Mexico
Pre-Columbian Mexico - Misplaced Pages Continue
6016-640: Is considered one of the six independent cradles of civilization , this era saw the origin of distinct cultural traits such as religious and symbolic traditions, maize cultivation, artistic and architectural complexes as well as a vigesimal (base 20) numeric system that spread from the Mexican cultures to the rest of the Mesoamerican cultural area. In this period, villages became more dense in terms of population, becoming socially stratified with an artisan class, and developing into chiefdoms . The most powerful rulers had religious and political power, organizing
6204-468: Is decapitated by bats. His brother uses a squash as Hunahpu's substitute head until his real one, now used as a ball by the Lords, can be retrieved and placed back on Hunahpu's shoulders. The twins eventually go on to play the ballgame with the Lords of Xibalba, defeating them. However, the twins are unsuccessful in reviving their father, so they leave him buried in the ball court of Xibalba. In Maya Ballgame,
6392-438: Is home of 10–12% of the world's biodiversity. Mexico ranks first in biodiversity in reptiles with 707 known species, second in mammals with 438 species , fourth in amphibians with 290 species, and fourth in flora, with 26,000 different species. Mexico is also considered the second country in the world in ecosystems and fourth in overall species. About 2,500 species are protected by Mexican legislation. In 2002 , Mexico had
6580-523: Is incompatible with agriculture due to aridity, soil, or terrain. In 2018, an estimated 54.9% of land is agricultural; 11.8% is arable; 1.4% is in permanent crops; 41.7% is permanent pasture; and 33.3% is forest. Mexico is irrigated by several rivers, with the longest being the Rio Grande , which serves as a natural eastern border with the United States. The Usumacinta River in turn, serves as
6768-582: Is not known precisely when or where the Mesoamerican ballgame originated, although it is likely that it originated earlier than 2000 BC in the low-lying tropical zones home to the rubber tree . One candidate for the birthplace of the ballgame is the Soconusco coastal lowlands along the Pacific Ocean. Here, at Paso de la Amada , archaeologists have found the oldest ballcourt yet discovered, dated to approximately 1400 BC. The other major candidate
6956-566: Is now referred to as the Mexican Dirty War . In the 1980s the first cracks emerged in the PRI's complete political dominance. In Baja California , the PAN candidate was elected as governor. When De la Madrid chose Carlos Salinas de Gortari as the candidate for the PRI, and therefore a foregone presidential victor, Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas , son of former President Lázaro Cárdenas , broke with
7144-418: Is now the U.S. state of Arizona . These ballcourts vary considerably in size, but all have long narrow alleys with slanted side-walls or vertical walls against which the balls could bounce. The Mesoamerican ballgame is known by a wide variety of names. In English, it is often called pok-ta-pok (or pok-a-tok ). This term originates from a 1932 article by Danish archaeologist Frans Blom , who adapted it from
7332-586: Is responsible for executing and enforcing the law and has the power to veto bills. The highest organ of the judicial branch of government is the Supreme Court of Justice , the national supreme court , which has eleven judges appointed by the President and approved by the Senate. The Supreme Court of Justice interprets laws and judges cases of federal competency. Other institutions of the judiciary are
7520-630: Is the Olmec heartland , across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec along the Gulf Coast . The Aztecs referred to their Postclassic contemporaries who then inhabited the region as the Olmeca (i.e. "rubber people") since the region was strongly identified with latex production. The earliest-known rubber balls in the world come from the sacrificial bog at El Manatí , an early Olmec-associated site located in
7708-663: Is the world's 13th largest country by total area . It has coastlines on the Pacific Ocean and Gulf of California , as well as the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea , the latter two forming part of the Atlantic Ocean . Within these seas are about 6,000 km (2,317 sq mi) of islands (including the remote Pacific Guadalupe Island and the Revillagigedo Islands ). Almost all of Mexico lies in
Pre-Columbian Mexico - Misplaced Pages Continue
7896-443: Is the world's 13th largest country by area; with a population of almost 130 million, it is the 10th most populous country and has the most Spanish speakers in the world. Mexico is a constitutional republic comprising 31 states and Mexico City , its capital and largest city , which is among the world's most populous metropolitan areas . The country borders the United States to the north; as well as Guatemala and Belize to
8084-459: The 2024 presidential election in a landslide and upon taking office in October became the first woman to lead the country in Mexico's history. She was sworn in as Mexico's president on 1 October 2024. Mexico is located between latitudes 14° and 33°N , and longitudes 86° and 119°W in the southern portion of North America, with a total area of 1,972,550 km (761,606 sq mi),
8272-599: The Archdiocese of Mexico in 1546, with the archbishop as the head of the ecclesiastical hierarchy. Castilian Spanish was the language of rulers. The Catholic faith was the only one permitted, with non-Catholics and Catholics (excluding Indians) holding unorthodox views being subject to the Mexican Inquisition , established in 1571. Spanish military forces, sometimes accompanied by native allies, led expeditions to conquer territory or quell rebellions through
8460-664: The Constitution to allow the Mexican Army, Air Force or Navy to collaborate with the United Nations in peacekeeping missions , or to provide military help to countries that officially ask for it. The Mexican Federal Police was dissolved in 2019 by a constitutional amendment during the administration of President López Obrador and the Mexican National Guard established, amalgamating units of
8648-903: The Cordillera Neo-Volcánica , the Gulf Coastal Plain , the Southern Highlands, and the Yucatán Peninsula . An important geologic feature of the Yucatán peninsula is the Chicxulub crater , the scientific consensus is that the Chicxulub impactor was responsible for the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event . Although Mexico is large (a little over 2,000 mi (3,219 km) in length from its farthest land points), much of its land mass
8836-917: The Council of the Indies based in Spain to oversee State power in its overseas territories; in New Spain the crown established a high court in Mexico City, the Real Audiencia ('royal audience' or 'royal tribunal'), and then in 1535 created the Viceroyalty of New Spain . The viceroy was the highest official of the State. In the religious sphere, the Diocese of Mexico was created in 1530 and elevated to
9024-804: The Federal Electoral Tribunal , collegiate, unitary, and district tribunals, and the Council of the Federal Judiciary. Three parties have historically been the dominant parties in Mexican politics: the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), a catch-all party and member of the Socialist International that was founded in 1929 to unite all the factions of the Mexican Revolution and held an almost hegemonic power in Mexican politics since then;
9212-719: The Mexican War of Independence , the modern flag has its origins in the flag of the Army of the Three Guarantees in 1821. Today it consists of a rectangle with a green stripe on the left (signifying the Independence Movement), a white stripe in the middle (originally signifying the purity of the Catholic faith), and a red stripe on the right (signifying the blood of the fighters). There is a coat of arms in
9400-477: The Mexican peso crisis , requiring a $ 50 billion IMF bailout. Major macroeconomic reforms were started by Zedillo, and the economy rapidly recovered and growth peaked at almost 7% by the end of 1999. After 71 years of rule, the incumbent PRI lost the 2000 presidential election to Vicente Fox of the opposing conservative National Action Party (PAN). In the 2006 presidential election , Felipe Calderón from
9588-839: The National Action Party (PAN), a conservative party founded in 1939 and belonging to the Christian Democrat Organization of America ; and the Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD) a left-wing party, founded in 1989 as the successor of the coalition of socialists and liberal parties. The foreign relations of Mexico are directed by the President of Mexico and managed through the Ministry of Foreign Affairs . The principles of
SECTION 50
