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152-492: The chief precentor was the highest position in many ancient Mesopotamian cities (see Music of Mesopotamia ). Jewish precentors are song or prayer leaders, leading synagogue music . A Jewish precentor is typically called a hazzan or cantor . In the Middle Ages, women precentors leading prayers in the vaybershul (women's gallery) were known as firzogerin , farzangerin, foreleiner, zogerin, or zogerke. A precentor

304-409: A monasterium , the word not having the restricted meaning that it afterwards acquired. In this lies the reason for the apparent anomaly that churches like York Minster and Lincoln Cathedral , which never had any monks attached to them, have inherited the name of minster or monastery. In these early communities the clergy often lived apart in their own dwellings, and were not infrequently married. In

456-510: A succentor (particularly in the daily task of leading choral singing). In some cathedrals (including Canterbury ), the precentor is a minor canon and therefore part of the foundation but not part of the chapter. Traditionally the precentor's stall (seat) in the cathedral is on the opposite side of the quire from that of the dean, leading to the traditional division of the singers into decani (the dean's side) and cantoris (the precentor's side). In Presbyterian churches that worship in

608-551: A Roman magistrate presided from a raised throne in a large, richly decorated and aisled rectangular hall called a basilica ; and now bishops would do the same. The earliest of these new basilican cathedrals of which substantial remains are still visible (and maybe amongst the very earliest to be built) is below the Cathedral of Aquileia on the northern tip of the Adriatic sea. Dated from a mosaic inscription between 313 and 319,

760-594: A cathedral church can be referred to as a duomo (in Italian ) or Dom (e.g. German , Dutch , etc.), from the Latin term domus ecclesiae (house of the church) or domus episcopalis (episcopal house). While the terms are not synonymous (a duomo is a collegiate church , similar to the English " Minster ") many cathedral churches are also collegiate churches, so that duomo , and Dom , have become

912-632: A dominant figure in Mesopotamia, raiding the southern city states and founding colonies in Asia Minor . Eshnunna and Mari , two Amorite ruled states also became important in the north. Babylonia was founded as an independent state by an Amorite chieftain named Sumuabum in 1894 BC. For over a century after its founding, it was a minor and relatively weak state, overshadowed by older and more powerful states such as Isin , Larsa , Assyria and Elam . However, Hammurabi (1792 BC to 1750 BC),

1064-521: A full rhetorical education in Greek and Latin grammar; without which it was not possible for a boy raised with a knowledge only of Late Antique vernacular speech to express himself in approved classical linguistic forms. It was expected that the normal president at both the Eucharist and Baptism would be the bishop, who would celebrate in the cathedral and in titular churches in turn. However, in practice,

1216-542: A hostel for the homeless and strangers. Just as the status of the bishop was transformed at the Peace of the Church; so too was that of the male clergy. With the bishop now resident in the episcopium the other male clergy came to be recognised as his formal familia , in mark of which male clergy now received the tonsure by shaving of their heads; this being originally a Roman badge of adoption. The early church had recognised

1368-496: A hundred years, all bishops in the Mediterranean world had cathedrals, all sat on thrones within an enclosed sanctuary space, and all had established trained choirs to enhance eucharistic worship. The driving principle underlying this change was the acceptance by bishops, more or less willingly, of an imperial invitation to adopt and maintain the duties, dignity and insignia proper to a public magistrate . Characteristically

1520-558: A matter of debate), but Sumerian continued to be used as a sacred, ceremonial, literary and scientific language in Mesopotamia until the 1st century AD. The Akkadian period is generally dated to 2350–2170 BC according to the Middle Chronology , or 2230–2050 BC according to the Short Chronology . Around 2334 BC, Sargon became ruler of Akkad in northern Mesopotamia . He proceeded to conquer an area stretching from

1672-471: A minority religion, largely confined to urban areas and restricted social groupings, and subject to official hostility and occasional persecution; Christianity acquired greatly expanded numbers of potential adherents of all classes, initially still within city areas, but eventually extending out to the pagus , the city's rural hinterland. The consequence was a radical expansion in the buildings, funding and personnel of associated Church establishments throughout

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1824-522: A modification of the Benedictine rule. Gisa , a native of Lorraine , who was bishop of Wells from 1061 to 1088, introduced it into England, and imposed its observance on the clergy of his cathedral church, but it was not followed for long there, or elsewhere in England. During the 10th and 11th centuries, the cathedral clergy became more definitely organised and were divided into two classes. One

1976-460: A native Akkadian vice regent Puzur-Sin overthrew the Amorites of Babylon and a period of civil war with multiple claimants to the throne ensued, ending with the succession of king Adasi c. 1720 BC. The Middle Assyrian period begins c. 1720 BC with the ejection of Amorites and Babylonians from Assyria by a king called Adasi . The nation remained relatively strong and stable, peace was made with

2128-579: A people who settled in northwestern Mesopotamia and southeast Anatolia in 1600 BC. By 1450 BC they established a medium-sized empire under a Mitanni ruling class, and temporarily made tributary vassals out of kings in the west, making them a major threat for the Pharaoh in Egypt until their overthrow by Assyria. The Hurrian language is related to the later Urartian , but there is no conclusive evidence these two languages are related to any others. By 1300 BC

2280-423: A precentor sometimes ranked next to the dean, sometimes next to the archdeacon . In some instances a precentor's sphere of activity was more broad, including the duty of installing deans, canons, and other dignitaries; and in some monasteries , the duties of librarian and registrar. From the fourteenth century the title and dignity were largely handed over to incumbents whose musical knowledge did not fit them for

2432-432: A regular occurrence, female deacons would continue to be needed for that service; but otherwise the main factor maintaining these orders was a knock-on effect from the rule of continence applied to bishops, presbyters and deacons. When a man became ordained, and moved into the episcopium with the rest of the bishop's familia ; then there would usually also be a requirement for support to their mothers, wives and daughters; and

2584-406: A regular stipend. Plentiful donor inscriptions show that most new church building programmes; mosaics, roofs, furnishings, were financed by private donations. The costs of maintenance and lighting, however, fell on the general fund. This also applied to the churches, known as tituli , served directly by the bishop's clergy, generally also including any surviving house churches from the period before

2736-574: A rival to Egypt . Although the Hittites overthrew Babylon, another people, the Kassites , took it as their capital (c. 1650–1155 BC (short chronology)). They have the distinction of being the longest lasting dynasty in Babylon, reigning for over four centuries. They left few records, so this period is unfortunately obscure. They are of unknown origin; what little we have of their language suggests it

2888-581: A rule, held a separate prebend or endowment, besides receiving his share of the common funds of the church. For the most part the canons also speedily became non-resident, and this led to the distinction of residentiary and non-residentiary canons, until in most churches the number of resident canons became definitely limited in number, and the non-residentiary canons, who no longer shared in the common funds, became generally known as prebendaries only, although by their non-residence they did not forfeit their position as canons, and retained their votes in chapter like

