Princess Ozma is a fictional character from the Land of Oz , created by American author L. Frank Baum . She appears for the first time in the second Oz book , The Marvelous Land of Oz (1904), and in every Oz book thereafter.
104-603: She is the rightful ruler of Oz, and Baum indicated that she would reign in the fairyland forever, being immortal. Baum described her physical appearance in detail, in The Marvelous Land of Oz : "Her eyes sparkled as two diamonds, and her lips were tinted like a tourmaline . All adown her back floated tresses of ruddy gold, with a slender jeweled circlet confining them at the brow." As originally illustrated by John R. Neill , she fit this description; however, in most subsequent Oz books , Ozma's hair became darker. Ozma
208-427: A monetary aggregate . Economists employ different ways to measure the stock of money or money supply, reflected in different types of monetary aggregates, using a categorization system that focuses on the liquidity of the financial instrument used as money. The most commonly used monetary aggregates (or types of money) are conventionally designated M1, M2, and M3. These are successively larger aggregate categories: M1
312-459: A store of value : its role as a store of value requires holding it without spending, whereas its role as a medium of exchange requires it to circulate. Others argue that storing of value is just deferral of the exchange, but does not diminish the fact that money is a medium of exchange that can be transported both across space and time. The term "financial capital" is a more general and inclusive term for all liquid instruments, whether or not they are
416-501: A cut and polished surface of the gem. Commonly encountered species and varieties of tourmaline include the following: The most common species of tourmaline is schorl , the sodium iron (divalent) endmember of the group. It may account for 95% or more of all tourmaline in nature. The early history of the mineral schorl shows that the name "schorl" was in use prior to 1400 because a village known today as Zschorlau (in Saxony , Germany)
520-554: A drag response when a neodymium magnet is applied. Any blue tourmaline that is diamagnetic can be identified as paraiba tourmaline colored by copper in contrast to magnetic blue tourmaline colored by iron. Some tourmaline gems, especially pink to red colored stones, are altered by heat treatment to improve their color. Overly dark red stones can be lightened by careful heat treatment. The pink color in manganese-containing near-colorless to pale pink stones can be greatly increased by irradiation with gamma-rays or electron beams. Irradiation
624-444: A fixed quantity of a commodity such as gold or silver. The value of representative money stands in direct and fixed relation to the commodity that backs it, while not itself being composed of that commodity. Fiat money or fiat currency is money whose value is not derived from any intrinsic value or guarantee that it can be converted into a valuable commodity (such as gold). Instead, it has value only by government order (fiat). Usually,
728-415: A fraction of their deposits , while the banks maintain an obligation to redeem all these deposits upon demand - a practise known as fractional-reserve banking . Commercial bank money differs from commodity and fiat money in two ways: firstly it is non-physical, as its existence is only reflected in the account ledgers of banks and other financial institutions, and secondly, there is some element of risk that
832-404: A fragment of kaolin . This in turn binds to three triangular borate ions. Units joined end to end form columns running the length of the crystal. Each column binds with two other columns offset one-third and two-thirds of the vertical length of a single unit to form bundles of three columns. Bundles are packed together to form the final crystal structure. Because the neighboring columns are offset,
936-520: A girl but was magically transformed into a boy named Tip while an infant to hide her from Glinda the Good. Tip was raised as a boy until his early teens, at which point, after the adventures detailed in The Marvelous Land of Oz , Tip is informed that he was born a girl. After some trepidation, Tip agreed to be transformed back into a girl and assumes rule of The Land of Oz as Princess Ozma. In
1040-781: A girl. During this time, Tip had managed to create Jack Pumpkinhead who was brought to life by Mombi's Powder of Life. In The Marvelous Land of Oz , Glinda the Good Sorceress discovered what had happened and forced Mombi to turn Tip back into Ozma. Since then, the Princess has possessed the Throne of Oz (although many realms within Oz remained unaware of her authority). In some of his last Oz books, namely The Tin Woodman of Oz and Glinda of Oz , L. Frank Baum indicated that Ozma has
1144-473: A means for merchants to exchange heavy coinage for receipts of deposit issued as promissory notes from shops of wholesalers, notes that were valid for temporary use in a small regional territory. In the 10th century, the Song dynasty government began circulating these notes amongst the traders in their monopolized salt industry. The Song government granted several shops the sole right to issue banknotes, and in