#17327662417519776-484: The North American Plate , with small parts of the Baja California peninsula on the Pacific and Cocos Plates . Geophysically , some geographers include the territory east of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec (around 12% of the total) within Central America. Geopolitically , however, Mexico is entirely considered part of North America, along with Canada and the United States. The majority of Mexican central and northern territories are located at high altitudes, and as such
9964-440: The Plan of Casa Mata . After the forced abdication of the monarch, Central America and Chiapas left the union to form the Federal Republic of Central America . In 1824, the First Mexican Republic was established. Former insurgent General Guadalupe Victoria became the first president of the republic — the first of many army generals to hold the presidency. In 1829, former insurgent general and fierce Liberal Vicente Guerrero ,
10152-470: The Purépecha (who possessed state-of-the-art copper-metal weapons). The empire relied upon a system of taxation (of goods and services) which were collected through an elaborate bureaucracy of tax collectors, courts, civil servants, and local officials who were installed as loyalists to the Triple Alliance (led by Tenochtitlan). The empire was primarily economic in nature, and the Triple Alliance grew very rich: libraries were built, monumental architecture
10340-416: The Seven Years' War . It created a standing military, increased coastal fortifications, and expanded the northern presidios and missions into Alta California . The volatility of the urban poor in Mexico City was evident in the 1692 riot in the Zócalo. The riot over the price of maize escalated to a full-scale attack on the seats of power, with the viceregal palace and the archbishop's residence attacked by
10528-433: The Spanish Empire in 1821 and became a sovereign state the Intendency came to be known as the State of Mexico , with the new country being named after its capital: Mexico City . The country's official name has changed as the form of government has changed. The declaration of independence signed on 6 November 1813 by the deputies of the Congress of Anáhuac called the territory América Septentrional (Northern America);
10716-440: The Valley of Mexico and surrounding territories, with its people being known as the Mexica . It is generally believed that the toponym for the valley was the origin of the primary ethnonym for the Aztec Triple Alliance , but it may have been the other way around. In the colonial era (1521–1821) when Mexico was known as New Spain this central region became the Intendency of Mexico . After New Spain achieved independence from
10904-406: The Yucatec Maya word pokolpok . In Nahuatl , the language of the Aztecs, it was called ōllamaliztli ( oːlːamaˈlistɬi ) or tlachtli ( ˈtɬatʃtɬi ). In Classical Maya , it was known as pitz . In modern Spanish , it is called juego de pelota maya ('Maya ballgame'), juego de pelota mesoamericano ('Mesoamerican ballgame'), or simply pelota maya ('Maya ball'). It
11092-479: The Yucatán Peninsula ), have a yearly median temperature between 24 and 28 °C (75.2 and 82.4 °F). Temperatures here remain high throughout the year, with only a 5 °C (9 °F) difference between winter and summer median temperatures. The Pacific coast is subject to natural hazards such as tsunamis and both Mexican coasts with the exception of the south coast of the Bay of Campeche and northern Baja California are vulnerable to serious hurricanes during
11280-422: The foreign policy are constitutionally recognized in the Article 89, Section 10, which include: respect for international law and legal equality of states , their sovereignty and independence , trend to non-interventionism in the domestic affairs of other countries, peaceful resolution of conflicts , and promotion of collective security through active participation in international organizations . Since
11468-625: The juego de pelota . While many city-states, kingdoms, and empires competed with one another for power and prestige, Mexico can be said to have had seven major civilizations: The Olmec , Teotihuacan , the Toltec , the Aztec , Zapotec , Mixtec , and the Maya . These civilizations (with the exception of the politically fragmented Maya) extended their reach across Mexico, and beyond, like no others. They consolidated power and distributed influence in matters of trade, art, politics, technology, and theology. Other regional power players made economic and political alliances with these seven civilizations over
SECTION 60
#173276624175111656-460: The 1821 Plan of Iguala also used América Septentrional. On two occasions (1821–1823 and 1863–1867), the country was known as Imperio Mexicano ( Mexican Empire ). All three federal constitutions (1824, 1857, and 1917, the current constitution) used the name Estados Unidos Mexicanos —or the variant Estados-Unidos Mexicanos , all of which have been translated as "United Mexican States". The phrase República Mexicana , "Mexican Republic",
11844-446: The 1824 constitution and promulgating the Seven Laws , which placed power in his hands. As a result, civil war spread across the country. Three new governments declared independence: the Republic of Texas , the Republic of the Rio Grande and the Republic of Yucatán . The largest blow to Mexico was the U.S. invasion of Mexico in 1846 in the Mexican–American War . Mexico lost much of its sparsely populated northern territory, sealed in
12032-486: The 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo . Despite that disastrous loss, Santa Anna returned to the presidency yet again before being ousted and exiled in the Liberal Revolution of Ayutla . The overthrow of Santa Anna and the establishment of a civilian government by Liberals allowed them to enact laws that they considered vital for Mexico's economic development. The Liberal Reform attempted to modernize Mexico's economy and institutions along liberal principles. They promulgated
12220-456: The 1920 presidential election. Since Carranza could not run for re-election, he chose a civilian to succeed him, intending to remain the power behind the presidency. Obregón and two other Sonoran revolutionary generals drew up the Plan of Agua Prieta , overthrowing Carranza, who died fleeing Mexico City in 1920. General Adolfo de la Huerta became interim president, followed by the election of General Álvaro Obregón . The first quarter-century of
12408-421: The 1930s, the Estrada Doctrine has served as a crucial complement to these principles. Mexico is a founding member of several international organizations, most notably the United Nations, the Organization of American States , the Organization of Ibero-American States , the OPANAL and the CELAC . In 2008, Mexico contributed over 40 million dollars to the United Nations regular budget. In addition, it
12596-511: The Aztec Empire began in February 1519 when Hernán Cortés founded the Spanish city of Veracruz . The 1521 capture of Tenochtitlan and posterior founding of the Spanish capital Mexico City on its ruins was the beginning of a 300-year-long colonial era during which Mexico was known as Nueva España ( New Spain ). Two factors made Mexico a jewel in the Spanish Empire: the existence of large, hierarchically organized Mesoamerican populations that rendered tribute and performed obligatory labor and
12784-441: The Aztec Empire , which established the colony of New Spain centered in the former capital, Tenochtitlan (now Mexico City ). The Mexican War of Independence in the early 19th century was followed by political and socioeconomic upheaval. The Mexican–American War resulted in significant territorial losses in 1848. Liberal reforms introduced in the Constitution of 1857 prompted domestic conflict, French intervention , and
12972-417: The Aztecs established several ally states. Among them were Cholula , Texcoco , Tlacopan , and Matatlan . Also, many of the kingdoms conquered by the Aztecs provided soldiers for further imperial campaigns such as: Culhuacan , Xochimilco , Tepeacac , Amecameca , Coaixtlahuacan , Cuetlachtlan , Ahuilizipan . The Aztec war machine would become multi-ethnic, comprising soldiers from conquered areas, led by
13160-423: The Aztecs lacked in political power, they made up for with ambition and military skill. In 1428, the Aztecs led a war of liberation against their rulers from the city of Azcapotzalco , which had subjugated most of the Valley of Mexico's peoples. The revolt was successful, and the Aztecs, through cunning political maneuvers and ferocious fighting skills, managed to pull off a true "rags-to-riches" story: they became
13348-434: The Classic Veracruz site of Aparicio (700–900 CE). The Postclassic Maya religious and quasi-historical narrative, the Popol Vuh , also links human sacrifice with the ballgame (see below). Captives were often shown in Maya art , and it is assumed that these captives were sacrificed after losing a rigged ritual ballgame. Rather than nearly nude and sometimes battered captives, the ballcourts at El Tajín and Chichen Itza show
