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81-490: Members of Primera Línea tend to assume distinct roles, such as shield-bearers, stone-throwers, tear gas grenade extinguishers, slingers, laser pointers , and tear gas medics. Among these the laser pointers are the most numerous, their role consisting in disrupting police sight, yet there are cases where surveillance drones have been downed by the laser pointers. Although they do not have a homogeneous political and ideological position, it can be determined that they are members of

162-756: A marriage between an uncle and a niece, or allows a marriage with a girl of 13 (e.g. as in Northern Nigeria), particularly if the parties are not proposing residence in the forum state. Less controversial is the exclusion of foreign laws that are penal or territorial because they seek to collect taxes due to another state, e.g. in English law , if foreign exchange control legislation is used as "an instrument of oppression", it may be denied extraterritorial enforcement ( Re Helbert Wagg & Co Ltd [1956] Ch 323, 351). Similarly, otherwise valid contracts may be denied enforcement if to do so would assist an enemy of

243-402: A "foreign" law if the result of its application would be contrary to public policy. This is problematic because excluding the application of foreign laws would defeat the purpose of conflict of laws by giving automatic preference to the forum court's domestic law. Thus, for the most part, courts are slower to invoke public policy in cases involving a foreign element than when a domestic legal issue

324-482: A "romanticization of violence", in addition to transgressing many social liberties such as freedom of expression , of movement , with the alteration of public order and social peace, creating a caricature of "superheroes" for their actions. On the other hand, for the Chilean columnist and constitutional conventionalist , Teresa Marinovic , has been publicly shown as skeptical of the "spontaneous" nature attributed to

405-419: A beam component in cheaper high-power pointers. This invisible IR component causes a degree of extra potential hazard in these devices when pointed at nearby objects and people. Early laser pointers were helium–neon (HeNe) gas lasers and generated laser radiation at 633 nanometers (nm), usually designed to produce a laser beam with an output power under 1 milliwatt (mW). The least expensive laser pointers use

486-399: A beam visible even in clean air because of Rayleigh scattering from air molecules, especially when viewed in moderately-to-dimly lit conditions. The intensity of such scattering increases when these beams are viewed from angles near the beam axis. Such pointers, particularly in the green-light output range, are used as astronomical object pointers for teaching purposes. Laser pointers make

567-406: A blue rather than violet spot, on many white surfaces, including white clothing, white paper, and projection screens, due to the widespread use of optical brighteners in the manufacture of products intended to appear brilliantly white —  the brighteners are chemical compounds that absorb light in the violet (and ultraviolet ) region of the electromagnetic spectrum and re-emit light in

648-399: A case-by-case analysis. Chilean court's indiscriminate use of the highest level of precautionary measure ( Spanish : medida cautelar ) to members of Primera Línea may be understood as a political measure. From different sectors, especially from the social-conservative sphere, this group has been criticized for its actions, as well as those who support or admire them, being considered as

729-506: A crime in itself. Among the 44 detained, four had criminal records : two for theft , one for robbery and one with an extensive criminal record including previous sentences for drug dealing , domestic violence , carrying butterfly knives in public , street fighting and causing minor injuries. Despite the fact that when incarcerated they are classified as " political prisoners " by the protesters, and some left wing politicians such as Camila Vallejo , Tomás Hirsch and Claudia Mix , both

810-582: A deep-red laser diode near the 650 nm wavelength . Slightly more expensive ones use a red-orange 635 nm diode, more easily visible because of the greater sensitivity of the human eye at 635 nm. Other colors are possible too, with the 532 nm green laser being the most common alternative. Yellow-orange laser pointers, at 593.5 nm, later became available. In September 2005 handheld blue laser pointers at 473 nm became available. In early 2010 " Blu-ray " (actually violet) laser pointers at 405 nm went on sale. The apparent brightness of