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#17327827093901248-628: A member of the Fairy Queen Lurline 's band when Lurline enchanted Oz and turned it into a fairyland. Jack Snow attempted to reconcile Baum's disparate accounts in The Shaggy Man of Oz , which explains that the Fairy Queen Lurline had left the infant Ozma in the care of King Pastoria, making the Princess the adopted daughter of the last King of Oz. This does not gel with the version of Ozma's story which says she
1352-487: A metric of perceived value in conjunction with one another, in various commodity valuation or price system economies. The use of commodity money is similar to barter, but a commodity money provides a simple and automatic unit of account for the commodity which is being used as money. Although some gold coins such as the Krugerrand are considered legal tender , there is no record of their face value on either side of
1456-455: A new unit of account , which helped lead to banking. Archimedes' principle provided the next link: coins could now be easily tested for their fine weight of the metal, and thus the value of a coin could be determined, even if it had been shaved, debased or otherwise tampered with (see Numismatics ). In most major economies using coinage, copper, silver, and gold formed three tiers of coins. Gold coins were used for large purchases, payment of
1560-418: A note has no intrinsic value, there was nothing to stop issuing authorities from printing more of it than they had specie to back it with. Second, because it increased the money supply, it increased inflationary pressures, a fact observed by David Hume in the 18th century. The result is that paper money would often lead to an inflationary bubble, which could collapse if people began demanding hard money, causing
1664-423: A particular country or socio-economic context. The primary functions which distinguish money are: medium of exchange , a unit of account , a store of value and sometimes, a standard of deferred payment . Money was historically an emergent market phenomenon that possessed intrinsic value as a commodity ; nearly all contemporary money systems are based on unbacked fiat money without use value . Its value
1768-459: A rare type of dravite tourmaline from Tanzania . Chrome tourmaline is a rich green color due to the presence of chromium atoms in the crystal. Of the standard elbaite colors, blue indicolite gems are typically the most valuable, followed by green verdelite and pink to red rubellite. Money Money is any item or verifiable record that is generally accepted as payment for goods and services and repayment of debts , such as taxes , in
1872-400: A standard of deferred payment as a distinguished function, but rather subsuming it in the others. There have been many historical disputes regarding the combination of money's functions, some arguing that they need more separation and that a single unit is insufficient to deal with them all. One of these arguments is that the role of money as a medium of exchange conflicts with its role as
1976-508: A system of representative money . This occurred because gold and silver merchants or banks would issue receipts to their depositors, redeemable for the commodity money deposited. Eventually, these receipts became generally accepted as a means of payment and were used as money. Paper money or banknotes were first used in China during the Song dynasty . These banknotes, known as " jiaozi ", evolved from promissory notes that had been used since
2080-411: A uniformly recognized tender. When money is used to intermediate the exchange of goods and services, it is performing a function as a medium of exchange . It thereby avoids the inefficiencies of a barter system, such as the inability to permanently ensure " coincidence of wants ". For example, between two parties in a barter system, one party may not have or make the item that the other wants, indicating
2184-776: Is a durable mineral and can be found in minor amounts as grains in sandstone and conglomerate , and is part of the ZTR index for highly weathered sediments. Gem and specimen tourmaline is mined chiefly in Brazil and many parts of Africa , including Tanzania , Nigeria , Kenya , Madagascar , Mozambique , Malawi , and Namibia . It is also mined in Asia , notably in Pakistan , Afghanistan , and Indonesia as well as in Sri Lanka and India , where some placer material suitable for gem use
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#17327827093902288-618: Is almost impossible to detect in tourmalines, and does not, currently, affect the value. Heavily included tourmalines, such as rubellite and Brazilian paraiba, are sometimes clarity-enhanced. A clarity-enhanced tourmaline (especially the paraiba variety) is worth much less than an untreated gem of equal clarity. Tourmaline is found in granite and granite pegmatites and in metamorphic rocks such as schist and marble . Schorl and lithium-rich tourmalines are usually found in granite and granite pegmatite. Magnesium-rich tourmalines, dravites, are generally restricted to schists and marble. Tourmaline
2392-404: Is also used. M0 is base money , or the amount of money actually issued by the central bank of a country. It is measured as currency plus deposits of banks and other institutions at the central bank. M0 is also the only money that can satisfy the reserve requirements of commercial banks . In current economic systems, money is created by two procedures: Legal tender , or narrow money (M0)