13536-458: The Classic era are seen with a right kneepad—no left—and a wrapped right forearm, as shown in the Maya image above. The sizes or weights of the balls actually used in the ballgame are not known with any certainty. While several dozen ancient balls have been recovered, they were originally laid down as offerings in a sacrificial bog or spring, and there is no evidence that any of these were used in
13724-531: The Classic forerunner of Vucub Caquix of the Copán ball court, holding the severed arm of Hunahpu, as an important exception. No ballcourt has yet been identified at Teotihuacan, making it by far the largest Classic era site without one. In fact, the ballgame seems to have been nearly forsaken not only in Teotihuacan, but in areas such as Matacapan or Tikal that were under Teotihuacano influence. Despite
13912-701: The Constitutionalists. Wilson ordered troops to occupy the strategic port of Veracruz in 1914, which was lifted. A coalition of anti-Huerta forces in the North, the Constitutional Army led by Governor of Coahuila Venustiano Carranza , and a peasant army in the South under Emiliano Zapata defeated the Federal Army in 1914, leaving only revolutionary forces. Following the revolutionaries' victory against Huerta, they sought to broker
14100-717: The Crown's monopoly of revenue, only two ports were open to foreign trade—Veracruz on the Atlantic (connecting to Spain ) and Acapulco on the Pacific (connecting to the Philippines ). Among the best-known pirate attacks are the 1663 Sack of Campeche and 1683 Attack on Veracruz . Of greater concern to the crown was the issue of foreign invasion, especially after Britain seized in 1762 the Spanish ports of Havana and Manila in
14288-540: The Epi-Classic, Nahua peoples began moving south into Mesoamerica from the North, and became politically and culturally dominant in central Mexico, as they displaced speakers of Oto-Manguean languages . During the early post-classic era (ca. 1000–1519 AD), Central Mexico was dominated by the Toltec culture, Oaxaca by the Mixtec , and the lowland Maya area had important centers at Chichén Itzá and Mayapán . Toward
14476-705: The Federal Police, Military Police, and Naval Police. As of 2022, the National Guard is estimated at 110,000. López Obrador has increasingly used military forces for domestic law enforcement, particularly against drug cartels. There have been serious abuses of power reported in security operations in the southern part of the country and in indigenous communities and poor urban neighborhoods. The National Human Rights Commission has had little impact in reversing this trend, engaging mostly in documentation but failing to use its powers to issue public condemnations to
14664-486: The Formative (or Preclassic) period, dating from 1400 BC to about 400 BC, and are believed to have been the progenitor civilization of later Mesoamerican civilizations. The decline of the Olmec resulted in a power vacuum in Mexico. Emerging from that vacuum was Teotihuacan , first settled in 300 BC. By AD 150, it had grown to become the first true metropolis of what is now called North America . Teotihuacan established
14852-657: The French invaders and Liberalism became synonymous with patriotism. The Mexican Army that had its roots in the colonial royal army and then the army of the early republic was destroyed and new military leaders had emerged from the War of the Reform and the conflict with the French, most notably Porfirio Díaz , a hero of the Cinco de Mayo , who now sought civilian power and challenged Juárez on his re-election in 1867. Díaz then rebelled but
15040-495: The Hero Twins myth links ballcourts with death and its overcoming. The ballcourt becomes a place of transition, a liminal stage between life and death. The ballcourt markers along the centerline of the Classic playing field depicted ritual and mythical scenes of the ballgame, often bordered by a quatrefoil that marked a portal into another world. The Twins themselves, however, are usually absent from Classic ballgame scenes, with
15228-788: The Late Classic site of El Tajín , the largest city of the ballgame-obsessed Classic Veracruz culture , has at least 18 ballcourts, and Cantona , a nearby contemporaneous site, sets the record with 24. In contrast, northern Chiapas and the northern Maya Lowlands have relatively few, and ballcourts are conspicuously absent at some major sites, including Teotihuacan, Bonampak , and Tortuguero , although Mesoamerican ballgame iconography has been found there. Ancient cities with particularly fine ballcourts in good condition include Tikal, Yaxha , Copán , Coba , Iximche , Monte Albán , Uxmal , Chichen Itza , Yagul , Xochicalco , Mixco Viejo , and Zaculeu . Ballcourts were public spaces used for
15416-599: The Leyenda de los Soles, the Toltec king Huemac played ball against the Tlalocs , with precious stones and quetzal feathers at stake. Huemac won the game. When instead of precious stones and feathers, the rain deities offered Huemac their young maize ears and maize leaves, Huemac refused. As a consequence of this vanity, the Toltecs suffered a four-year drought. The same ball game match, with its unfortunate aftermath, signified
15604-404: The Mesoamerican ballgame might be more accurately seen as a family of related games. In general, the hip-ball version is most popularly thought of as the Mesoamerican ballgame, and researchers believe that this version was the primary—or perhaps only—version played within the masonry ballcourt . Ample archaeological evidence exists for games where the ball was struck by a wooden stick (e.g.,
15792-508: The Mesoamerican ballgame, regardless of the version, are not known in any detail. In contemporary ulama , the game resembles a netless volleyball , with each team confined to one half of the court. In the most widespread version of ulama , the ball is hit back and forth using only the hips until one team fails to return it or the ball leaves the court. In the Postclassic period, the Maya began placing vertical stone rings on each side of
15980-486: The Mexican government encouraged Anglo-American immigration into present-day Texas, a region that bordered that United States. Mexico by law was a Catholic country; the Anglo-Americans were primarily Protestant English speakers from the southern United States. Some brought their black slaves, which after 1829 was contrary to Mexican law. In 1835, Santa Anna sought to centralize government rule in Mexico, suspending
16168-528: The Mexican revolution met at a constitutional convention to draft the Constitution of 1917 , which was ratified in February 1917. The Constitution empowered the government to expropriate resources including land, gave rights to labor, and strengthened anticlerical provisions of the 1857 Constitution. With amendments, it remains the governing document of Mexico. It is estimated that the revolutionary war killed 900,000 people out of Mexico's 15 million population at
16356-472: The Nahuatl language. Recent years have seen a resurgence of interest in learning Nahuatl by Spanish-speaking and English-speaking Mexicans at-large. English and other languages have borrowed a number of words indirectly from Nahuatl through Spanish such as "avocado", "chili", "tomato", "chocolate", and "coyote". While different standards and flags were used during the pre-Hispanic period, the viceroyalty, and
16544-586: The National Guard, which was formed in 2019 from the disbanded Federal Police and military police of the Army and Navy. Figures vary on personnel, but as of are approximately 223,000 armed forces personnel (160,000 Army; 8,000 Air Force; 55,000 Navy, including about 20,000 Marines); approximately 100,000 National Guard (2021). Government expenditures on the military are a small proportion of GDP: 0.7% of GDP (2021 est.), 0.6% of GDP (2020). The Mexican Armed Forces maintain significant infrastructure, including facilities for
16732-478: The PAN was declared the winner, with a very narrow margin (0.58%) over leftist politician Andrés Manuel López Obrador of the Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD). López Obrador, however, contested the election and pledged to create an "alternative government". After twelve years, in the 2012 presidential election , the PRI again won the presidency with the election of Enrique Peña Nieto . However, he won with
16920-450: The PRI and challenged Salinas in the 1988 elections. In 1988 there was massive electoral fraud , with results showing that Salinas had won the election by the narrowest percentage ever. There were massive protests in Mexico City over the stolen election. Salinas took the oath of office on 1 December 1988. In 1990 the PRI was famously described by Mario Vargas Llosa as the "perfect dictatorship", but by then there had been major challenges to