3040-480: A small state. The Amorite dynasty ended in 1595 BC, when Babylonia fell to the Hittite king Mursilis , after which the Kassites took control. Unlike the south of Mesopotamia, the native Akkadian kings of Assyria repelled Amorite advances during the 20th and 19th centuries BC. However this changed in 1813 BC when an Amorite king named Shamshi-Adad I usurped the throne of Assyria. Although claiming descendency from

3192-462: A tank had been inserted in a room on the opposite side of the courtyard as a baptistery, with rich wall paintings above it. The large room was indeed found to have a raised pulpitum at one end, big enough for one person in turn to read, preach and preside from; but too low to have been surmounted by a throne, and too small to have contained an altar. Otherwise the large room had no decoration or distinctive features at all. In 269, soon after Dura fell to

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3344-406: A throne from which he presided in worship; and that he had trained a female choir to sing hymns of his own devising. These practices were all condemned as innovations, improperly importing the symbols of his secular Roman magistracy into church ritual; while presumptuously and blasphemously asserting that the person of the bishop in eucharistic worship is seated in the place of Christ himself. Still in

3496-459: Is a Neolithic archaeological culture in northern Mesopotamia dating to the early sixth millennium BC. It is named after the type site of Tell Hassuna in Iraq . Other sites where Hassuna material has been found include Tell Shemshara . The Samarra culture is a Chalcolithic archaeological culture in northern Mesopotamia that is roughly dated to 5500–4800 BCE. It partially overlaps with

3648-469: Is a church that contains the cathedra ( Latin for 'seat') of a bishop , thus serving as the central church of a diocese , conference , or episcopate . Churches with the function of "cathedral" are usually specific to those Christian denominations with an episcopal hierarchy, such as the Catholic , Eastern Orthodox , Anglican , and some Lutheran churches. Church buildings embodying

3800-648: Is a language isolate . Although Babylonia maintained its independence through this period, it was not a power in the Near East, and mostly sat out the large wars fought over the Levant between Egypt , the Hittite Empire , and Mitanni (see below), as well as independent peoples in the region. Assyria participated in these wars toward the end of the period, overthrowing the Mitanni Empire and besting

3952-510: Is a distinction between those church traditions, predominantly those of Eastern Orthodox Christianity but formerly also including Celtic churches in Ireland , Scotland and Wales , whose bishops came to be made in monasteries ; and those church traditions whose bishops have tended predominantly to arise through the ranks of cathedral clergy. In the Catholic or Roman Catholic tradition,

4104-449: Is a member of a church who helps facilitate worship. The role of precentor was carried over from the synagogues into the early Christian church. The term precentor usually described an ecclesiastical dignitary, an administrative or ceremonial officer. Anciently, the precentor had duties such as being the first or leading chanter, who on Sundays and greater feasts intoned certain antiphons , psalms , hymns , responsories , etc.; gave

4256-534: Is also applied to monastic and other major churches without episcopal responsibilities. When the church at which an archbishop or " metropolitan " presides is specifically intended, the term kathedrikós naós ( lit.   ' cathedral temple ' ) is used. The episcopal throne embodies the principle that only a bishop makes a cathedral, and this still applies even in those churches that no longer have bishops, but retain cathedral dignity and functions in ancient churches over which bishops formerly presided. But

4408-487: Is an increasingly large error margin toward the 2nd and 3rd millennia BC. The chronology for much of the third and second millennia BC is subject to much debate. Based on different estimates for the length of periods for which still very few historical documents are available, so-called Ultra-long, Long, Middle , Short and Ultra-short Chronologies have been proposed by various scholars, varying by as much as 150 years in their dating of specific periods. Despite problems with

4560-428: Is charged with the oversight of its schools, ought to read divinity lectures, and superintend the lections in the choir and correct slovenly readers. The chancellor is often the secretary and librarian of the chapter. In the absence of the dean and precentor, the chancellor is president of the chapter, and within the cathedral is usually assigned the easternmost stall, on the dean's side of the choir. The fourth dignitary

4712-434: Is identifiable from its initially logographic script which arose last half of the 4th millennium BC. By the 3rd millennium BC, these urban centers had developed into increasingly complex societies. Irrigation and other means of exploiting food sources were being used to amass large surpluses. Huge building projects were being undertaken by rulers, and political organization was becoming ever more sophisticated. Throughout

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4864-688: Is likely earlier periods exist obscured under the alluvium . In the south it has a very long duration between about 6500 and 3800 BC when it is replaced by the Uruk period . In North Mesopotamia the period runs only between about 5300 and 4300 BC. It is preceded by the Halaf period and the Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period and succeeded by the Late Chalcolithic period. The new period is named Northern Ubaid to distinguish it from

5016-787: Is more important in the hierarchy than the church because it is from the cathedral that the bishop governs the area under his or her administrative authority. Following the Protestant Reformation , the Christian church in several parts of Western Europe, such as Scotland , the Netherlands , certain Swiss Cantons and parts of Germany , adopted a presbyterian polity that did away with bishops altogether. Where ancient cathedral buildings in these lands are still in use for congregational worship, they generally retain

5168-563: Is often called a cradle of civilization . Mesopotamia ( Ancient Greek : Μεσοποταμία , romanized :  Mesopotamíā ; Classical Syriac : ܒܝܬ ܢܗܪ̈ܝܢ , lit.   'Bēṯ Nahrēn') means "Between the Rivers". The oldest known occurrence of the name Mesopotamia dates to the 4th century BC, when it was used to designate the area between the Euphrates and the Tigris . The name

5320-620: Is particularly uncertain due to difficulties in our understanding of the text, our understanding of the material culture of the Early Dynastic period and a general lack of radiocarbon dates for sites in Iraq. Also, the multitude of city-states makes for a confusing situation, as each has its own history. In the past, the Sumerian King List was considered to be an important historical source, but recent scholarship has dismissed

5472-406: Is strengthened by the find of a sealing at Jemdet Nasr that lists a number of cities that can be identified, including Ur , Uruk and Larsa . The entire Early Dynastic period is generally dated to 2900–2350 BC according to the Middle Chronology , or 2800–2230 BC according to the Short Chronology . The Sumerians were firmly established in Mesopotamia by the middle of the 4th millennium BC, in

5624-477: Is the treasurer ( custo , sacrisla , cheficier ) who is guardian of the fabric, and of all the furniture and ornaments of the church, and whose duty was to provide bread and wine for the Eucharist , and candles and incense . The treasurer also regulated such matters as the ringing of the bells. The treasurer's stall is opposite to that of the chancellor. In many cathedral churches are additional dignitaries, as

5776-554: Is thought to be Sumerian . The texts deal with administrative matters like the rationing of foodstuffs or lists of objects or animals. Settlements during this period were highly organized around a central building that controlled all aspects of society. The economy focused on local agricultural production and sheep-and-goat pastoralism . The homogeneity of the Jemdet Nasr period across a large area of southern Mesopotamia indicates intensive contacts and trade between settlements. This