2496-561: Is an ageless fairy who has ruled Oz for centuries. Ozma frequently encounters difficulties while ruling her kingdom. In The Lost Princess of Oz , for instance, the Fairy Princess is kidnapped, although her dearest friend Dorothy comes to her rescue with a search party. Both Dorothy and Ozma are captured by the wicked Queen Coo-ee-oh in Glinda of Oz , while trying to stop a war between two races, but Glinda manages to save them with
2600-466: Is colorless. Bi-colored and multicolored crystals are common, reflecting variations of fluid chemistry during crystallization. Crystals may be green at one end and pink at the other, or green on the outside and pink inside; this type is called watermelon tourmaline and is prized in jewelry. An excellent example of watermelon tourmaline jewelry is a brooch piece (1969, gold, watermelon tourmaline, diamonds) by Andrew Grima (British, b. Italy, 1921–2007), in
2704-646: Is commonly used to date written as Na(Li 1.5 Al 1.5 )Al 6 (BO 3 ) 3 [Si 6 O 18 ](OH) 3 (OH) . The first crystal structure determination of a Li-rich tourmaline was published in 1972 by Donnay and Barton, performed on a pink elbaite from San Diego County , California , United States. The tourmaline mineral group is chemically one of the most complicated groups of silicate minerals . Its composition varies widely because of isomorphous replacement (solid solution), and its general formula can be written as XY 3 Z 6 (T 6 O 18 )(BO 3 ) 3 V 3 W , where: Mineral species that were named before
2808-492: Is consequently derived by social convention, having been declared by a government or regulatory entity to be legal tender ; that is, it must be accepted as a form of payment within the boundaries of the country, for "all debts, public and private", in the case of the United States dollar . The money supply of a country comprises all currency in circulation ( banknotes and coins currently issued) and, depending on
2912-429: Is currency (coins and bills) plus demand deposits (such as checking accounts); M2 is M1 plus savings accounts and time deposits under $ 100,000; M3 is M2 plus larger time deposits and similar institutional accounts. M1 includes only the most liquid financial instruments, and M3 relatively illiquid instruments. The precise definition of M1, M2, etc. may be different in different countries. Another measure of money, M0,
3016-403: Is distinguished by some texts, particularly older ones, other texts subsume this under other functions. A "standard of deferred payment" is an accepted way to settle a debt —a unit in which debts are denominated, and the status of money as legal tender , in those jurisdictions which have this concept, states that it may function for the discharge of debts. When debts are denominated in money,
3120-496: Is found. Some fine gems and specimen material have been produced in the United States, with the first discoveries in 1822, in the state of Maine . California became a large producer of tourmaline in the early 1900s. The Maine deposits tend to produce crystals in raspberry pink-red as well as minty greens. The California deposits are known for bright pinks, as well as bicolors. During the early 1900s, Maine and California were
3224-505: Is responsible for the deepening of the pink to red color. Opaque black schorl and yellow tsilaisite are idiochromatic tourmaline species that have high magnetic susceptibilities due to high concentrations of iron and manganese respectively. Most gem-quality tourmalines are of the elbaite species. Elbaite tourmalines are allochromatic, deriving most of their color and magnetic susceptibility from schorl (which imparts iron) and tsilaisite (which imparts manganese). Red and pink tourmalines have
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3328-484: Is the cash created by a Central Bank by minting coins and printing banknotes. Bank money , or broad money (M1/M2) is the money created by private banks through the recording of loans as deposits of borrowing clients, with partial support indicated by the cash ratio . Currently, bank money is created as electronic money. Bank money, whose value exists on the books of financial institutions and can be converted into physical notes or used for cashless payment, forms by far
3432-503: Is the daughter of the former King Pastoria of Oz . As an infant, she was given to the witch Mombi of the North by the Wizard of Oz . Mombi transformed Ozma into a boy and called him "Tip" (short for Tippetarius) in order to prevent the rightful ruler of Oz from ascending to the throne. Ozma spent her entire childhood with Mombi in the form of the boy Tip and had no memory of ever having been
3536-573: Is the sodium magnesium rich tourmaline endmember. Uvite, in comparison, is a calcium magnesium tourmaline. Dravite forms multiple series, with other tourmaline members, including schorl and elbaite. The name dravite was used for the first time by Gustav Tschermak (1836–1927), Professor of Mineralogy and Petrography at the University of Vienna , in his book Lehrbuch der Mineralogie (published in 1884) for magnesium -rich (and sodium -rich) tourmaline from village Dobrova near Unterdrauburg in