17108-524: The PRI's hegemony. Salinas embarked on a program of neoliberal reforms that fixed the exchange rate of the peso, controlled inflation, opened Mexico to foreign investment, and began talks with the U.S. and Canada to join their free-trade agreement , which culminated in the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) on 1 January 1994; the same day, the Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN) in Chiapas began armed peasant rebellion against
17296-584: The Toltec throne stepped outsiders: the Aztec . Newcomers to the Valley of Mexico, they were seen as crude and unrefined in the eyes of the existing Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the fallen Toltec empire. Latecomers to Mexico's central plateau, the Aztecs thought of themselves as heirs to the prestigious civilizations that had preceded them, much as Charlemagne did with respect to the fallen Roman Empire . What
17484-476: The U.S. entered World War I. Although often viewed as an internal conflict, the revolution had significant international elements: Germany attempted to get Mexico to side with it, sending a coded telegram in 1917 to incite war between the U.S. and Mexico, with Mexico to regain the territory it lost in the Mexican-American War but Mexico remained neutral in the conflict. In 1916, the winners of
17672-457: The Valley of Mexico, but after further investigation using radioactive dating , it appears this is untrue. It is currently unclear whether 21,000-year-old campfire remains found in the Valley of Mexico are the earliest human remains in Mexico. Indigenous peoples of Mexico began to selectively breed maize plants around 8000 BC. Evidence shows a marked increase in pottery working by 2300 BC and
17860-766: The Western Hemisphere). In recent years, there has been a resurgence of interest in the ceremonies and art of the Day of the Dead . The art, architecture, and symbols of the Mexica civilization exert such a unique identity that they are commonly used in advertisements for tourism to Mexico . Mexico Mexico , officially the United Mexican States , is a country in the southern portion of North America . Covering 1,972,550 km (761,610 sq mi), it
18048-533: The aim is to keep the ball in play. The stone ballcourt goals are a late addition to the game. In the most common theory of the game, the players struck the ball with their hips, although some versions allowed the use of forearms, rackets, bats, or handstones. The ball was made of solid rubber and weighed as much as 9 lbs, and sizes differed greatly over time or according to the version played. The Mesoamerican ballgame had important ritual aspects, and major formal ballgames were held as ritual events. Late in
18236-524: The army for a short period were incorporated as sectors of the single party that dominated Mexican politics from its founding in 1929. Obregón instigated land reform and strengthened the power of organized labor. He gained recognition from the United States and took steps to settle claims with companies and individuals that lost property during the Revolution. He imposed his fellow former Sonoran revolutionary general, Calles, as his successor, prompting an unsuccessful military revolt. As president, Calles provoked
18424-415: The arts and sciences. Díaz ruled with a group of advisors that became known as the científicos ('scientists'). The most influential científico was Secretary of Finance José Yves Limantour . The Porfirian regime was influenced by positivism . They rejected theology and idealism in favor of scientific methods being applied towards national development. An integral aspect of the liberal project
18612-529: The ballgame appears rather late in the archaeological record, no earlier than the Classic era . The association was particularly strong within the Classic Veracruz and the Maya cultures, where the most explicit depictions of human sacrifice can be seen on the ballcourt panels—for example at El Tajín (850–1100 CE) and at Chichen Itza (900–1200 CE)—as well as on the decapitated ballplayer stelae from
18800-420: The ballgame's role would expand to include not only external mediation, but also the resolution of competition and conflict within the society as well. This "boundary maintenance" or "conflict resolution" theory would also account for some of the irregular distribution of ballcourts. Overall, there appears to be a negative correlation between the degree of political centralization and the number of ballcourts at
18988-458: The ballgame. In fact, some of these extant votive balls were created specifically as offerings. However, based on a review of modern-day game balls, ancient rubber balls, and other archaeological evidence, it is presumed by most researchers that the ancient hip-ball was made of a mix from one or another of the latex-producing plants found all the way from the southeastern rain forests to the northern desert. Most balls were made from latex sap of
19176-460: The battlefield, Lerdo fled from office into exile. After the turmoil in Mexico from 1810 to 1876, the 35-year rule of Liberal General Porfirio Díaz (r.1876–1911) allowed Mexico to rapidly modernize in a period characterized as one of " order and progress ". The Porfiriato was characterized by economic stability and growth, significant foreign investment and influence, an expansion of the railroad network and telecommunications, and investments in
19364-490: The battlefield, but Conservatives sought another solution to gain power via foreign intervention by the French, asking Emperor Napoleon III to place a European monarch as head of state in Mexico. The French Army defeated the Mexican Army and placed Maximilian Habsburg on the newly established throne of Mexico, supported by Mexican Conservatives and propped up by the French Army. The Liberal Republic under Benito Juárez
19552-515: The beginning of intensive corn farming between 1800 and 1500 BC. Between 1800 and 300 BC, complex cultures began to form. Many matured into advanced Mesoamerican civilizations such as the: Olmec , Izapa , Teotihuacan , Maya , Zapotec , Mixtec , Huastec , Purépecha , Totonac , Toltec , and Aztec , which flourished for nearly 4,000 years before the first contact with Europeans. These civilizations are credited with many inventions and advancements including pyramid-temples, mathematics (such as
19740-547: The beginning of the end of the Toltec reign. The Maya Twin myth of the Popol Vuh establishes the importance of the game (referred to in Classic Maya as pitz ) as a symbol for warfare intimately connected to the themes of fertility and death. The story begins with the Hero Twins' father, Hun Hunahpu , and uncle, Vucub Hunahpu, playing ball near the underworld, Xibalba . The lords of the underworld became annoyed with
19928-721: The borders of modern-day Mexico include the Mogollon , Patayan , and Hohokam . These two cultural regions maintained long-distance trade networks with Mesoamerica, evidenced by cacao, macaws, and other Mesoamerican goods found in Ancestral Pueblo sites, and turquoise from Oasisamerica found in precontact Mesoamerican artwork. For example, in Paquimé , a site connected to the Mogollon culture, there have been found ceremonial structures related to Mesoamerican religion, similar to
20116-608: The capabilities to manufacture nuclear weapons, but abandoned this possibility with the Treaty of Tlatelolco in 1968 and pledged to use its nuclear technology only for peaceful purposes. Mexico signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons . Historically, Mexico has remained neutral in international conflicts, with the exception of World War II . However, in recent years some political parties have proposed an amendment of
20304-561: The capital of the modern nation of Mexico. Mexico City is the largest metropolitan area in the Western Hemisphere (and fifth-largest in the world with 21.2 million inhabitants). The Spanish retained the original layout of the city of Tenochtitlan, reflected today in the various city districts ( barrios ) and in the central precinct of the Zócalo (formerly the ceremonial center of Tenochtitlan). Many streets and boulevards lay along
20492-475: The carvings described a figure with horns and claws wearing a loincloth. The Aztecs left a durable stamp upon modern Mexican culture . Much of what is considered modern Mexican culture derives from the Aztec civilization: place-names, words, food, art, dress, symbols, and even the name "Mexican". ( See also Origin and history of the name "Mexico-Tenochtitlan" ). Today, the Aztec's capital city of Mexico-Tenochtitlan survives in modern times as Mexico City ,
20680-636: The celebrated flower district of Xochimilco . Today, Mexico City incorporates almost 9 million people, whereas, in 1519, that number was 300,000. Mexico is a Megadiverse country . As such, many ingredients commonly consumed by today's people worldwide originate from Mexico. The names of the various foods are originally from Nahuatl . Examples of such ingredients are: Chocolate , Tomato , Maize , Vanilla , Avocado , Guava , Chayote , Epazote , Camote , Jícama , Tejocote , Nopal , Sapote , Chipotle , many varieties of modern Beans . The majority of Mexico's cuisine are of indigenous origins and are based on