5928-512: Is yet known. These early kings from the 23rd to late 21st centuries BC, who are recorded as kings who lived in tents were likely to have been semi nomadic pastoralist rulers, nominally independent but subject to the Akkadian Empire, who dominated the region and at some point during this period became fully urbanised and founded the city state of Ashur . A king named Ushpia (c. 2030 BC) is credited with dedicating temples to Ashur in

6080-407: The Benedictine "dean" who had ten monks under his charge. The role of dean came into existence to supply the place of the provost in the internal management of the church and chapter. In England every secular cathedral church was headed by a dean who was originally elected by the chapter and confirmed in office by the bishop. The dean is president of the chapter, and within the cathedral has charge of

6232-471: The English Reformation . Although the cathedrals were retained by the now independent and established Church of England , the monastic cathedral chapters were dissolved by King Henry VIII and, with the exceptions of Bath and Coventry, were refounded by him as chapters of canons with a dean as the head and other clergy as minor canons. In Germany and other parts of Europe, with the spread of

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6384-539: The Hassuna and early Ubaid . The Ubaid period (c. 6500–3800 BC) is a prehistoric period of Mesopotamia . The name derives from Tell al-'Ubaid in Southern Mesopotamia, where the earliest large excavation of Ubaid period material was conducted initially by Henry Hall and later by Leonard Woolley . In South Mesopotamia the period is the earliest known period on the alluvial plain although it

6536-639: The Hittites and Phrygians , but the Kassites in Babylon did not. They did, however, fight against their longstanding rival to the east, Elam (related by some linguists to the Dravidian languages in modern India). Babylonia found itself under Assyrian and Elamite domination for much of the later Kassite period. In the end, the Elamites conquered Babylon, bringing this period to an end. The Hurrians were

6688-472: The Latin cathedra ('seat'), and ultimately from the Ancient Greek καθέδρα ( kathédra ), 'seat, bench', from κατά ( kata ) 'down' and ἕδρα ( hedra ) 'seat, base, chair'. The word refers to the presence and prominence of the bishop's or archbishop's chair or throne, raised above both clergy and laity, and originally located facing the congregation from behind the high altar . In

6840-553: The Lutheran Church , some ancient churches, like Nidaros Cathedral , Norway, and Lübeck Cathedral , Germany, became the seats of Protestant bishops, as in England. Many new churches were built which serve the regional administrative function of a cathedral. However, not all churches that function as the seat of a bishop are known as "cathedral", the custom varying from place to place, according to local tradition. Some are simply designated "church", as occurs at Budolfi Church ,

6992-720: The Persian Gulf into modern-day Syria . The Akkadians were a Semitic people and the Akkadian language came into widespread use as the lingua franca during this period, but literacy remained in the Sumerian language. The Akkadians further developed the Sumerian irrigation system with the incorporation of large weirs and diversion dams into the design to facilitate the reservoirs and canals required to transport water vast distances. The dynasty continued until around c. 2154 BC, and reached its zenith under Naram-Sin , who began

7144-600: The Rashidun army under Khalid ibn al-Walid in the 630s. After the Arab - Islamic conquest of the mid-7th century AD, Mesopotamia saw an influx of non native Arabs and later also Turkic peoples. The city of Assur was still occupied until the 14th century, and Assyrians possibly still formed the majority in northern Mesopotamia until the Middle Ages. Assyrians retain Eastern Rite Christianity whereas

7296-422: The type-site Jemdet Nasr , is generally dated to 3100–2900 BC. It was first distinguished on the basis of distinctive painted monochrome and polychrome pottery with geometric and figurative designs. The cuneiform writing system that had been developed during the preceding Uruk period was further refined. While the language in which these tablets were written cannot be identified with certainty for this period, it

7448-448: The 4th century. The first cathedrals represent this expansion in material form. The location and layout of the first cathedrals varied substantially from city to city, although most, as at Aquileia, tended to be sited within the city walls but away from the urban centre; certain elements are almost always found. Basilican halls had previously been characteristic of major civic complexes and military headquarters buildings; but now became

7600-494: The 8th century Chrodegang , Bishop of Metz (743–766), compiled a code of rules for the clergy of the cathedral churches, which, though widely accepted in Germany and other parts of the continent, gained little acceptance in England. According to Chrodegang's rule, the cathedral clergy were to live under a common roof, occupy a common dormitory and submit to the authority of a special officer. The rule of Chrodegang was, in fact,

7752-617: The Americas. In addition, both the Catholic Church and Orthodox churches have formed new dioceses within formerly Protestant lands for converts and migrant co-religionists. Consequently, it is not uncommon to find Christians in a single city being served by three or more cathedrals of differing denominations. The word cathedral is derived, possibly via the French cathédrale , from the Latin ecclesia cathedralis and from

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7904-476: The Amorite ruler of Babylon , turned Babylon into a major power and eventually conquered Mesopotamia and beyond. He is famous for his law code and conquests, but he is also famous due to the large amount of records that exist from the period of his reign. After the death of Hammurabi, the first Babylonian dynasty lasted for another century and a half, but his empire quickly unravelled, and Babylon once more became

8056-649: The Assyrians from the mid-14th to the 13th centuries BC, losing territory to the Assyrian kings of the period. However they endured until being finally swept aside by the Phrygians , who conquered their homelands in Asia Minor. The Phrygians were prevented from moving south into Mesopotamia by the Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser I . The Hittites fragmented into a number of small Neo-Hittite states, which endured in

8208-496: The Cathedral are placed under his surveillance. He will also preserve order and silence in the sacristy." A precentor is a person, usually ordained, who is in charge of preparing worship services. This position is usually held in a large church. Most cathedrals have a precentor in charge of the organisation of liturgy and worship. The precentor of a cathedral is usually a residentiary canon or prebendary and may be assisted by

8360-718: The Elder Siamun Psusennes II Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef ( Sargonid dynasty ) Tiglath-Pileser Shalmaneser Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon Sennacherib Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II Cathedral A cathedral

8512-616: The Euphrates and the western part of the Zagros Mountains are also often included under the wider term Mesopotamia. A further distinction is usually made between Upper or Northern Mesopotamia and Lower or Southern Mesopotamia. Upper Mesopotamia is the area between the Euphrates and the Tigris from their sources down to Baghdad . Lower Mesopotamia is the area from Baghdad to the Persian Gulf . In modern scientific usage,

8664-715: The Great in 330 BC, and remained under Hellenistic rule for another two centuries, with Seleucia as capital from 305 BC. In the 1st century BC, Mesopotamia was in constant turmoil as the Seleucid Empire was weakened by Parthia on one hand and the Mithridatic Wars on the other. The Parthian Empire lasted for five centuries, into the 3rd century AD, when it was succeeded by the Sassanids . After constant wars between Romans and first Parthians, later Sassanids;

8816-467: The Hittite Empire fell at the beginning of this period and very few records are known from Egypt and Elam. This was a time of invasion and upheaval by many new people throughout the Near East, North Africa, The Caucasus, Mediterranean and Balkan regions. The Neo-Assyrian Empire is usually considered to have begun with the accession of Adad-nirari II, in 911 BC, lasting until the fall of Nineveh at