891-440: A direct green laser (which does not require doubling) promises much higher efficiencies and could foster the development of new color video projectors. In 2012, Nichia and OSRAM developed and manufactured merchant high-power green laser diodes (515/520 nm), which can emit green laser directly. Because even a low-powered green laser is visible at night through Rayleigh scattering from air molecules, this type of pointer

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972-675: A few hundred milliwatts, as "extremely dangerous and not suitable for sale to the public." Lasers classified as pointers are intended to have outputs less than 5 mW total power ( Class 3R ). At such power levels, an IR filter for a DPSS laser may not be required as the infrared (IR) output is relatively low and the brightness of the visible wavelength of the laser will cause the eye to react (blink reflex). However, higher-powered (> 5 mW) DPSS -type laser pointers have recently become available, usually through sources that do not follow laser safety regulations for laser packaging and labeling. These higher-powered lasers are often packaged in

1053-399: A generation of IR-pumped, frequency doubled , green, blue, and violet diode-pumped solid-state laser pointers with visible power up to 300 mW. Because the invisible IR component in the beams of these visible lasers is difficult to filter out, and also because filtering it contributes extra heat which is difficult to dissipate in a small pocket "laser pointer" package, it is often left as

1134-557: A green laser beam was directed on the face of Russian goalkeeper Igor Akinfeev . After the match the Algerian Football Federation was fined CHF 50,000 (approx. £ 33,000/ € 41,100/ US$ 56,200) by FIFA for the use of lasers and other violations of the rules by Algerian fans at the stadium. During a football match in Athens between Greece and Ireland on 16 June 2023, Greek supporters were asked repeatedly over

1215-542: A group of Primera Línea was rounded up and detained by Carabineros enforcing a newly drafted law against barricades . Subsequently, only one of the 44 detained was kept in preventive detention, the remaining people were set free but required to report and sign-in twice a month. In this context, the president of the Supreme Court of Chile , Guillermo Silva and National Prosecutor Jorge Abbott, have both declared that being part of Primera Línea does not constitute

1296-435: A laser beam, i.e. showing goal positions to the robot optically instead of communicating them numerically. This intuitive interface simplifies directing the robot while visual feedback improves the positioning accuracy and allows for implicit localization. Entertainment is one of the other applications that has been found for lasers. Clubs, parties and outdoor concerts may use high-power lasers, with safety precautions, as

1377-567: A neodymium doped crystal, usually neodymium-doped yttrium orthovanadate (Nd:YVO 4 ) or neodymium-doped yttrium aluminium garnet (Nd:YAG), or, less commonly, neodymium-doped yttrium lithium fluoride (Nd:YLF)), which lases deeper in the infrared at 1064 nm. This lasing action is due to an electronic transition in the fluorescent neodymium ion, Nd(III), which is present in all of these crystals. Some green lasers operate in pulse or quasi-continuous wave (QCW) mode to reduce cooling problems and prolong battery life. An announcement in 2009 of

1458-562: A number of sport matches worldwide. Olympique Lyonnais was fined by UEFA because of a laser pointer beam aimed by a Lyon fan at Cristiano Ronaldo . In a World Cup final qualifier match held in Riyadh , Saudi Arabia between the home team and the South Korean team, South Korean goalkeeper Lee Woon-Jae was hit in the eye with a green laser beam. At the 2014 World Cup during the final group stage match between Algeria and Russia

1539-517: A potent signaling tool, even in daylight, and are able to produce a bright signal for potential search and rescue vehicles using an inexpensive, small and lightweight device of the type that could be routinely carried in an emergency kit . There are significant safety concerns with the use of laser pointers. Most jurisdictions have restrictions on lasers above 5  mW . If aimed at a person's eyes, laser pointers can cause temporary visual disturbances or even severe damage to vision. There are reports in