20868-512: The center. The coat of arms represents the legendary founding of the city of Tenochtitlan . According to legend, the gods had advised the Aztecs that they should establish their city when they saw an eagle, perched on a prickly pear tree, devouring a serpent; after years of wandering, they found such an eagle on an island in Lake Texcoco , in what was to become the main plaza of Mexico City. The flag has undergone several changes since 1821;
21056-664: The chest. Kneepads are seen on a variety of players from many areas and eras and are worn by forearm- ulama players today. A type of garter is also often seen, worn just below the knee or around the ankle—it is not known what function this served. Gloves appear on the purported ballplayer reliefs of Dainzú, roughly 500 BC, as well as the Aztec players are drawn by Weiditz 2,000 years later (see drawing below). Helmets, likely utilitarian, and elaborate headdresses, likely used only in ritual contexts, are common in ballplayer depictions. Headdresses are particularly prevalent on Maya painted vases or on Jaina Island figurines. Many ballplayers of
21244-626: The colonial era. Notable Amerindian revolts in sporadically populated northern New Spain include the Chichimeca War (1576–1606), Tepehuán Revolt (1616–1620), and the Pueblo Revolt (1680), the Tzeltal Rebellion of 1712 was a regional Maya revolt. Most rebellions were small-scale and local, posing no major threat to the ruling elites. To protect Mexico from the attacks of English, French, and Dutch pirates and protect
21432-553: The conquest of much of what would become New Spain. As a result, Nahuatl names were used as geographic identifiers as far away as Guatemala and Sonora (e.g. "Utatlán" was Q’umarka’aj, becoming modern Santa Cruz de Quiché; "Guatemala" comes from Iximché, the capital of the kaqchiles ) and Suchitlán in the northern state of Coahuila on the southern Texas border. Numerous words from the Nahuatl language have been borrowed both by standard Spanish and Mexican Spanish. Today, approximately 1.5 million indigenous Nahua people continue to speak
21620-582: The construction of large ceremonial centers. The earliest complex civilization in Mexico was the Olmec culture, which flourished on the Gulf Coast from around 1500 BC. Olmec cultural traits diffused through Mexico into other formative-era cultures in Chiapas, Oaxaca, and the Valley of Mexico. In the subsequent pre-classical period , the Maya and Zapotec civilizations developed complex centers at Calakmul and Monte Albán , respectively. During this period
21808-415: The country; temperate humid and sub-humid being found mostly on pastures at an elevation of 1,800 meters and higher in central Mexico and cold climate usually found at an elevation of 3,500 meters and beyond. Most of the country's territory has a temperate to dry climate. Areas south of the Tropic of Cancer with elevations up to 1,000 m (3,281 ft) (the southern parts of both coastal plains as well as
21996-477: The court, the object being to pass the ball through one, an innovation that continued into the later Toltec and Aztec cultures. In the 16th-century Aztec ballgame that the Spaniards witnessed, points were lost by a player who let the ball bounce more than twice before returning it to the other team, who let the ball go outside the boundaries of the court, or who tried and failed to pass the ball through one of
22184-479: The de facto head of Mexico, and the U.S. recognized his government while Zapata's forces in the south reverted to guerrilla warfare. After Pancho Villa was defeated by revolutionary forces in 1915, he led an incursion raid into Columbus, New Mexico , prompting the U.S. to send 10,000 troops led by General John J. Pershing in an unsuccessful attempt to capture Villa. Carranza pushed back against U.S. troops being in northern Mexico. The expeditionary forces withdrew as
22372-563: The design, research, and testing of weapons, vehicles, aircraft, naval vessels, defense systems and electronics; military industry manufacturing centers for building such systems, and advanced naval dockyards that build heavy military vessels and advanced missile technologies. Since the 1990s, when the military escalated its role in the war on drugs , increasing importance has been placed on acquiring airborne surveillance platforms, aircraft, helicopters , digital war-fighting technologies, urban warfare equipment and rapid troop transport. Mexico has
22560-481: The development of the concept of zero as early as 36 BC and working with sums of hundreds of millions), astronomy (measuring the length of the solar year to a high degree of accuracy), medicine, and theology. Archaic inscriptions on rocks and rock walls all over northern Mexico (especially in the state of Nuevo León ) demonstrate an early propensity for counting in Mexico. These very early and ancient count-markings were associated with astronomical events and underscore
22748-538: The discovery of vast silver deposits in northern Mexico. The Kingdom of New Spain was created from the remnants of the Aztec empire. The two pillars of Spanish rule were the State and the Roman Catholic Church, both under the authority of the Spanish crown. In 1493 the pope had granted sweeping powers to the Spanish monarchy for its overseas empire, with the proviso that the crown spread Christianity in its new realms. In 1524, King Charles I created
22936-678: The end of the post-Classic period, the Aztecs (or Mexica ) established dominance, establishing a political and economic empire based in the city of Tenochtitlan (modern Mexico City ), extending from central Mexico to the border with Guatemala. Although the Spanish Empire had established colonies in the Caribbean starting in 1493 the Spanish first learned of Mexico during the Juan de Grijalva expedition of 1518. The Spanish conquest of
23124-481: The establishment of an Empire , countered by the Republican resistance led by Benito Juárez . The rise of Porfirio Díaz 's dictatorship in the 19th century sparked the Mexican Revolution in 1910, which led to profound changes, such as the 1917 Constitution . Over the 20th century, Mexico experienced significant economic growth ; as well as issues of repression and electoral fraud . The late 20th century saw
23312-826: The extension of the Rocky Mountains from northern North America crossed the country from north to south and a fourth mountain range, the Sierra Madre del Sur , runs from Michoacán to Oaxaca . The Mexican territory is prone to volcanism . Mexico has nine distinct regions: Baja California , the Pacific Coastal Lowlands, the Mexican Plateau , the Sierra Madre Oriental , the Sierra Madre Occidental ,
23500-454: The federal government, which captured a few towns but brought world attention to the situation in Mexico. The armed conflict was short-lived and has continued as a non-violent opposition movement against neoliberalism and globalization . In 1994, following the assassination of the PRI's presidential candidate Luis Donaldo Colosio , Salinas was succeeded by victorious PRI candidate Ernesto Zedillo . Salinas left Zedillo's government to deal with
23688-403: The first calabash gourds . Hun Hunahpu's head spits into the hands of a passing goddess who conceives and bears the Hero Twins, Hunahpu and Xbalanque. The Hero Twins eventually find the ballgame equipment in their father's house and start playing, again to the annoyance of the Lords of Xibalba, who summon the twins to play the ballgame amidst trials and dangers. In one notable episode, Hunahpu
23876-551: The first minority or first-runner-up (one for each state and one for Mexico City), and 32 are elected by proportional representation from national closed party lists. The executive is the President of the United Mexican States , who is the head of state and government , as well as the commander-in-chief of the Mexican military forces. The President also appoints the Cabinet and other officers. The President
24064-612: The first true Mesoamerican writing systems were developed in the Epi-Olmec and Zapotec cultures. The Mesoamerican writing tradition reached its height in the Classic Maya Hieroglyphic script , the earliest written histories date from this era. The tradition of writing was important after the Spanish conquest in 1521, with indigenous scribes learning to write their languages in alphabetic letters, while also continuing to create pictorial texts. In Central Mexico,
24252-416: The flow of imperial wealth as smooth as possible. The rules of empire in Mexico were old rules, understood by all the power players and "contenders to the throne," as had been shown many times before (the kingdom of Tlaxcala would attempt its own power grab in 1519 by using the Spanish as mercenary-allies). Founded around 1325, the Aztec capital, Mexico-Tenochtitlan , was by 1519 among the largest cities in