8968-457: The Hurrians had been reduced to their homelands in Asia Minor after their power was broken by the Assyrians and Hittites, and held the status of vassals to the "Hatti", the Hittites , a western Indo-European people (belonging to the linguistic "centum" group) who dominated most of Asia Minor (modern Turkey ) at this time from their capital of Hattusa . The Hittites came into conflict with

9120-479: The Kassite rulers of Babylonia, and Assyria was free from Hittite, Hurrian, Gutian, Elamite and Mitanni threat. However a period of Mitanni domination occurred from the mid-15th to early 14th centuries BC. This was ended by Eriba-Adad I (1392 BC - 1366), and his successor Ashur-uballit I completely overthrew the Mitanni Empire and founded a powerful Assyrian Empire that came to dominate Mesopotamia and much of

9272-557: The Lutheran cathedral of Aalborg in Denmark . In most of Europe , the earliest head of a secular church seems to have been the provost ( praepositus , probst , etc.), who was charged not only with the internal regulation of the church and oversight of the members of the chapter and control of the services, but was also the steward or seneschal of the lands and possessions of the church. The latter often mainly engaged his attention, to

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9424-1791: The Mandaeans retain their ancient gnostic religion and Mesopotamian Aramaic as a mother tongue and written script to this day. Among these peoples, the giving of traditional Mesopotamian names is still common. ( Shamshi-Adad dynasty 1808–1736 BCE) (Amorites) Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi (Non-dynastic usurpers 1735–1701 BCE) Puzur-Sin Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi ( Adaside dynasty 1700–722 BCE) Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II Second Intermediate Period Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon

9576-594: The Medes and Babylonians ruled Assyria. Babylon and Media fell under Persian rule in the 6th century BC ( Cyrus the Great ). For two centuries of Achaemenid rule both Assyria and Babylonia flourished, Achaemenid Assyria in particular becoming a major source of manpower for the army and a breadbasket for the economy. Mesopotamian Aramaic remained the lingua franca of the Achaemenid Empire, much as it had done in Assyrian times. Mesopotamia fell to Alexander

9728-475: The Middle Chronology, this chronological framework continues to be used by many recent handbooks on the archaeology and history of the ancient Near East. A study from 2001 published high-resolution radiocarbon dates from Turkey supporting dates for the 2nd millennium BC that are very close to those proposed by the Middle Chronology. The early Neolithic human occupation of Mesopotamia is, like

9880-403: The Peace of the Church and the rural baptistery churches; but not to the chapels, called parochiae , established by rural landowners for the convenience of their tenants. The bishop, in respect of his civil status, was expected to contribute to public works of general benefit; aqueducts, bridges, watercourses. In all cities, bishops dedicated substantial sums to the support of widows, orphans and

10032-455: The Persian army, a body of clerics assembled a charge sheet against the bishop of Antioch, Paul of Samosata , in the form of an open letter. Amongst the accusations was that Paul, who had received the civil rank of ducenarius due to contacts in the imperial court, had improperly erected an enclosure, or secretum , for himself in the church of Antioch; that within this enclosure he had erected

10184-455: The West (other than in parts of Italy) and so the church would have to educate its own. Just as the presbyters deputised for the bishop in ritual matters, so the deacons deputised in administrative and financial matters, especially in the raising and delivering of charity. At the head of the diaconate was the archdeacon; the bishop's main deputy in managerial affairs. Originally inferior in rank to

10336-584: The Whale , and a series of, mainly female, donor portraits. It appears that similar cathedrals of double-basilica and baptistry were soon afterwards erected in Milan , Trier and Pavia ; but that subsequently single-basilican churches became the more common cathedral model. Constantine's declaration of imperial favour towards Christianity transformed all aspects of Christian life in the Roman Empire. From being

10488-703: The ancient Near East (including Babylonia , Asia Minor , Iran , the Levant and parts of the Caucasus and Arabia ), with Assyrian armies campaigning from the Mediterranean Sea to the Caspian , and from the Caucasus to Arabia . The empire endured until 1076 BC with the death of Tiglath-Pileser I . During this period Assyria became a major power, overthrowing the Mitanni Empire, annexing swathes of Hittite , Hurrian and Amorite land, sacking and dominating Babylon , Canaan / Phoenicia and becoming

10640-431: The ancient world, the chair, on a raised dais, was the distinctive mark of a teacher or rhetor and thus symbolises the bishop's role as teacher. A raised throne within a basilican hall was also definitive for a Late Antique presiding magistrate ; and so the cathedra also symbolises the bishop's role in governing his diocese. The word cathedral , as the seat of a bishop, is found in most languages; however in Europe

10792-434: The archaeological Uruk period, although scholars dispute when they arrived. It is hard to tell where the Sumerians might have come from because the Sumerian language is a language isolate , unrelated to any other known language. Their mythology includes many references to the area of Mesopotamia but little clue regarding their place of origin, perhaps indicating that they had been there for a long time. The Sumerian language

10944-487: The archpriest, the archdeacon by the sixth century had established clear pre-eminence. Subdeacons assisted the deacons, but unlike them were allowed to marry after ordination; consequently many clerics stopped the cursus honorum at this point, and it was not unusual for a subdeacon to be elected bishop; and even Pope. In practice, the first three of these orders tended to be given together, and were typically applied to boys as young as seven. These boy lectors were too young for

11096-437: The baptismal tank, commonly octagonal, was now fully deep enough for total immersion, and wide enough to accommodate both the candidate and an assisting male or female deacon. Baptisteries commonly adopted centralised plan forms derived from funerary chapels; and are invariably separate from the congregational basilica. No one lived in the house church at Dura; such residential facilities as the latrine and kitchen were removed in

11248-496: The bishop needed deputies for the Eucharist and also for the Divine Office of daily prayer, and this duty fell to the priests. The bishop selected a senior priest as archpriest who acted as his official deputy in all ritual matters and as head of the familia. The archpriest was also responsible for the cathedral school. After the 5th century, there were no longer state-supported secular teachers of rhetoric and grammar in

11400-790: The capacity of one of the larger churches in the diocese. Thus, the term cathedral is often applied colloquially to large and impressive churches that do not function as cathedrals (e.g. the Arctic Cathedral in Tromsø , Norway). Simon Jenkins ' guidebook on European cathedrals intentionally includes several churches that have never been cathedrals ( Ulm Minster and the Sagrada Família , a minor basilica in Barcelona) or that were formerly designated so ( Westminster Abbey and Basel Minster ). The history of cathedrals commenced in

11552-404: The case of monastic cathedral churches, the internal government was that of the religious order to which the chapter belonged and all the members kept perpetual residence. The alternative of this was the cathedral ruled by a secular chapter; the dignities of provost, dean, precentor, chancellor, treasurer, etc., came into being for the regulation and good order of the church and its services, while

11704-592: The cathedral churches in the south of France , the provost was the ordinary head of the cathedral chapter, but the office was not common elsewhere. As regards France, of 136 cathedral churches existing at the Revolution , 38 only, and those either on the borders of Germany or in the extreme south, had a provost as the head of the chapter. In others the provost existed as a subordinate officer. There were two provosts at Autun , and Lyon and Chartres had four each, all as subordinate officers. The normal constitution of