1620-494: A principal wavelength of 1064 nm, but with the proper reflective coating mirrors can be also made to lase at other "higher harmonic" non-principal neodymium wavelengths). For high output power, BBO crystals are used as frequency doublers; for lower powers, KTP is used. The Japanese company Nichia controlled 80% of the blue-laser-diode market in 2006. Some vendors are now selling collimated diode blue laser pointers with measured powers exceeding 1,500 mW. However, since

1701-763: A revolutionary opportunity", in the TVN Informe Especial report about the Estallido social broadcast in October 2020. Primera Línea has been accused by authorities as a "member" of Antifa and some mass media of being behind many misdemeanor, yet other people recognize their contributions to shield ordinary protesters from police violence . Members of Primera Línea are mostly hooded or with partially covered faces, being known in Chilean Spanish as "capuchas" (hooded men). On March 3, 2020,

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1782-402: A small bright colored spot. The small width of the beam and the low power of typical laser pointers make the beam itself invisible in a clean atmosphere, only showing a point of light when striking an opaque surface. Laser pointers can project a visible beam via scattering from dust particles or water droplets along the beam path. Higher-power and higher-frequency green or blue lasers may produce

1863-445: A spectacle. Laser shows are often extravagant, using lenses , mirrors and fog . Laser pointers are a popular plaything for pets (e.g. cats , ferrets and dogs ) whose natural predatory instincts are triggered by the moving laser and will chase it and/or unsuccessfully try to catch it as much as possible, providing entertainment for the pet owner as well. However, laser pointers have few applications beyond actual pointing in

1944-446: A spot from a laser beam depends on the optical power of the laser, the reflectivity of the surface, and the chromatic response of the human eye . For the same optical power, green laser light will seem brighter than other colors, because the human eye is most sensitive at low light levels in the green region of the spectrum (wavelength 520–570 nm). Sensitivity decreases for longer (redder) and shorter (bluer) wavelengths. Additionally,

2025-433: A state should be entitled to assume that everyone will receive fair and equal treatment before the law, i.e. there will be no favouritism or preferential treatment to any person by virtue of their rank or status within society . As such, this is an exception to the policy in the law of contract which usually allows the parties autonomy to enter into whatever agreement they want and which might otherwise be taken to permit

2106-459: A wide range of applications. Green laser pointers can also be used for amateur astronomy . Green lasers are visible at night due to Rayleigh scattering and airborne dust, allowing someone to point out individual stars to others nearby. Also, these green laser pointers are commonly used by astronomers worldwide at star parties or for conducting lectures in astronomy. Astronomy laser pointers are also commonly mounted on telescopes in order to align

2187-483: Is becoming increasingly common as people now move with reasonable freedom between states and international trade routinely services markets in different states. Such lawsuits will not be troublesome if the "foreign" law is the same as the forum law. But serious difficulties will arise if the application of the "foreign" law would produce a different result. These issues are resolved under the systems of law known as " conflict of laws ". In conflict cases, no court will apply

2268-407: Is essentially a laser pointer may be built into an infrared thermometer to identify where it is pointing, or be part of a laser level or other apparatus. They may also be helpful in scientific research in fields such as photonics , chemistry , physics , and medicine . Laser pointers are used in robotics , for example, for laser guidance to direct the robot to a goal position by means of

2349-519: Is involved. That said, in those countries that have adopted treaty obligations involving human rights (e.g. the states who submit to jurisdiction of the European Court of Human Rights ) broader concepts of public policy may now apply. Thus, courts may have to consider the "justice" implicit in a law that allows a husband to divorce his wife, but not vice versa , as an aspect of sexual discrimination . Similarly, it would be possible to question

2430-406: Is often frowned upon by members of the laser projector community who fear that their misuse may result in legislation affecting lasers designed to be placed within projectors and used within the entertainment industry. Others involved in activities where dazzling or distraction are dangerous are also a concern. Another distressing and potentially dangerous misuse of laser pointers is to use them when