3640-644: Is the world's largest cut tourmaline. Owned by Billionaire Business Enterprises, it was presented in Montreal , Quebec , Canada , on 14 October 2009. In the late 1990s, copper-containing tourmaline was found in Nigeria . The material was generally paler and less saturated than the Brazilian materials, although the material generally was much less included. A more recent African discovery from Mozambique has also produced tourmaline colored by copper, similar to
3744-797: The Drava river area, Carinthia , Austro-Hungarian Empire . Today this tourmaline locality (type locality for dravite) at Dobrova (near Dravograd ), is a part of the Republic of Slovenia . Tschermak gave this tourmaline the name dravite, for the Drava river area, which is the district along the Drava River (in German: Drau , in Latin : Drave ) in Austria and Slovenia. The chemical composition which
3848-585: The German language were "Schurel", "Schörle", and "Schurl". Beginning in the 18th century, the name Schörl was mainly used in the German-speaking area. In English, the names shorl and shirl were used in the 18th century. In the 19th century the names common schorl , schörl , schorl and iron tourmaline were the English words used for this mineral. Dravite , also called brown tourmaline ,
3952-521: The New World and brought back gold and silver to Spain, or when gold was discovered in California in 1848 . This caused inflation, as the value of gold went down. However, if the rate of gold mining could not keep up with the growth of the economy, gold became relatively more valuable, and prices (denominated in gold) would drop, causing deflation. Deflation was the more typical situation for over
4056-414: The United States greenback , to pay for military expenditures. They could also set the terms at which they would redeem notes for specie, by limiting the amount of purchase, or the minimum amount that could be redeemed. By 1900, most of the industrializing nations were on some form of a gold standard, with paper notes and silver coins constituting the circulating medium. Private banks and governments across
4160-512: The carnelian gemstones. Brightly colored Ceylonese gem tourmalines were brought to Europe in great quantities by the Dutch East India Company to satisfy a demand for curiosities and gems. Tourmaline was sometimes called the "Ceylonese Magnet" because it could attract and then repel hot ashes due to its pyroelectric properties. Tourmalines were used by chemists in the 19th century to polarize light by shining rays onto
4264-451: The instability in the ratio between the two grew over the 19th century, with the increase both in the supply of these metals, particularly silver, and of trade. This is called bimetallism and the attempt to create a bimetallic standard where both gold and silver backed currency remained in circulation occupied the efforts of inflationists. Governments at this point could use currency as an instrument of policy, printing paper currency such as
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4368-560: The interactive fiction adaptation of the Oz books by Windham Classics , Tip is made monarch of Oz and no reference at all is made to Ozma. Jack Snow , Melody Grandy, and Scott Andrew Hutchins have all made divergent attempts to bring Tip back alongside Ozma. Snow's device, which Hutchins followed as if canon, was that Tip seized his life from Ozma, but that Glinda and the Wizard were able to restore them both and make them siblings. Grandy made
4472-404: The market price of the metal content as a commodity , rather than their legal tender face value (which is usually only a small fraction of their bullion value). Fiat money, if physically represented in the form of currency (paper or coins), can be accidentally damaged or destroyed. However, fiat money has an advantage over representative or commodity money, in that the same laws that created
4576-416: The money supply of an economy. In other words, the money supply is the number of financial instruments within a specific economy available for purchasing goods or services. Since the money supply consists of various financial instruments (usually currency, demand deposits, and various other types of deposits), the amount of money in an economy is measured by adding together these financial instruments creating
4680-465: The 11th century was the impetus for the massive production of paper money in premodern China. At around the same time in the medieval Islamic world , a vigorous monetary economy was created during the 7th–12th centuries on the basis of the expanding levels of circulation of a stable high-value currency (the dinar ). Innovations introduced by economists, traders and merchants of the Muslim world include
4784-576: The 7th century. However, they did not displace commodity money and were used alongside coins. In the 13th century, paper money became known in Europe through the accounts of travellers, such as Marco Polo and William of Rubruck . Marco Polo's account of paper money during the Yuan dynasty is the subject of a chapter of his book, The Travels of Marco Polo , titled " How the Great Kaan Causeth
4888-517: The Americas, Asia, Africa and Australia used shell money —often, the shells of the cowry ( Cypraea moneta L. or C. annulus L. ). According to Herodotus , the Lydians were the first people to introduce the use of gold and silver coins . It is thought by modern scholars that these first stamped coins were minted around 650 to 600 BC. The system of commodity money eventually evolved into