11856-417: The cathedral itself, and also to the clergy, called canonici attached to churches founded by the bishop within the city. From the end of the 4th century, as the mission of the church extended more into rural areas, 'baptistery churches' were founded in more distant villages, so that rural populations could receive the bishop's baptism locally; and the clergy in these churches also counted as canonici and drew

12008-418: The chapter of a secular cathedral church comprised four dignitaries (there might be more), in addition to the canons. These are the dean, the precentor, the chancellor and the treasurer. These four dignitaries, occupying the four corner stalls in the choir, are called in many of the statutes the quatuor majores personae of the church. The role of dean (from decanus ) seems to have derived its designation from

12160-502: The church that serves this function is correctly called the "principal church" of the respective entity—though some have coopted the term cathedral anyway. The Catholic Church also uses the following terms. The cathedral church of a metropolitan bishop is called a metropolitan cathedral . The term cathedral actually carries no implication as to the size or ornateness of the building, although many cathedrals are impressive edifices simply because diocesan celebrations typically require

12312-463: The church. In some cases, the office of provost was abolished, but in others it was continued: the provost, who was occasionally an archdeacon as well, remaining head of the chapter. This arrangement was most commonly followed in Germany. In England the provost was almost unknown. Bishop Gisa introduced a provost as head of the chapter of Wells Cathedral , but the office was afterwards subordinated to

12464-409: The clerical payroll of Hagia Sophia be strictly limited to 60 presbyters, 100 male deacons, 90 subdeacons, 110 lectors, 25 singers, 100 doorkeepers and 40 female deacons; 525 in all. Bishops were at the head of the local church; but not explicitly within the cursus honorum , as appointment was by election from the local clergy and people. The clergy tended to favour appointment of bishops from within

12616-540: The college chapel choir. At Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge and Magdalene College, Cambridge , the precentor's main responsibility is as director of the college choir, which provides music for chapel services. Ancient Mesopotamia The Civilization of Mesopotamia ranges from the earliest human occupation in the Paleolithic period up to Late antiquity . This history is pieced together from evidence retrieved from archaeological excavations and, after

12768-808: The common names for a cathedral in those countries. It is also common in parts of the Iberian Peninsula to use Sé (in Portuguese ), and Seu (in Catalan , with its Spanish form Seo ), all of them from the Latin term episcopalis sedes , meaning "episcopal seat". In the Eastern Orthodox Church , the Latin word cathedral commonly translates as katholikon ( sobor in Slavic languages), meaning 'assembly', but this title

12920-436: The complex consisted of two parallel east–west aisled halls of similar size; with a third smaller north–south cross-hall connecting them, which has been interpreted as the presence hall of the episcopium or bishop's residence. The three halls create an open courtyard, in which was originally located a separate baptistery. Surviving from both large basilican halls are rich mosaic pavements showing (amongst other scenes) Jonah and

13072-648: The congregation insufficiently literate, as was the case in the black church in Harper Lee 's To Kill a Mockingbird ) are usually led by the precentor, much as with other non-instrumental churches. The title "precentor" is also used at two English public schools , Radley College and Eton College , and a private school in Sri Lanka , S. Thomas' College, Mount Lavinia , to refer to the head of music. These school precentors have no specific religious duties although, as part of their musical function, they may conduct

13224-538: The conversion. But cathedral complexes always included an episcopal residence. Prominent amongst the charges that had been directed against Paul of Samosata had been his alleged over-familiarity with pious women. As was common, Paul had been married when elected bishop; and again, as was universally expected for a bishop, he had then ceased sexual contact with his wife and no longer cohabited with her. But his accusers charged that, by continuing to associate with other women (even without any indication of actual impropriety) he

13376-417: The corresponding stall on the north side, although there are exceptions to this rule, where, as at St Paul 's, the archdeacon of the cathedral city ranks second and occupies what is usually the precentor's stall. The third dignitary is the chancellor ( scholasticus , écoldtre , capiscol , magistral , etc.), who must not be confounded with the chancellor of the diocese. The chancellor of the cathedral church

13528-595: The death of Ashurbanipal in 627 BC, the Assyrian empire descended into a series of bitter civil wars, allowing its former vassals to free themselves. Cyaxares reorganized and modernized the Median Army, then joined with King Nabopolassar of Babylon. These allies, together with the Scythians , overthrew the Assyrian Empire and destroyed Nineveh in 612 BC. After the final victory at Carchemish in 605 BC

13680-413: The death of the last strong Assyrian ruler, Ashurbanipal , and Babylonia rebelled under Nabopolassar a Chaldean chieftain the following year. In alliance with king Cyaxares of the Medes, and with the help of the Scythians and Cimmerians the city of Nineveh was sacked in 612 BC, Assyria fell by 605 BC and the seat of empire was transferred to Babylonia for the first time since Hammurabi . After

13832-514: The dignity of Precentor is still the highest in the chapter.... Some chapters have sub-chanters, those of Arras being among the honorary resident canons", where also the quoted statutes of the Bishop of Dijon may serve to illustrate the modern idea of the office of precentor: "The Précenteur or Grand Chantre is the head of the choir and ... brings the antiphon to the bishop when officiating pontifically. Sacristans , chanters, choir-boys, and employés of

13984-416: The dominant ruler in the region, who made many raids into southern Mesopotamia between 1945 BC and 1906 BC, attacking the independent Sumero-Akkadian city states of the region such as Isin , and founding colonies in Asia Minor . This was to become a pattern throughout the history of ancient Mesopotamia with the future rivalry between Assyria and Babylonia. However, Babylonia did not exist at this time, but

14136-430: The duties to which the name of precentor owed its origin; the dignities remained, but the duties became obscured. "In France, some chapters retain traces of the dignity of Precentor, and sometimes an archdeacon, sometimes a titular or honorary canon, carrying the baton cantoral, the insignia of his office". This "baton cantoral" is a silver or white staff. "In the dioceses of Aix, Carcassonne, Coutances, Dijon, Metz, Orléans,

14288-543: The emergence of urban life in Mesopotamia. Sumerian civilization took form in the Uruk period (4th millennium BC), continuing into the Jemdet Nasr and Early Dynastic periods . The late Uruk period (34th to 32nd centuries) saw the gradual emergence of the cuneiform script and corresponds to the Early Bronze Age ; it may also be called the "Protoliterate period". The Jemdet Nasr period, named after

14440-626: The end of the 9th millennium BC. This transition has been documented at sites like Abu Hureyra and Mureybet, which continued to be occupied from the Natufian well into the PPNB. The so-far earliest monumental sculptures and circular stone buildings from Göbekli Tepe in southeastern Turkey date to the PPNA/Early PPNB and represent, according to the excavator, the communal efforts of a large community of hunter-gatherers. The Fertile Crescent