24440-565: The game appears throughout much of the Mesoamerican archaeological record, including ballcourts in the Central Chiapas Valley (the next oldest ballcourts discovered, after Paso de la Amada), and in the Oaxaca Valley , as well as ceramic ballgame tableaus from Western Mexico (see photo below). As might be expected with a game played over such a long period of time by many cultures, details varied over time and place, so
24628-429: The game could be brutal and there were often serious injuries inflicted by the solid, heavy ball. Today's hip- ulama players are "perpetually bruised" while nearly 500 years ago Spanish chronicler Diego Durán reported that some bruises were so severe that they had to be lanced open. He also reported that players were even killed when the ball "hit them in the mouth or the stomach or the intestines". The rules of
24816-449: The game had religious and ritual connotations. A stone "yoke" of the type frequently associated with Mesoamerican ballcourts was also reported to have been found by local villagers at the site, leaving open the distinct possibility that these rubber balls were related to the ritual ballgame, and not simply an independent form of sacrificial offering . Excavations at the nearby Olmec site of San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán have also uncovered
25004-442: The height of the classic period saw the ascendancy of Teotihuacán , which formed a military and commercial empire. Teotihuacan, with a population of more than 150,000 people, had some of the largest pyramidal structures in the pre-Columbian Americas. After the collapse of Teotihuacán around 600 AD, competition ensued between several important political centers in central Mexico such as Xochicalco and Cholula . At this time, during
25192-543: The highest elevations are found at the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt which crosses Mexico east to west: Pico de Orizaba (5,700 m or 18,701 ft), Popocatépetl (5,462 m or 17,920 ft) and Iztaccihuatl (5,286 m or 17,343 ft) and the Nevado de Toluca (4,577 m or 15,016 ft). Two mountain ranges known as Sierra Madre Oriental and Sierra Madre Occidental , which are
25380-509: The hinterland of the Coatzacoalcos River drainage system. Villagers, and archaeologists, have recovered a dozen balls ranging in diameter from 10 to 22 cm from the freshwater spring there. Five of these balls have been dated to the earliest-known occupational phase for the site, approximately 1700–1600 BC. These rubber balls were found with other ritual offerings buried at the site, indicating that even at this early date
25568-461: The hip-ball game reassert itself. The Aztec version of the ballgame is called ōllamalitzli (sometimes spelled ullamaliztli ) and are derived from the word ōlli "rubber" and the verb ōllama or "to play ball". The ball itself was called ōllamaloni and the ballcourt was called a tlachtli . In the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan the largest ballcourt was called Teotlachco ("in the holy ballcourt")—here several important rituals would take place on
25756-399: The history of the game, some cultures occasionally seem to have combined competitions with religious human sacrifice . The sport was also played casually for recreation by children and may have been played by women as well as men. Pre-Columbian ballcourts have been found throughout Mesoamerica, as for example at Copán , as far south as modern Nicaragua , and possibly as far north as what
25944-613: The increase of inequality between urban and rural areas. The Green Revolution , a technological movement that led to a significant worldwide increase in crop production, began in the Yaqui Valley of Sonora in the middle of the 20th century. With robust economic growth, Mexico sought to showcase it to the world by hosting the 1968 Summer Olympics . The government poured huge resources into building new facilities, prompting political unrest among university students and others. Demonstrations in central Mexico City went on for weeks before
26132-431: The indigenous language of Nahuatl . Tequila , the distilled alcoholic drink made from cultivated agave cacti is a major industry. Because of its high biodiversity Mexico has also been a frequent site of bioprospecting by international research bodies. The first highly successful instance was the discovery in 1947 of the tuber " Barbasco " ( Dioscorea composita ) which has a high content of diosgenin , revolutionizing
26320-491: The influence that astronomical activities had upon Mexican natives, even before they possessed urbanization . In fact, many of the later Mexican-based civilizations would carefully build their cities and ceremonial centers according to specific astronomical events. Astronomy and the notion of human observation of celestial events would become central factors in the development of religious systems, writing systems, fine arts, and architecture. Prehistoric Mexican astronomers began
26508-412: The ingredients listed above: These foods continue to make up the core of Mexican cuisine today. Because the Mexica spoke Nahuatl (the most common language at the time of Spanish arrival) their terms and names were widespread as descriptors of cities, regions, valleys, rivers, mountains, and many cultural objects. The Tlaxcala allies of the Spanish also spoke Nahuatl and they accompanied the Spanish in
26696-463: The lack of a ballcourt, ball games were not unknown there. The murals of the Tepantitla compound at Teotihuacan show a number of small scenes that seem to portray various types of ball games, including: It has been hypothesized that, for reasons as yet unknown, the stick-game eclipsed the hip-ball game at Teotihuacan and at Teotihuacan-influenced cities, and only after the fall of Teotihuacan did
26884-576: The largest cities in the world. These cities and several others blossomed as centers of commerce, ideas, ceremonies, and theology. In turn, they radiated influence outward into neighboring cultures in central Mexico. At its height, Aridoamerica covered part of the present-day Mexican states of Chihuahua, Sonora, and Baja California, while Oasisamerica as the U.S. states of Arizona, Utah, New Mexico, Colorado, Nevada, and parts of California. Cultural groups that flourished in Aridoamerica, mostly within
27072-415: The last was in 1968 . Mexican art has inspired generations of Mexican-descent artists, both inside and outside of Mexico's modern borders. Images of pyramids, the " Aztec calendar ", and armed indigenous warriors have been popular themes. Also popular have been zigzag motifs (found on indigenous buildings and pottery) and the theological notion of The Four Directions (found among indigenous cultures across
27260-428: The lowland Castilla elastica tree. Someone discovered that by mixing latex with sap from the vine of a species of morning glory ( Calonyction aculeatum ) they could turn the slippery polymers in raw latex into a resilient rubber. The size varied between 10 and 12 in (25 and 30 cm) (measured in hand spans) and weighed 3 to 6 lb (1.4 to 2.7 kg). The ball used in the ancient handball or stick-ball game
27448-399: The many Maya city-states never achieved political unity on the order of the central Mexican civilizations, they exerted a tremendous intellectual influence upon Mexico. The Maya built some of the most elaborate cities on the continent, and made innovations in mathematics, astronomy , and writing that became the pinnacle of Mexico's scientific achievements. Just as Teotihuacan had emerged from
27636-523: The mob. On 16 September 1810, secular priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla declared against "bad government" in the small town of Dolores , Guanajuato. This event, known as the Cry of Dolores ( Spanish : Grito de Dolores ) is commemorated each year, on 16 September, as Mexico's independence day. The upheaval in the Spanish Empire that resulted in the independence of most of its New World territories
27824-414: The noise from the ball playing and so the primary lords of Xibalba, One Death and Seven Death, sent owls to lure the brothers to the ballcourt of Xibalba, situated on the western edge of the underworld. Despite the danger the brothers fall asleep and are captured and sacrificed by the lords of Xibalba and then buried in the ballcourt. Hun Hunahpu is decapitated and his head hung in a fruit tree, which bears
28012-481: The north like Monterrey , Hermosillo , and Mexicali experience temperatures of 40 °C (104 °F) or more in summer. In the Sonoran Desert temperatures reach 50 °C (122 °F) or more. There are 7 major climate types in Mexico with warm sub-humid climate being coastal up to 900 meters found mostly in the southern region of Mexico; dry and desertic climates being found in the northern half of