4992-565: The Bark of Trees, Made Into Something Like Paper, to Pass for Money All Over his Country ." Banknotes were first issued in Europe by Stockholms Banco in 1661 and were again also used alongside coins. The gold standard , a monetary system where the medium of exchange are paper notes that are convertible into pre-set, fixed quantities of gold, replaced the use of gold coins as currency in the 17th–19th centuries in Europe. These gold standard notes were made legal tender , and redemption into gold coins
5096-525: The Brazilian paraiba. The Mozambique paraiba material usually is more intensely colored than the Nigerian and Mozambique Paraiba tourmaline have similar colors to the Brazilian Paraiba, but the prices are relatively cheaper, better clarity and larger sizes. In recent years the pricing of these beautiful gemstones has increased significantly. Another highly valuable variety is chrome tourmaline,
5200-557: The IMA was founded in 1958 do not have an IMA number. The IMA commission on new mineral names published a list of approved symbols for each mineral species in 2021. A revised nomenclature for the tourmaline group was published in 2011. Tourmaline is a six-member ring cyclosilicate having a trigonal crystal system. It occurs as long, slender to thick prismatic and columnar crystals that are usually triangular in cross-section, often with curved striated faces. The style of termination at
5304-537: The Latin word moneta with the meaning "coin" via French monnaie . The Latin word is believed to originate from a temple of Juno , on Capitoline , one of Rome's seven hills. In the ancient world, Juno was often associated with money. The temple of Juno Moneta at Rome was the place where the mint of Ancient Rome was located. The name "Juno" may have derived from the Etruscan goddess Uni and "Moneta" either from
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#17327827093905408-557: The Latin word "monere" (remind, warn, or instruct) or the Greek word "moneres" (alone, unique). In the Western world a prevalent term for coin-money has been specie , stemming from Latin in specie , meaning "in kind". The use of barter -like methods may date back to at least 100,000 years ago, though there is no evidence of a society or economy that relied primarily on barter. Instead, non-monetary societies operated largely along
5512-626: The Mechanism of Exchange (1875) , William Stanley Jevons famously analyzed money in terms of four functions: a medium of exchange , a common measure of value (or unit of account ), a standard of value (or standard of deferred payment ), and a store of value . By 1919, Jevons's four functions of money were summarized in the couplet : This couplet would later become widely popular in macroeconomics textbooks. Most modern textbooks now list only three functions, that of medium of exchange , unit of account , and store of value , not considering
5616-730: The Royal Family of Ev from the clutches of the Nome King , demonstrating that her kindness and concern extends far beyond her own kingdom. When the Nome King tried to conquer and destroy Oz in revenge, Ozma insisted on maintaining a pacifist disposition, which led to the Scarecrow 's suggestion that Ozma's enemies be made to forget about their wicked intentions by drinking from the Fountain of Oblivion. Furthermore, Ozma discontinued
5720-438: The appearance of a fourteen-year-old and is therefore older than Dorothy Gale . By that point in time, Baum had also established that the inhabitants of Oz cease to age, suggesting that Ozma would always appear to be an extremely beautiful young girl. Baum was not inclined to worry about strict continuity in his series, however, and so there were discrepancies in the origins and very nature of Ozma. In her initial appearances, she
5824-461: The bank or financial institution any prior notice. Banks have the legal obligation to return funds held in demand deposits immediately upon demand (or 'at call'). Demand deposit withdrawals can be performed in person, via checks or bank drafts, using automatic teller machines (ATMs), or through online banking . Commercial bank money is created by commercial banks whose reserves (held as cash and other highly liquid assets) typically constitute only
5928-414: The basic structural unit is not a unit cell : The actual unit cell of this structure includes portions of several units belonging to adjacent columns. Tourmaline has a variety of colors. Iron-rich tourmalines are usually black to bluish-black to deep brown, while magnesium-rich varieties are brown to yellow, and lithium-rich tourmalines are almost any color: blue, green, red, yellow, pink, etc. Rarely, it
6032-431: The business policies of commercial banks and the preferences of households - factors which the central bank can influence, but not control completely. Contemporary central banks generally do not control the creation of money, nor do they try to, though their interest rate-setting monetary policies naturally affect the amount of loans and deposits that commercial banks create. The development of computer technology in
6136-604: The characters totally unrelated through the use of a "Switcheroo Spell", with Ozma unrelated to Tippetarius and therefore suitable as a possible love interest . Snow's story, "A Murder in Oz" (1956) was rejected by Ellery Queen's Mystery Magazine and published in The Baum Bugle . Grandy's The Disenchanted Princess of Oz has been published by Tails of the Cowardly Lion and Friends. Hutchins's Tip of Oz , heavily mulling over ideas such as Pastoria -as-tailor and