14592-420: The episcopium also commonly provided private dining halls for the hospitality expected of the bishop's enhanced social status, a private oratory or chapel for the bishop, and often a bath house. Just as the episcopal residence was integral within the complex of cathedral buildings, so too there was no distinction between episcopal, diocesan and cathedral property and endowments. In principle, all diocesan income

14744-404: The example of St. Gregory the Great in acting as directors of chant-schools. The schola was always in attendance when the bishop officiated in his cathedral, and to the precentor was assigned a place near the bishop and high in dignity. His office demanded much learning and executive ability, and his dignity corresponded with his duties. In the cathedrals of England, France, Spain, and Germany,

14896-413: The first, if short-lived, empire to extend west of Mesopotamia, at least according to historical accounts dated centuries later. The last native Sumerian to rule over most of Sumer before Sargon of Akkad established supremacy was Lugal-Zage-Si . Akkadian gradually replaced Sumerian as the spoken language of Mesopotamia somewhere around the turn of the 3rd and the 2nd millennium BC (the exact dating being

15048-534: The functions of a cathedral first appeared in Italy , Gaul , Spain , and North Africa in the 4th century, but cathedrals did not become universal within the Western Catholic Church until the 12th century, by which time they had developed architectural forms , institutional structures, and legal identities distinct from parish churches , monastic churches, and episcopal residences. The cathedral

15200-462: The grammar school, but were valued as choristers, and so were included in the Schola Cantorum or choir school. Originally under the responsibility of the deacons, the organisation of choirs was reformed by Pope Gregory the Great , who introduced the office of primicerius or head cantor for this purpose. This proved a vital reform; as without any comprehensive system of musical notation,

15352-817: The hands of the Babylonians, Medes, Scythians and Cimmerians in 612 BC. The empire was the largest and most powerful the world had yet seen. At its height Assyria conquered the 25th Dynasty Egypt (and expelled its Nubian / Kushite dynasty) as well as Babylonia , Chaldea , Elam , Media , Persia , Urartu , Phoenicia , Aramea / Syria , Phrygia , the Neo-Hittites , Hurrians , northern Arabia , Gutium , Israel , Judah , Moab , Edom , Corduene , Cilicia , Mannea and parts of Ancient Greece (such as Cyprus ), and defeated and/or exacted tribute from Scythia , Cimmeria , Lydia , Nubia , Ethiopia and others. The Neo-Babylonian Empire or Second Babylonian Empire

15504-424: The historical fashion (i.e., sing a cappella ; see Presbyterian worship ), a precentor is a person (man or woman, not necessarily clergy) who leads the singing, often by means of conducting techniques, but sometimes just by singing from amongst the congregation. Churches that use a call and response method of singing called lining out (used primarily when sufficient numbers of psalm books are unavailable, or

15656-466: The home city of the god. In around 1975 BC Puzur-Ashur I founded a new dynasty, and his successors such as Shalim-ahum , Ilushuma (1945–1906 BC), Erishum I (1905–1867 BC), Ikunum (1867–1860 BC), Sargon I , Naram-Sin and Puzur-Ashur II left inscriptions regarding the building of temples to Ashur , Adad and Ishtar in Assyria. Ilushuma in particular appears to have been a powerful king and

15808-411: The introduction of writing in the late 4th millennium BC, an increasing amount of historical sources. While in the Paleolithic and early Neolithic periods only parts of Upper Mesopotamia were occupied, the southern alluvium was settled during the late Neolithic period. Mesopotamia has been home to many of the oldest major civilizations, entering history from the Early Bronze Age , for which reason it

15960-488: The latter establishes their absolute age expressed in years. In archaeology, relative chronologies are established by carefully excavating archaeological sites and reconstructing their stratigraphy – the order in which layers were deposited. In general, newer remains are deposited on top of older material. Absolute chronologies are established by dating remains, or the layers in which they are found, through absolute dating methods. These methods include radiocarbon dating and

16112-458: The millennium, the various city-states Kish , Uruk, Ur and Lagash vied for power and gained hegemony at various times. Nippur and Girsu were important religious centers, as was Eridu at this point. This was also the time of Gilgamesh , a semi-historical king of Uruk, and the subject of the famous Epic of Gilgamesh . By 2600 BC, the logographic script had developed into a decipherable cuneiform syllabic script. The chronology of this era

16264-440: The native Assyrian king Ushpia , he was regarded as an interloper. Shamshi-Adad I created a regional empire in Assyria, maintaining and expanding the established colonies in Asia Minor and Syria . His son Ishme-Dagan I continued this process, however his successors were eventually conquered by Hammurabi , a fellow Amorite from Babylon. The three Amorite kings succeeding Ishme-Dagan were vassals of Hammurabi, but after his death,

16416-411: The neglect of his domestic and ecclesiastical duties, and complaints were soon raised that the provost was too much mixed in worldly affairs, and was too frequently absent from his spiritual duties. This led, in many cases, to the institution of a new officer called the "dean", who had charge of that portion of the provost's duties that related to the internal discipline of the chapter and the services of

16568-532: The non-residence of the canons, rather than their perpetual residence, became the rule, and led to their duties being performed by a body of "vicars", who officiated for them at the services of the church. Prior to the Reformation all cathedrals of Western Europe were of the Roman Catholic Church . In England, much of the structure of the monastic and cathedral system was reconstituted during

16720-421: The only way that sacred music could be maintained and passed on was through professional choirs of sound musical training undertaking cathedral worship – and such skills are not guaranteed to be present in high-ranking ecclesiastics. These orders had been of considerable importance in earlier centuries; but tended to be sidelined in cathedrals from the 4th century onwards. So long as adult baptism continued as

16872-497: The orders of bishop, presbyter (priest) and deacon, but a range of minor orders had since grown up in addition; and all were tonsured. These orders now tended to be understood as clerical 'ranks', equivalent to those in the military, such that the male clergy are now often referred to as a "clerical militia". And as in the Roman military or civil service, promotion was expected to follow the principle of cursus honorum , rising through

17024-428: The orders of widows and virgins respectively continued largely for this purpose. Notwithstanding wide differences over time in institutional structures and wider historical contexts; the key functions established for the first cathedrals have tended to remain as distinctive cathedral functions down the centuries; a regular cycle of choral prayer; providing a forum for civic leadership; a commitment to higher learning; and

17176-401: The other dignities and the provost became simply the steward of certain of the prebendal lands. The provost of the collegiate church of Beverley Minster was the most notable instance of such an officer in England, but at Beverley he was an external officer with authority in the government of the church, no stall in the choir and no vote in chapter. In Germany and Scandinavia , and in a few of

17328-422: The performance of the services, taking specified portions of them by statute on the principal festivals. The dean sits in the chief stall in the choir, which is usually at the west end of the south side. Next to the dean (as a rule) is the precentor ( primicerius , cantor , etc.), whose special duty is that of regulating the musical portion of the services. The precentor presides in the dean's absence, and occupies