2511-436: Is that the technology enables more precise guidance of location and identification of anatomic structures. Red laser pointers can be used in almost any indoor or low-light situation where pointing out details by hand may be inconvenient, such as in construction work or interior decorating. Green laser pointers can be used for similar purposes as well as outdoors in daylight or for longer distances. Laser pointers are used in

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2592-434: Is used by astronomers to easily point out stars and constellations. Green laser pointers can come in a variety of different output powers. The 5 mW green laser pointers (classes II and IIIa) are the safest to use, and anything more powerful is usually not necessary for pointing purposes, since the beam is still visible in dark lighting conditions. Blue laser pointers in specific wavelengths such as 473 nm usually have

2673-406: Is withheld from a murderer. In refusal of treatment and euthanasia , commission and omission by doctors and hospital authorities resulting in the death of patients has become of increasing significance as societies debate whether the duty to preserve life outweighs the right of the autonomous patient to choose death. More contentious are those situations in which the patient is unable to make

2754-458: The Internet was reported in 2010 to have caused a decrease of visual acuity from 6/6 to 6/12 (20/20 to 20/40); after two months acuity recovered to 6/6, but some retinal damage remained. The US FDA issued a warning after two anecdotal reports it received of eye injury from laser pointers. Laser pointers available for purchase online can be capable of significantly higher power output than

2835-523: The Internet , while others offer them for sale to the public at affordable prices. Because everyone is entitled to access the laws as they affect their personal lives, all adults are assumed responsible enough to research the law before they act. If they fail to do so, they can hardly complain if their acts prove unlawful, no matter how transient they may be within the jurisdiction . The only exception to this rule excuses those of reduced capacity , whether as infants or through mental illness (for example, see

2916-468: The court system to resolve their disputes. The more certain and predictable the outcome of a court action, the less incentive there is to go to court where a loss is probable. But certainty must be subject to the needs of individual justice , hence the development of equity . A judge should always consider the underlying policies to determine whether a rule should be applied to a specific factual dispute. If laws are applied too strictly and mechanically,

2997-663: The Government of Chile and Human Rights Watch Director José Miguel Vivanco , dismissed these accusations, the latter asserting in December 2020 that "there are no political prisoners in Chile". University of Chile 's law professor Claudio Nash Rojas disagrees with this assessment. According to him some members of Primera Línea have been subject to political prison as they were put into preventive prison and declared "danger to society" ( Spanish : peligro para la sociedad ) without

3078-450: The IR laser output can be significant. What poses a special hazard for this unfiltered IR output is its presence in conjunction with laser safety goggles designed to only block the visible wavelengths of the laser. Red goggles, for example, will block most green light from entering the eyes, but will pass IR light. The reduced light behind the goggles may also cause the pupils to dilate, increasing

3159-689: The band was performing " Beth ". After performing the song, Criss nearly stormed off the stage, and lead singer Paul Stanley ripped into whoever had been manipulating the laser light: In every crowd, there's one or two people who don't belong [...] Now I know you want to [take] it to school tomorrow when you go to sixth grade, but [you should have left] it at home [before coming] to the show. According to FIFA stadium safety and security regulations, laser pointers are prohibited items at stadiums during FIFA football tournaments and matches. They are also prohibited in matches and competitions organised by UEFA . In 2008 laser pointers were aimed at players' eyes in

3240-1041: The beam's brightness can be influenced by Rayleigh scattering, as shorter wavelengths such as blue and violet light are scattered more readily in the atmosphere making the beam more visible in the air. The output power of a laser pointer is usually stated in milliwatts (mW). In the U.S., lasers are classified by the American National Standards Institute and Food and Drug Administration (FDA)—see Laser safety#Classification for details. Visible laser pointers (400–700 nm) operating at less than 1 mW power are Class 2 or II, and visible laser pointers operating with 1–5 mW power are Class 3A or IIIa. Class 3B or IIIb lasers generate between 5 and 500 mW; Class 4 or IV lasers generate more than 500 mW. The US FDA Code of Federal Regulations stipulates that "demonstration laser products" such as pointers must comply with applicable requirements for Class I, II, IIIA, IIIB, or IV devices. These are