28200-472: The officials who ignore its recommendations. Most Mexicans have low confidence in the police or the judicial system, and therefore, few crimes are actually reported by the citizens. There have been public demonstrations of outrage against what is considered a culture of impunity . Mesoamerican ballgame The Mesoamerican ballgame ( Nahuatl languages : ōllamalīztli , Nahuatl pronunciation: [oːlːamaˈlistɬi] , Mayan languages : pitz )
28388-487: The planned opening of the games, with the government of Gustavo Díaz Ordaz cracking down. The culmination was the Tlatelolco Massacre , which killed around 300 protesters based on conservative estimates and perhaps as many as 800. Although the economy continued to flourish for some, social inequality remained a factor of discontent. PRI rule became increasingly authoritarian and at times oppressive in what
28576-542: The political spectrum. The coalition also won a majority in both the upper and lower Congress chambers. His success is attributed to the country's opposing political forces exhausting their chances as well as AMLO's adoption of a moderate discourse with a focus on reconciliation. The first confirmed case of COVID-19 in Mexico occurred on 28 February 2020. The COVID-19 vaccination in Mexico began in December 2020. Claudia Sheinbaum , López Obrador's political successor, won
28764-525: The politics for the next 25 years, often known as the "Age of Santa Anna", until his overthrow in 1855. Mexico also contended with indigenous groups that controlled the territory that Mexico claimed in the north. For example, the Comanche controlled a huge territory in sparsely populated central and northern Texas. Wanting to stabilize and develop that area — and as few people from central Mexico had chosen to resettle to this remote and hostile territory —
28952-489: The post-revolutionary period (1920–1946) was characterized by revolutionary generals serving as Presidents of Mexico , including Álvaro Obregón (1920–24), Plutarco Elías Calles (1924–28), Lázaro Cárdenas (1934–40), and Manuel Avila Camacho (1940–46). The post-revolutionary project of the Mexican government sought to bring order to the country, end military intervention in politics, and create organizations of interest groups. Workers, peasants, urban office workers, and even
29140-494: The presidency of Lázaro Cárdenas , who expelled Calles from the country and implemented many economic and social reforms. This included the Mexican oil expropriation in March 1938, which nationalized the U.S. and Anglo-Dutch oil company known as the Mexican Eagle Petroleum Company , which would result in the creation of the state-owned Pemex . Cárdenas's successor, Manuel Ávila Camacho (1940–1946)
29328-401: The production of synthetic hormones in the 1950s and 1960s and eventually leading to the invention of combined oral contraceptive pills . The United Mexican States are a federation whose government is representative , democratic, and republican based on a presidential system according to the 1917 Constitution . The Constitution establishes three levels of government: the federal Union,
29516-470: The rulers of central Mexico as the leaders of the Triple Alliance . This Alliance was composed of the city-states of Tenochtitlan , Texcoco , and Tlacopan . At their peak, 300,000 Aztecs presided over a wealthy tribute-empire comprising 4 to 7 million people and extended into Central America . The westward expansion of the empire was stopped cold by a devastating military defeat at the hands of
29704-446: The sacrifice of practiced ballplayers, perhaps the captain of a team. Decapitation is particularly associated with the ballgame—severed heads are featured in much Late Classic ballgame art and appear repeatedly in the Popol Vuh. There has been speculation that the heads and skulls were used as balls. Little is known about the game's symbolic contents. Several themes recur in scholarly writing. According to an important Nahua source,
29892-405: The same paths as the previous water canals of Tenochtitlan. Several pyramids and ruins have even remain unearthed within the urban sprawl of the city. Following independence and after a number of floods, the lakes of the valley were drained, drastically changing the landscape. The former island city now was able to spread over a dry plain. Only small remnants of the old canal city remain, such as in
30080-541: The same period have been found at the nearby Tlapacoya site. It was about this period, as well, that the so-called Xochipala -style ballplayer figurines were crafted in Guerrero . Although no ballcourts of similar age have been found in Tlatilco or Tlapacoya, it is possible that the ballgame was indeed played in these areas, but on courts with perishable boundaries or temporary court markers. By 300 BC, evidence for
30268-974: The second fastest rate of deforestation in the world, second only to Brazil. It had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 6.82/10, ranking it 63rd globally out of 172 countries. According to SGI there is Deforestation and soil erosion especially in rural areas of Mexico. In the 2022 report it was noted environmental protection laws have improved in major cities but remain unenforced or unregulated in rural regions. In Mexico, 170,000 square kilometers (65,637 sq mi) are considered "Protected Natural Areas". These include 34 biosphere reserves (unaltered ecosystems), 67 national parks , 4 natural monuments (protected in perpetuity for their aesthetic, scientific or historical value), 26 areas of protected flora and fauna, 4 areas for natural resource protection (conservation of soil, hydrological basins, and forests) and 17 sanctuaries (zones rich in diverse species). Plants indigenous to Mexico are grown in many parts of
30456-635: The shallow part of the lake were better anatomically preserved than those found in the deeper parts of the former lake. Mammoths probably got stuck in the lake and died. In July 2020, archaeologists unearthed two pre-Hispanic stone monuments believed to have been built by the Zapotecs 1500 years ago on top of the Cerro de Peña mountain in Puebla state. National Institute of Anthropology and History also revealed two stelae, small carved animals and figures. One of
30644-432: The southeast. It has maritime borders with the Pacific Ocean to the west, the Caribbean Sea to the southeast, and the Gulf of Mexico to the east. Human presence in Pre-Columbian Mexico dates back to 8,000 BC as one of six cradles of civilization . Mesoamerica hosted civilizations including the Olmec , Maya , Zapotec , Teotihuacan , and Purepecha . Aztec domination of the area preceded Spanish conquest of
30832-436: The span of 3,000 years. Many made war with them. But almost all found themselves within these seven spheres of influence. The Olmec were an ancient Pre-Columbian people living in the tropical lowlands of south-central Mexico, roughly in what are the modern-day states of Veracruz and Tabasco on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec . Their immediate cultural influence, however, extends far beyond this region. The Olmec flourished during
31020-428: The state governments, and the municipal governments. The federal legislature is the bicameral Congress of the Union , composed of the Senate of the Republic and the Chamber of Deputies . The Congress makes federal law , declares war, imposes taxes, approves the national budget and international treaties, and ratifies diplomatic appointments. The federal Congress, as well as the state legislatures, are elected by
31208-525: The stone rings placed on each wall along the center line. According to 16th-century Aztec chronicler Motolinia , points were gained if the ball hit the opposite end wall, while the decisive victory was reserved for the team that put the ball through a ring. However, placing the ball through the ring was a rare event—the rings at Chichen Itza, for example, were set 6 metres (20 ft) off the playing field—and most games were likely won on points. The game's paraphernalia—clothing, headdresses, gloves, all but
31396-408: The stone yoke is thought to be too heavy for actual play and was likely used only before or after the game in ritual contexts. In addition to providing some protection from the ball, the girdle or yoke would also have helped propel the ball with more force than the hip alone. Additionally, some players wore chest protectors called palmas which were inserted into the yoke and stood upright in front of
31584-409: The stone—are long gone, so knowledge on clothing relies on art—paintings and drawings, stone reliefs, and figurines—to provide evidence for pre-Columbian ballplayer clothing and gear, which varied considerably in type and quantity. Capes and masks, for example, are shown on several Dainzú reliefs , while Teotihuacan murals show men playing stick-ball in skirts. The basic hip-game outfit consisted of