17480-413: The pitch or tone to the bishop and dean at Mass (the succentor performing a similar office to the canons and clerks ); recruited and taught the choir , directed its rehearsals and supervised its official functions; interpreted the rubrics and explained the ceremonies , ordered in a general way the Divine Office and sometimes composed desired hymns, sequences , and lessons of saints . He

17632-399: The poor. Such donations had been a strong feature of the church in earlier centuries, but tended then to be specifically directed to the Christian needy. Now the charitable compass became general. Bishops were especially expected to take responsibility for raising ransom funds, where local persons had fallen captive. In addition, it was expected that each diocese would support a xenodochium ,

17784-416: The praelector, subdean, vice-chancellor, succentor-canonicorum, and others, whose roles came into existence to supply the places of the other absent dignitaries, for non-residence was the fatal blot of the secular churches, and in this they contrasted very badly with the monastic churches, where all the members were in continuous residence. Besides the dignitaries there were the ordinary canons, each of whom, as

17936-585: The previous Epipaleolithic period, confined to the foothill zones of the Taurus and Zagros Mountains and the upper reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates valleys. The Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) period (10,000–8,700 BC) saw the introduction of agriculture , while the oldest evidence for animal domestication dates to the transition from the PPNA to the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB, 8700–6800 BC) at

18088-408: The promotion and dissemination of music. The history of the body of clergy attached to the cathedral church is obscure, and in each case local considerations affected its development, however the main features were more or less common to all. Originally the bishop and cathedral clergy formed a kind of religious community, which, while not in the true sense a monastery , was nevertheless often called

18240-640: The proper Ubaid in southern Mesopotamia, and two explanations were presented for the transformation. The first maintain an invasion and a replacement of the Halafians by the Ubaidians; however, there is no hiatus between the Halaf and northern Ubaid that excludes the invasion theory. The most plausible theory is a Halafian adoption of the Ubaid culture. Named after the Sumerian city of Uruk , this period saw

18392-463: The ranks of cathedral presbyters; but local lay choice often tended rather to outsiders, either a spectacular holy man, hermit or ascetic; or otherwise a senior civil servant or diplomat, who might have favourable contacts to exploit at court. But most bishops came from the curial class, that is those holding the hereditary rank of decurion with the obligation to serve on the city council, as only persons of this class and above would be likely to have

18544-412: The ranks, with the expectation that ideally, a minimum period would be served in each. The female orders of virgin, widow and (female) deacon remained explicitly outside the bishop's familia; and so they did not receive the tonsure and nor did they progress through the cursus honorum . But all orders of cathedral clergy, male and female, increased dramatically in numbers. Around 540 Justinian ordered that

18696-537: The region for many centuries. Records from the 12th and 11th centuries BC are sparse in Babylonia, which had been overrun with new Semitic settlers, namely the Arameans , Chaldeans and Sutu . Assyria however, remained a compact and strong nation, which continued to provide much written record. The 10th century BC is even worse for Babylonia, with very few inscriptions. Mesopotamia was not alone in this obscurity:

18848-570: The region. Shulgi may have devised the Code of Ur-Nammu , one of the earliest known law codes (three centuries before the more famous Code of Hammurabi ). Around 2000 BC, the power of Ur waned, and the Amorites came to occupy much of the area, although it was Sumer's long-standing rivals to the east, the Elamites, who finally overthrew Ur. In the north, Assyria remained free of Amorite control until

19000-452: The site at which the material was recognized for the first time, as is for example the case for the Halaf , Ubaid and Jemdet Nasr periods . When historical documents become widely available, periods tend to be named after the dominant dynasty or state; examples of this are the Ur III and Old Babylonian periods . While reigns of kings can be securely dated for the 1st millennium BC, there

19152-645: The standard structure for accommodating large Christian congregations. From now on, the term basilica denotes any substantial church building. These new basilicas were wholly different in scale from earlier Christian assembly halls, as they were also different in form from any Roman non-Christian temple or religious structure. The halls were longitudinal, aisled, and flooded with light from large clerestory windows. Floors and walls were richly decorated with mosaic and inlay – usually in abstract or floral patterns. The two original double basilicas at Aquileia had both been about 37m by 17m in size, but within 30 years one hall

19304-426: The status of civil magistrates, bishops were now also committed to substantial expenditure to maintain their new style and status; and also to fulfil the associated duties, for instance in employing qualified legal assessors to support them when sitting as civil judges. All ordained clerics attached to the cathedral were paid through stipends from the general fund. This applied both to the clergy working directly within

19456-415: The term cathedral correctly applies only to a church that houses the seat of the bishop of a diocese. The abbey church of a territorial abbey serves the same function (that is, houses the seat of the abbot), but does not acquire the title. In any other jurisdiction canonically equivalent to a diocese but not canonically erected as such (prelature, vicariate, ordinariate, prefecture, apostolic administration),

19608-512: The term Mesopotamia often also has a chronological connotation. It is usually used to designate the area until the Arab Muslim conquests in the 7th century AD, with Arabic names like Syria, Jezirah and Iraq being used to describe the region after that date. Two types of chronologies can be distinguished: a relative chronology and an absolute chronology . The former establishes the order of phases, periods, cultures and reigns, whereas

19760-522: The third century, the phrase "ascending the platform", ad pulpitum venire , becomes the standard term for Christian ordination . During the siege of Dura Europos in 256, a complete Christian house church, or domus ecclesiae was entombed in a defensive bank, surviving when excavated, in places to wall-top height. The Dura church had been converted out of a large urban courtyard house of standard form, in which two rooms had been knocked together to make an assembly hall, capable of holding 60-75 standing; while

19912-448: The throne can also embody the principle that a cathedral makes a bishop; both specifically, in that the bishop is elected within the cathedral and is inaugurated by being enthroned within the cathedral by acclamation of clergy and laity; and also generally, in that the bishops' essential qualifications of regular prayer, higher learning and musical worship were for many centuries, primarily accessible through cathedral functions. In this there

20064-573: The title and dignity of "cathedral", maintaining and developing distinct cathedral functions, but void of hierarchical supremacy. From the 16th century onwards, but especially since the 19th century, churches originating in Western Europe have undertaken vigorous programmes of missionary activity , leading to the founding of large numbers of new dioceses with associated cathedral establishments of varying forms in Asia, Africa, Australasia, Oceania and

20216-554: The trend for rulers to claim divinity for themselves. The Akkadian Empire lost power after the reign of Naram-Sin, and eventually was invaded by the Guti from the Zagros Mountains . For half a century the Guti controlled Mesopotamia, especially the south, but they left few inscriptions, so they are not well understood. The Guti hold loosened on southern Mesopotamia, where the second dynasty of Lagash came into prominence. Its most famous ruler

20368-580: The utility of this text up to the point that it should not be used at all for the reconstruction of Early Dynastic political history. Enshakushanna of Uruk conquered all of Sumer, Akkad, and Hamazi , followed by Eannatum of Lagash who also conquered Sumer. His methods were force and intimidation (see the Stele of the Vultures ), and soon after his death, the cities rebelled and the empire again fell apart. Some time later, Lugal-Anne-Mundu of Adab created