3321-487: The blue region by fluorescence. On ordinary non-fluorescent materials, and also on fog or dust, the color appears as a shade of deep violet that cannot be reproduced on monitors and print. A GaN laser emits 405 nm directly without a frequency doubler, eliminating the possibility of accidental dangerous infrared emission . These laser diodes are mass-produced for the reading and writing of data in Blu-ray drives (although

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3402-544: The case of aircraft pilots, who may be dazzled or distracted at critical times. According to an MSNBC report there were over 2,836 incidents logged in the US by the FAA in 2010. Illumination by handheld green lasers is particularly serious, as the wavelength (532 nm) is near peak sensitivity of the dark-adapted eye and may appear to be 35 times brighter than a red laser of identical power output. Irresponsible use of laser pointers

3483-420: The child's best interest shall be the primary consideration in all actions relating to children, whether taken by public authorities or private institutions. A policy which overlaps between family law and contract law is favor matrimonii which requires that any marriage entered into with a genuine commitment should be held valid unless there is some good reason to the contrary, matching contract law, where

3564-602: The child, the state will usurp the rights of the natural parents and assert its own rights as every child's legal guardian . Within the EU , the right of the child to be heard in any proceedings is a fundamental right provided in Article 24 Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union . The views of the child shall be considered on matters which concern him or her in accordance with age and maturity. It also provides that

3645-454: The choice personally, e.g. because in a persistent vegetative state or en ventre sa mere , i.e. a child in the womb. Similarly, in many branches of law, the doctrine of evasion prevents persons, both natural and artificial, from evading the application of obligations and liabilities already attaching to them. This represents a practical application of the policy that, as an outcome of the social contract , all persons owing allegiance to

3726-458: The claimed power of "laser pointer" products also includes the IR power (in DPSS technology only) still present in the beam (for reasons discussed below), comparisons on the basis of strictly visual-blue components from DPSS-type lasers remain problematic, and the information is often not available. Because of the higher neodymium harmonic used, and the lower efficiency of frequency-doubling conversion,

3807-468: The dot may reasonably be mistaken for that of a laser gun sight. Armed police have drawn their weapons in such circumstances. The output of laser pointers available to the general public is limited (and varies by country) in order to prevent accidental damage to the retina of human eyes . The U.K. Health Protection Agency recommended that "laser pointers generally available to the public should be restricted to less than 1 milliwatt as no injuries [like

3888-415: The extent to which international principles of law are to be allowed to influence the operation of law within their territories. Independently of the work of the international community to produce harmonised principles, the courts in one state may sometimes be faced with lawsuits which either seek to evade the operation of foreign laws through forum shopping or seek the enforcement of "foreign" laws. This

3969-435: The formation of this group, alluding to its organizational capacity and "combat" tactics, which suggest a premeditation or prior organization to serve particular political interests. Laser pointer A laser pointer or laser pen is a (typically battery-powered) handheld device that uses a laser diode to emit a narrow low-power visible laser beam (i.e. coherent light ) to highlight something of interest with

4050-751: The forum state or would damage the political relationship with a friendly state. When considering questions of status , English courts have held that incapacities imposed on account of slavery ( Somersett's Case [1771] 20 St Tr 1), religion ( Re Metcalfe's Trusts [1864] 2 De G J & S 122), alien nationality ( Re Helbert Wagg & Co Ltd [1956] Ch 323 at pp. 345/46), race ( Oppenheimer v Cattermole [1976] A C 249 at pp. 265, 276/78, 282/83), divorce ( Scott v Attorney-General [1886] 11 PD 128), physical incompetence ( Re Langley's Settlement Trusts [1962] Ch 541 at pp. 556/57) and prodigality ( Worms v De Valdor [1880] 49L J Ch. 261 and Re Selot's Trusts [1902] 1 Ch. 488) will be disregarded. Policy