6240-420: The claim will not be fulfilled if the financial institution becomes insolvent. The money multiplier theory presents the process of creating commercial bank money as a multiple (greater than 1) of the amount of base money created by the country's central bank , the multiple itself being a function of the legal regulation of banks imposed by financial regulators (e.g., potential reserve requirements ) beside
6344-558: The coin. The rationale for this is that emphasis is laid on their direct link to the prevailing value of their fine gold content. American Eagles are imprinted with their gold content and legal tender face value . In 1875, the British economist William Stanley Jevons described the money used at the time as " representative money ". Representative money is money that consists of token coins , paper money or other physical tokens such as certificates, that can be reliably exchanged for
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#17327827093906448-599: The collection of Kimberly Klosterman and on display at the Cincinnati Art Museum . Some forms of tourmaline are dichroic ; they change color when viewed from different directions. The pink color of tourmalines from many localities is the result of prolonged natural irradiation. During their growth, these tourmaline crystals incorporated Mn and were initially very pale. Due to natural gamma ray exposure from radioactive decay of K in their granitic environment, gradual formation of Mn ions occurs, which
6552-414: The common currency within an economy. Money is the most liquid asset because it is universally recognized and accepted as a common currency. In this way, money gives consumers the freedom to trade goods and services easily without having to barter. Liquid financial instruments are easily tradable and have low transaction costs . There should be no (or minimal) spread between the prices to buy and sell
6656-644: The demand for paper notes to fall to zero. The printing of paper money was also associated with wars, and financing of wars, and therefore regarded as part of maintaining a standing army . For these reasons, paper currency was held in suspicion and hostility in Europe and America. It was also addictive since the speculative profits of trade and capital creation were quite large. Major nations established mints to print money and mint coins, and branches of their treasury to collect taxes and hold gold and silver stock. At this time both silver and gold were considered legal tender , and accepted by governments for taxes. However,
6760-449: The dollar to gold. After this many countries de-pegged their currencies from the U.S. dollar, and most of the world's currencies became unbacked by anything except the governments' fiat of legal tender and the ability to convert the money into goods via payment. According to proponents of modern money theory , fiat money is also backed by taxes. By imposing taxes, states create demand for the currency they issue. Heterodox In Money and
6864-582: The earliest uses of credit , cheques , savings accounts , transactional accounts , loaning, trusts , exchange rates , the transfer of credit and debt , and banking institutions for loans and deposits . In Europe, paper money was first introduced in Sweden in 1661. Sweden was rich in copper, thus, because of copper's low value, extraordinarily big coins (often weighing several kilograms) had to be made. The advantages of paper currency were numerous: it reduced transport of gold and silver, and thus lowered
6968-420: The early 12th century the government finally took over these shops to produce state-issued currency. Yet the banknotes issued were still regionally valid and temporary; it was not until the mid 13th century that a standard and uniform government issue of paper money was made into an acceptable nationwide currency. The already widespread methods of woodblock printing and then Pi Sheng 's movable type printing by
7072-506: The early 2000s. Early examples include Ecash , bit gold , RPOW , and b-money . Not much innovation occurred until the conception of Bitcoin in 2008, which introduced the concept of a decentralised currency that requires no trusted third party . When gold and silver were used as money, the money supply could grow only if the supply of these metals was increased by mining. This rate of increase would accelerate during periods of gold rushes and discoveries, such as when Columbus traveled to
7176-443: The ends of crystals is sometimes asymmetrical, called hemimorphism. Small slender prismatic crystals are common in a fine-grained granite called aplite , often forming radial daisy-like patterns. Tourmaline is distinguished by its three-sided prisms; no other common mineral has three sides. Prisms faces often have heavy vertical striations that produce a rounded triangular effect. Tourmaline is rarely perfectly euhedral . An exception
7280-794: The execution of Mombi in The Lost King of Oz and similar material in The Giant Horse of Oz , received a one-paragraph citation in Eldred v. Ashcroft , and remains unpublished under the Copyright Term Extension Act . Ozma was a direct influence on the design of the protagonist Padmé Amidala in the Star Wars prequel trilogy . In a 2022 interview with Star Wars Insider , concept artist Iain McCaig related