20520-416: The very end of the 19th century BC. This marked the end of city-states ruling empires in Mesopotamia, and the end of Sumerian dominance, but the succeeding rulers adopted much of Sumerian civilization as their own. Of the early history of the kingdom of Assyria, little is positively known. The Assyrian King List mentions rulers going back to the 23rd and 22nd century BC. The earliest king named Tudiya , who

20672-678: The western end into which catechumens would withdraw during the central act of the Eucharistic liturgy. The baptistery in the Dura church was about 1m square and 1m deep; baptismal candidates could stand in it, but could not be immersed. In the new cathedrals, as had been the case before, only bishops baptised; and ceremonies were held not more than twice a year to allow for suitable periods of instruction. So baptisteries needed to be greatly increased in size, with associated accommodation to ensure privacy in undressing, anointing and redressing; and

20824-736: The western part of Mesopotamia was passed to the Roman Empire . Christianity as well as Mandeism entered Mesopotamia from the 1st to 3rd centuries AD, and flourished, particularly in Assyria ( Assuristan in Sassanid Persian), which became the center of the Assyrian Church of the East and a flourishing Syriac Christian tradition which remains to this day. A number of Neo-Assyrian kingdoms arose, in particular Adiabene . The Sassanid Empire and Byzantine Mesopotamia finally fell to

20976-469: The written record that can provide year names or calendar dates . By combining absolute and relative dating methods, a chronological framework has been built for Mesopotamia that still incorporates many uncertainties but that also continues to be refined. In this framework, many prehistorical and early historical periods have been defined on the basis of material culture that is thought to be representative for each period. These periods are often named after

21128-461: The year 313, when the emperor Constantine the Great personally adopted Christianity and initiated the Peace of the Church . Indeed, in strict terminology, there could not have been "cathedrals" before that date, as before the 4th century there were no Christian "cathedrae"; bishops were never seated when leading congregational worship, but instead presided standing on a raised platform or pulpitum . In

21280-737: Was Eridu , settled during the Ubaid period culture by farmers who brought with them the Samarran culture from the north. Pottery was decorated with abstract geometric patterns and ornaments, especially in the Halaf culture , also known for its clay fertility figurines, painted with lines. Clay was all around and the main material; often modelled figures were painted with black decoration. Carefully crafted and dyed pots, especially jugs and bowls, were traded. As dyes, iron oxide containing clays were diluted in different degrees or various minerals were mixed to produce different colours. The Hassuna culture

21432-485: Was Gudea , who left many statues of himself in temples across Sumer. Eventually the Guti were overthrown by Utu-hengal of Uruk, and the various city-states again vied for power. Power over the area finally went to the city-state of Ur, when Ur-Nammu founded the Ur III Empire (2112–2004 BC) and conquered the Sumerian region. Under his son Shulgi , state control over industry reached a level never again seen in

21584-477: Was a contemporary of Ibrium of Ebla , appears to have lived in the mid-23rd century BC, according to the king list. Tudiya concluded a treaty with Ibrium for the use of a trading post in the Levant officially controlled by Ebla. Apart from this reference to trading activity, nothing further has yet been discovered about Tudiya. He was succeeded by Adamu and then a further thirteen rulers about all of whom nothing

21736-532: Was a period of Mesopotamian history which began in 620 BC and ended in 539 BC. During the preceding three centuries, Babylonia had been ruled by their fellow Akkadian speakers and northern neighbours, Assyria . The Assyrians had managed to maintain Babylonian loyalty through the Neo-Assyrian period, whether through granting of increased privileges, or militarily, but that finally changed after 627 BC with

21888-500: Was creating an unacceptable potential for scandal. To avoid similar such occasions arising, it was necessary for the new cathedrals to create male-only living quarters for the bishop and his entire establishment; and since, in churches in the West, all presbyters and deacons were also expected to live apart from their wives after ordination, these living quarters, the episcopium , were necessarily substantial in extent. In addition to eating and sleeping quarters for ordained boys and men,

22040-462: Was founded in 1894 BC by an Amorite prince named Sumuabum during the reign of Erishum I. The next two centuries or so, called the Isin-Larsa period , saw southern Mesopotamia dominated by the Amorite cities of Isin and Larsa , as the two cities vied for dominance. This period also marked a growth in power in the north of Mesopotamia. An Assyrian king named Ilushuma (1945–1906 BC) became

22192-587: Was inhabited by several distinct, flourishing cultures between the end of the last ice age (c. 10,000 BC) and the beginning of history. One of the oldest known Neolithic sites in Mesopotamia is Jarmo , settled around 7000 BC and broadly contemporary with Jericho (in the Levant ) and Çatalhöyük (in Anatolia ). It as well as other early Neolithic sites, such as Samarra and Tell Halaf were in northern Mesopotamia; later settlements in southern Mesopotamia required complicated irrigation methods. The first of these

22344-505: Was never paid to the church. In addition, many individual landowners supported private chapels and oratories on their own property; and endowed independent charitable institutions, and eventually monasteries and nunneries too. Augustine of Hippo estimated his personal income as being 20 times that of his father, a minor civil servant; and Augustine was by no means the wealthiest bishop in North Africa. But in accepting from Constantine

22496-556: Was paid into a common fund, and divided into four fixed shares for each main area of expenditure; the Bishop himself; the cathedral clergy; the fabric and lighting of cathedral and city churches; and charitable donations. Many diocese already held substantial endowments, but income increased enormously with the Peace of the Church; partly due to imperial subsidies in kind, but mainly from private bequests and regular private benefactions (often called 'first fruits'); although at this date, tithe

22648-460: Was presumably translated from a term already current in the area—probably in Aramaic—and apparently was understood to mean the land lying "between the (Euphrates and Tigris) rivers", now Iraq . Later and in the broader sense, the historical region included not only the area of present-day Iraq, but also parts of present-day Iran , Syria and Turkey . The neighbouring steppes to the west of

22800-430: Was quadrupled to 73m by 31m. This expanded basilica now demonstrated three additional features that became characteristic of early cathedrals: an enclosure at the eastern end of the church surrounding the altar; a synthronos east of the altar facing west, and consisting of a raised dais with a centrally place bishop's throne and benches either side for the clergy of his familia ; and a partitioned-off narthex at

22952-598: Was that of a monastic establishment of some recognised order of monks, often the Benedictines, while the other class was that of a college of clergy, bound by no vows except those of their ordination, but governed by a code of statutes or canons: hence the name of " canon ". In this way arose the distinction between the monastic and secular cathedral churches. Outside Great Britain, monastic cathedrals are known only at Monreale in Sicily and Downpatrick in Ireland . In

23104-513: Was variously styled capiscol (from the Latin caput scholæ , head of the choir-school), prior scholæ , magister scholæ , and primicerius (a word of widely different implications). Hugh of Saint Victor tells us that in the care of the primicerius were placed the acolytes , exorcists , lectors , and psalmists (chanters). In the Middle Ages the principal dignitaries of cathedral , collegiate chapters , and monastic orders, imitated

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