4131-421: The fraction of IR power converted to 473 nm blue laser light in optimally configured DPSS modules is typically 10–13%, about half that typical for green lasers (20–30%). Lasers emitting a violet light beam at 405 nm may be constructed with GaN ( gallium nitride ) semiconductors. This is close to ultraviolet, bordering on the very extreme of human vision, and can cause bright blue fluorescence , and thus

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4212-503: The hazard to the invisible IR light. Dual-frequency so-called YAG laser eyewear is significantly more expensive than single frequency laser eyewear, and is often not supplied with unfiltered DPSS pointer style lasers, which output 1064 nm IR laser light as well. These potentially hazardous lasers produce little or no visible beam when shone through the eyewear supplied with them, yet their IR-laser output can still be easily seen when viewed with an IR-sensitive video camera. In addition to

4293-503: The incident was investigated by several independent authorities, including the Belgium police, and that those authorities concluded that pointers brought in by the audience were the cause of the injuries. Laser pointers can be used in hiking or outdoor activities . It can be used as a rescue signal in emergencies which is visible to aircraft and other parties, during both day and night conditions, at extreme distances. For example, during

4374-406: The law cannot keep pace with social innovation. Similarly, if there is an entirely new situation, a return to the policies forming the basic assumptions underpinning potentially relevant rules of law identifies the best guidelines for resolving the immediate dispute. Over time, these policies evolve, becoming more clearly defined and more deeply embedded in the legal system. The fundamental policy in

4455-404: The life of another. Lord Jauncy in R v Gotts [1992] 2 AC 412 stated: The reason why duress has for so long been stated not to be available as a defence to a murder charge is that the law regards the sanctity of human life and the protection thereof as of paramount importance ... I can therefore see no justification in logic, morality or law in affording to an attempted murderer the defence which

4536-576: The light emitted by the diodes is not blue, but distinctly violet). In mid-to-late 2011, 405 nm blue-violet laser diode modules with an optical power of 250 mW, based on GaN violet laser diodes made for Blu-ray disc readers, had reached the market from Chinese sources for prices of about US$ 60 including delivery. Laser pointers are often used in educational and business presentations and visual demonstrations as an eye-catching pointing device. Laser pointers enhance verbal guidance given to students during surgery. The suggested mechanism of explanation

4617-547: The medical literature documenting permanent injury to the macula and the subsequent permanent loss of vision after laser light from a laser pointer was shone at a human's eyes. In rare cases, a dot of light from a red laser pointer may be thought to be due to a laser gunsight . When pointed at aircraft at night, laser pointers may dazzle and distract pilots, and increasingly strict laws have been passed to ban this. The low-cost availability of infrared (IR) diode laser modules of up to 1000 mW (1  watt ) output has created

4698-474: The most common type of DPSS lasers (also called diode-pumped solid-state frequency-doubled , DPSSFD). They are more complex than standard red laser pointers, because laser diodes are not commonly available in this wavelength range. The green light is generated through a multi-step process, usually beginning with a high-power (typically 100–300 mW) infrared aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs) laser diode operating at 808 nm. The 808 nm light pumps

4779-506: The most generally accepted societal norms and reflect the collective morality of the society . In performing this function, Cappalli has suggested that the critical values of any legal system include impartiality, neutrality, certainty, equality, openness, flexibility, and growth. This assumes that a state's courts function as dispute resolution systems , which avoid the violence that often otherwise accompanies private resolution of disputes. That is, citizens have to be encouraged to use

4860-622: The night in August 2010 two men and a boy were rescued from marshland after their red laser pen was spotted by rescue teams. Accurately aligned laser pointers are used as laser gunsights to aim a firearm . National Institute of Standards and Technology tests conducted on laser pointers labeled as Class IIIa or 3R in 2013 showed that about half of them emitted power at twice the Class limit, making their correct designation Class IIIb – more hazardous than Class IIIa. The highest measured power output