7384-549: The government declares the fiat currency (typically notes and coins from a central bank, such as the Federal Reserve System in the U.S.) to be legal tender , making it unlawful not to accept the fiat currency as a means of repayment for all debts, public and private. Some bullion coins such as the Australian Gold Nugget and American Eagle are legal tender, however, they trade based on
7488-482: The help of the Three Adepts at Sorcery. In order to circumvent trouble, Ozma prohibits anyone other than the Wizard of Oz and Glinda from practicing magic in Oz unless they have a permit. L. Frank Baum portrayed Ozma as an exceedingly benevolent and compassionate ruler, who never resorts to violence and who does not believe in destroying even her worst enemies. In Ozma of Oz , she even left Oz in order to rescue
7592-477: The instructions that Lucasfilm provided its artists to visualize characters, saying, "Amidala was described as 'Kind of like Ozma' from The Wizard of Oz ." According to McCaig, he chose actress Natalie Portman as a model for his designs because he felt evoked the Oz character, saying, "She had Ozma's aura of vulnerability and strength." After producer/director George Lucas spoke with McCaig about this inspiration, Lucas cast Portman to play her. The band Ozma
7696-633: The instrument being used as money. Many items have been used as commodity money such as naturally scarce precious metals , conch shells , barley , beads, etc., as well as many other things that are thought of as having value . Commodity money value comes from the commodity out of which it is made. The commodity itself constitutes the money, and the money is the commodity. Examples of commodities that have been used as mediums of exchange include gold, silver, copper, rice, Wampum , salt, peppercorns, large stones, decorated belts, shells, alcohol, cigarettes, cannabis, candy, etc. These items were sometimes used in
7800-468: The largest part of broad money in developed countries. In most countries, the majority of money is mostly created as M1/M2 by commercial banks making loans. Contrary to some popular misconceptions, banks do not act simply as intermediaries, lending out deposits that savers place with them, and do not depend on central bank money (M0) to create new loans and deposits. "Market liquidity" describes how easily an item can be traded for another item, or into
7904-474: The last countries to break away from the gold standard was the United States in 1971. No country anywhere in the world today has an enforceable gold standard or silver standard currency system. Commercial bank money or demand deposits are claims against financial institutions that can be used for the purchase of goods and services. A demand deposit account is an account from which funds can be withdrawn at any time by check or cash withdrawal without giving
8008-432: The lowest magnetic susceptibilities among the elbaites, while tourmalines with bright yellow, green and blue colors are the most magnetic elbaites. Dravite species such as green chromium dravite and brown dravite are diamagnetic. A handheld neodymium magnet can be used to identify or separate some types of tourmaline gems from others. For example, blue indicolite tourmaline is the only blue gemstone of any kind that will show
8112-509: The market value of goods, services, and other transactions. Also known as a "measure" or "standard" of relative worth and deferred payment, a unit of account is a necessary prerequisite for the formulation of commercial agreements that involve debt. Money acts as a standard measure and a common denomination of trade. It is thus a basis for quoting and bargaining of prices. It is necessary for developing efficient accounting systems like double-entry bookkeeping . While standard of deferred payment
8216-537: The military, and backing of state activities. Silver coins were used for midsized transactions, and as a unit of account for taxes, dues, contracts, and fealty, while copper coins represented the coinage of common transaction. This system had been used in ancient India since the time of the Mahajanapadas . In Europe, this system worked through the medieval period because there was virtually no new gold, silver, or copper introduced through mining or conquest. Thus
8320-406: The money can also define rules for its replacement in case of damage or destruction. For example, the U.S. government will replace mutilated Federal Reserve Notes (U.S. fiat money) if at least half of the physical note can be reconstructed, or if it can be otherwise proven to have been destroyed. By contrast, commodity money that has been lost or destroyed cannot be recovered. These factors led to
8424-463: The new alkali element lithium (Li) was determined in 1818 by Johan August Arfwedson for the first time. Elba Island , Italy , was one of the first localities where colored and colorless Li-tourmalines were extensively chemically analysed. In 1850, Karl Friedrich August Rammelsberg described fluorine (F) in tourmaline for the first time. In 1870, he proved that all varieties of tourmaline contain chemically bound water. In 1889, Scharitzer proposed