31772-625: The structure an [REDACTED] -shape when viewed from above. While the length-to-width ratio remained relatively constant at about four-to-one, there was tremendous variation in ballcourt size: The playing field of the Great Ballcourt at Chichen Itza, by far the largest, measures 96.5 by 30 metres (317 by 98 ft), while the Ceremonial Court at Tikal was only 16 by 5 metres (52 by 16 ft). Across Mesoamerica, ballcourts were built and used for many generations. Although ballcourts are found within most sizable Mesoamerican ruins, they are not equally distributed across time or geography. For example,
31960-412: The summer and fall. Although low-lying areas north of the Tropic of Cancer are hot and humid during the summer, they generally have lower yearly temperature averages (from 20 to 24 °C or 68.0 to 75.2 °F) because of more moderate conditions during the winter. Mexico ranks fourth in the world in biodiversity and is one of the 17 megadiverse countries . With over 200,000 different species, Mexico
32148-438: The support of Canada, Italy, Pakistan and other nine countries, which form a group informally called the Coffee Club . The Mexican Armed Forces are administered by the Secretariat of National Defense ( Secretaria de Defensa Nacional , SEDENA). There are two branches: the Mexican Army (which includes the Mexican Air Force ), and the Mexican Navy . The Secretariat of Public Security and Civil Protection has jurisdiction over
32336-510: The time. Consolidating power, President Carranza had peasant leader Emiliano Zapata assassinated in 1919. Carranza had gained the support of the peasantry during the Revolution, but once in power, he did little to institute land reform, which had motivated many to fight in the Revolution. Carranza returned some confiscated land to their original owners. President Carranza's best general, Obregón, served briefly in his administration but returned to his home state of Sonora to position himself to run in
32524-403: The world and integrated into their national cuisines. Some of Mexico's native culinary ingredients include maize, tomato, beans, squash, chocolate, vanilla , avocado , guava , chayote , epazote , camote , jícama , nopal , zucchini , tejocote , huitlacoche , sapote , mamey sapote , and a great variety of chiles , such as the habanero and the jalapeño . Most of these names come from
32712-403: The world with a population of around 300,000 (although some estimates range as high as 500,000). Beijing at the same time had a population variously estimated to be 670,000 up to one million people. By comparison, the population of Venice, the largest city in Europe in 1519, was 100,000 people. Tenochtitlan is the site of modern-day Mexico City . In the formation of the Triple Alliance empire,
32900-463: Was a sport with ritual associations played since at least 1650 BC by the pre-Columbian people of Ancient Mesoamerica . The sport had different versions in different places during the millennia, and a modernized version of the game, ulama , is still played by the indigenous populations in some places. The rules of the Mesoamerican ballgame are not known, but judging from its descendant, ulama, they were probably similar to racquetball , where
33088-413: Was a city whose monumental architecture reflected a new era in Mexican civilization, declining in political power about AD 650, but lasting in cultural influence for the better part of a millennium, to around AD 950. Contemporary with Teotihuacan's greatness was the greatness of the Mayan civilization . The period between AD 250 and AD 650 saw an intense flourishing of Maya civilized accomplishments. While
33276-546: Was a government in internal exile, but with the end of the Civil War in the United States in April 1865, the Reunified U.S. government began aiding the Mexican Republic. Two years later, the French Army withdrew its support, but Maximilian remained in Mexico. Republican forces captured him and he was executed. The "Restored Republic" saw the return of Juárez, "the personification of the embattled republic," as president. The Conservatives had been not only defeated militarily but also discredited politically for their collaboration with
33464-440: Was also in contact with the Toltec civilization were powerfully influenced by central Mexicans as noted by the use of the Chac Mool , Atlantean figures , feathered serpents , and skull platforms. The Toltecs were about to melt and work precious metals such as gold and silver, they cultivated maguey and produced both pulque and clothes from the plant, and they were the employed cocoa beans in trade. The Toltec political system
33652-452: Was constructed, and a highly prestigious artistic and priestly class was cultivated. All of this created a "First World" aura of invincibility around the island-city of Tenochtitlan. Unlike the later Spanish, the Aztecs did not seek to "convert" or destroy the cultures they conquered. Quite the opposite: the engines of warfare and empire in Central Mexico required that all participants understand and accept common cultural "rules" in order to make
33840-424: Was crushed by Juárez. Having won re-election, Juárez died in office in July 1872, and Liberal Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada became president, declaring a "religion of the state" for the rule of law, peace, and order. When Lerdo ran for re-election, Díaz rebelled against the civilian president, issuing the Plan of Tuxtepec . Díaz had more support and waged guerrilla warfare against Lerdo. On the verge of Díaz's victory on
34028-625: Was due to Napoleon Bonaparte 's invasion of Spain in 1808. Hidalgo and some of his soldiers were eventually captured, Hidalgo was defrocked, and they were executed by firing squad on 31 July 1811. The first 35 years after Mexico's independence were marked by political instability and the changing of the Mexican state from a transient monarchy to a fragile federated republic. There were military coups d'état, foreign invasions, ideological conflict between Conservatives and Liberals , and economic stagnation . Former Royal Army General Agustín de Iturbide became regent, as newly independent Mexico sought
34216-427: Was in question. Spain attempted to reconquer its former colony during the 1820s but eventually recognized its independence. France attempted to recoup losses it claimed for its citizens during Mexico's unrest and blockaded the Gulf Coast during the so-called Pastry War of 1838–1839. General Antonio López de Santa Anna emerged as a national hero because of his role in both these conflicts; Santa Anna came to dominate
34404-403: Was more moderate, and relations between the U.S. and Mexico vastly improved during World War II , when Mexico was a significant ally. From 1946 the election of Miguel Alemán , the first civilian president in the post-revolutionary period, Mexico embarked on an aggressive program of economic development, known as the Mexican miracle , which was characterized by industrialization, urbanization, and
34592-408: Was probably slightly larger and heavier than a modern-day baseball. Some Maya depictions, such as this relief , show balls 1 m (3 ft 3 in) or more in diameter. Academic consensus is that these depictions are exaggerations or symbolic, as are, for example, the impossibly unwieldy headdresses worn in the same portrayals. The game was played within a large masonry structure. Built in
34780-403: Was secular education. The Díaz government led a protracted conflict against the Yaqui that culminated with the forced relocation of thousands of Yaqui to Yucatán and Oaxaca. As the centennial of independence approached, Díaz gave an interview where he said he was not going to run in the 1910 elections, when he would be 80. Political opposition had been suppressed and there were few avenues for
34968-432: Was so influential, that many future Mesoamerican dynasties would later claim to be of Toltec descent. Désiré Charnay theorized Toltec migrations originated from Asia due to similarities to Japanese architecture, Chinese decoration, Malaysian language, and Cambodian dress. With the decline of the Toltec civilization came political fragmentation in the Valley of Mexico , and into this new game of political contenders for
35156-407: Was the only Latin American member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development since it joined in 1994 until Chile gained full membership in 2010. Mexico is considered a regional power hence its presence in major economic groups such as the G8+5 and the G-20 . Since the 1990s Mexico has sought a reform of the United Nations Security Council and its working methods with
35344-490: Was used in the 1836 Constitutional Laws . The earliest human artifacts in Mexico are chips of stone tools found near campfire remains in the Valley of Mexico and radiocarbon-dated to circa 10,000 years ago. Mexico is the site of the domestication of maize, tomato, and beans , which produced an agricultural surplus. This enabled the transition from paleo-Indian hunter-gatherers to sedentary agricultural villages beginning around 5000 BC. The formative period of Mesoamerica
#750249