4941-602: The one reported below to have caused retinal damage] have been reported at this power". In the U.S., regulatory authorities allow lasers up to 5 mW. Studies have found that even low-power laser beams of not more than 5 mW can cause permanent retinal damage if gazed at for several seconds; however, the eye's blink reflex must be intentionally overcome to make this occur. Such laser pointers have reportedly caused afterimages , flash blindness and glare , but not permanent damage, and are generally safe when used as intended. A high-powered green laser pointer bought over

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5022-400: The operation of a legal system is that ignorantia juris non excusat ( ignorance of the law is no excuse ). It would completely undermine the enforcement of any law if the person potentially at fault was able to raise as a successful defence that he or she had not been aware of the particular law. For this reason, all the main legislatures publish their laws freely whether in hard copy or on

5103-487: The opposition to the government of Sebastián Piñera and have acquired an increasingly violent rivalry against Carabineros de Chile . They have frequently been associated with the anarchist movement of Chile and some of them recognize it explicitly. Investigative journalist Santiago Pavlovic described them as "frustrated youth, homeless people, anarchists with a tendency to pyromania, delinquents taking advantage of disorder, kids with unleashed adrenaline, and some who saw

5184-418: The output frequency, not as DPSS lasers. These diode-based visible lasers do not produce IR light. Laser pointer users should not point laser beams at aircraft, moving vehicles, or towards strangers. Since laser pointers became readily available, they have been misused, leading to the development of laws and regulations specifically addressing use of such lasers. Their very long range makes it difficult to find

5265-400: The parties to exclude the normal operation of the law as between themselves (see the policy of freedom of contract ). There are policies specific to all the main branches of law. Hence, one of the policies in family law is parens patriae , i.e. that the state is the default parent for all those children within its jurisdiction and that, if it is necessary to protect the interests of

5346-400: The pointers typically available in stores. Dubbed "Burning Lasers", these are designed to burn through light plastics and paper, and can have very similar external appearances to their low-power counterparts. Because of their high power, many online retailers have warned high-power laser pointer users not to point them at humans or animals. Studies in the early twenty-first century found that

5427-554: The potential dangers of laser pointers brought in by audience members, at the Tomorrow Land Festival in Belgium in 2009, laser pointers brought in by members of the audience of 200 mW or greater were found to be the cause of eye damage suffered by several other members of the audience according to reports about the incident filed on the ILDA ( International Laser Display Association 's) Web site. The report says that

5508-401: The preference is always to give effect to the genuine expectation of the parties. The policies adopted by states have come into being for several reasons. Some are aspects of the concept of sovereignty and reflect the essence of territoriality. Thus, public laws which either define the constitution of the state or regulate its powers can only apply within the boundaries agreed as a part of

5589-427: The principle of doli incapax which raises an irrebuttable presumption in criminal law that an infant is incapable of committing a crime). Underpinning most social, moral and religious systems is the policy of sanctity of life (also culture of life ). In English criminal law, for example, duress is not allowed as a defence to murder because no threat is supposed to overcome a person's moral aversion to taking

5670-456: The process of de jure recognition of statehood by the international community. Other policies are aspects of the social contract, and they define and regulate the relationship between a state and those citizens who owe it allegiance. To that extent, these policies interact with (and sometimes overlap) civil rights and human rights . A number of these rights are defined at a supranational level and it will be necessary for states to consider

5751-483: The propriety of polygamous marriages, the talaq system of divorce which is available in some Islamic states, and Jewish divorce known as the get , but it is likely that the courts would be cautious to avoid any implication that they were discriminating against religions. Equally difficult are the family laws which regulate incestuous relationships and capacity . For example, it is probable that one state should not be too quick to condemn another because it allows

5832-708: The public address system to stop shining laser beams at the Irish footballers. Public policy doctrine In private international law , the public policy doctrine or ordre public (French: lit. "public order") concerns the body of principles that underpin the operation of legal systems in each state . This addresses the social, moral and economic values that tie a society together: values that vary in different cultures and change over time. Law regulates behaviour either to reinforce existing social expectations or to encourage constructive change, and laws are most likely to be effective when they are consistent with

5913-487: The risk to the human eye from accidental exposure to light from commercially available class IIIa laser pointers having powers up to 5 mW seemed rather small; however, prolonged viewing, such as deliberate staring into the beam for 10 or more seconds, can cause damage. The UK Health Protection Agency warns against the higher-power typically green laser pointers available over the Internet, with power output of up to

5994-692: The safety hazards of unfiltered IR from DPSS lasers, the IR component may be inclusive of total output figures in some laser pointers. Though green (532 nm) lasers are most common, IR filtering problems may also exist in other DPSS lasers, such as DPSS red (671 nm), yellow (589 nm) and blue (473 nm) lasers. These DPSS laser wavelengths are usually more exotic, more expensive, and generally manufactured with higher quality components, including filters, unless they are put into laser pointer style pocket-pen packages. Most red (635 nm, 660 nm), violet (405 nm) and darker blue (445 nm) lasers are generally built using dedicated laser diodes at

6075-433: The same basic construction as DPSS green lasers. In 2006 many factories began production of blue laser modules for mass-storage devices , and these were used in laser pointers too. These were DPSS-type frequency-doubled devices. They most commonly emit a beam at 473 nm, which is produced by frequency doubling of 946 nm laser radiation from a diode-pumped Nd:YAG or Nd:YVO4 crystal (Nd-doped crystals usually produce

6156-449: The same pointer-style housings as regular laser pointers, and usually lack the IR filters found in professional high-powered DPSS lasers, because of costs and additional efforts needed to accommodate them. Though the IR from a DPSS laser is less collimated, the typical neodymium-doped crystals in such lasers do produce a true IR laser beam. The eye will usually react to the higher-powered visible light; however, in higher power DPSS lasers

6237-422: The simplest pointers, as laser diodes are available in these wavelengths. The pointer is most common and mostly low-powered. The first red laser pointers released in the early 1980s were large, unwieldy devices that sold for hundreds of dollars. Today, they are much smaller and less expensive. The most common wavelengths are ca. 638 and 650 nm. Green laser pointers appeared on the market around 2000 and are

6318-411: The source of a laser spot. In some circumstances they make people fear they are being targeted by weapons, as they are indistinguishable from dot type laser reticles. The very bright, small spot makes it possible to dazzle and distract drivers and aircraft pilots, and they can be dangerous to sight if aimed at the eyes. In 1998, an audience member shone a laser at Kiss drummer Peter Criss 's eyes while

6399-452: The telescope to a specific star or location. Laser alignment is much easier than aligning through using the eyepiece. Laser pointers are used in industry. For instance, construction companies may use high quality laser pointers to enhance the accuracy of showing specific distances, while working on large-scale projects. They have proven to be useful in this type of business because of their accuracy, which made them significant time-savers. What

6480-440: The wider entertainment industry, and many venues ban entry to those in possession of pointers as a potential hazard. Very occasionally laser gloves, which are sometimes mistaken for pointers, are seen being worn by professional dancers on stage at shows. Unlike pointers, these usually produce low-power highly divergent beams to ensure eye safety. Laser pointers have been used as props by magicians during magic shows. As an example of

6561-433: Was 66.5 milliwatts; more than 10 times the limit. Green laser light is generated from an infrared laser beam, which should be confined within the laser housing; however, more than 75% of the devices tested were found to emit infrared light in excess of the limit. Laser pointers, with their very long range, are often maliciously shone at people to distract or annoy them, or for fun. This is considered particularly hazardous in

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