8528-448: The non-existence of the coincidence of wants. Having a medium of exchange can alleviate this issue because the former can have the freedom to spend time on other items, instead of being burdened to only serve the needs of the latter. Meanwhile, the latter can use the medium of exchange to seek for a party that can provide them with the item they want. A unit of account (in economics) is a standard numerical monetary unit of measurement of
8632-413: The overall ratios of the three coinages remained roughly equivalent. In premodern China , the need for credit and for circulating a medium that was less of a burden than exchanging thousands of copper coins led to the introduction of paper money . This economic phenomenon was a slow and gradual process that took place from the late Tang dynasty (618–907) into the Song dynasty (960–1279). It began as
8736-461: The palace, and Ozma declares her an official princess of Oz and her "constant companion". In The Lost Princess of Oz the first page mentions that Ozma loves Dorothy very much and by page two says that Dorothy is the only one privileged to enter Ozma's rooms without an invitation. In turn, Dorothy often represents Ozma when some task takes the latter away from the Emerald City. Ozma was born
8840-554: The paraiba tourmaline from Brazil does not actually come from Paraíba , but the neighboring state of Rio Grande do Norte . Material from Rio Grande do Norte is often somewhat less intense in color, but many fine gems are found there. It was determined that the element copper was important in the coloration of the stone. A large bluish-green tourmaline from Paraiba, measuring 36.44 mm × 33.75 mm × 21.85 mm (1.43 in × 1.33 in × 0.86 in) and weighing 191.87 carats (1.3536 oz; 38.374 g),
8944-407: The particular definition used, one or more types of bank money (the balances held in checking accounts , savings accounts , and other types of bank accounts ). Bank money, whose value exists on the books of financial institutions and can be converted into physical notes or used for cashless payment, forms by far the largest part of broad money in developed countries. The word money derives from
9048-429: The principles of gift economy and debt . When barter did in fact occur, it was usually between either complete strangers or potential enemies. Many cultures around the world eventually developed the use of commodity money . The Mesopotamian shekel was a unit of weight, and relied on the mass of something like 160 grains of barley . The first usage of the term came from Mesopotamia circa 3000 BC. Societies in
9152-416: The real value of debts may change due to inflation and deflation , and for sovereign and international debts via debasement and devaluation . To act as a store of value , money must be able to be reliably saved, stored, and retrieved—and be predictably usable as a medium of exchange when it is retrieved. The value of the money must also remain stable over time. Some have argued that inflation, by reducing
9256-439: The risks; it made loaning gold or silver at interest easier since the specie (gold or silver) never left the possession of the lender until someone else redeemed the note; and it allowed for a division of currency into credit and specie backed forms. It enabled the sale of stock in joint stock companies , and the redemption of those shares in the paper. However, these advantages are held within their disadvantages. First, since
9360-437: The second part of the twentieth century allowed money to be represented digitally. By 1990, in the United States all money transferred between its central bank and commercial banks was in electronic form. By the 2000s most money existed as digital currency in bank databases. In 2012, by number of transaction, 20 to 58 percent of transactions were electronic (dependent on country). Anonymous digital currencies were developed in
9464-423: The shift of the store of value being the metal itself: at first silver, then both silver and gold, and at one point there was bronze as well. Now we have copper coins and other non-precious metals as coins. Metals were mined, weighed, and stamped into coins. This was to assure the individual taking the coin that he was getting a certain known weight of precious metal. Coins could be counterfeited, but they also created
9568-636: The substitution of (OH) by F in red Li-tourmaline from Sušice , Czech Republic . In 1914, Vladimir Vernadsky proposed the name Elbait for lithium-, sodium-, and aluminum-rich tourmaline from Elba Island, Italy, with the simplified formula (Li,Na)HAl 6 B 2 Si 4 O 21 . Most likely the type material for elbaite was found at Fonte del Prete, San Piero in Campo, Campo nell'Elba , Elba Island, Province of Livorno , Tuscany , Italy . In 1933 Winchell published an updated formula for elbaite, H 8 Na 2 Li 3 Al 3 B 6 Al 12 Si 12 O 62 , which
9672-458: The timeline of The Road to Oz , Ozma's birthday falls on August 21. When Ozma first meets Dorothy, Oz's greatest heroine, in Ozma of Oz , they immediately like each other and become best friends; in the canonical Oz books by Baum, Dorothy and Ozma are each other's closest relationship . In The Emerald City of Oz Ozma arranges, at Dorothy's request, for Dorothy and her family to move into
9776-454: The use of money in Oz, and took systematic measures to ensure that all the citizens of Oz receive the land's resources in equal measure, without having to work harder than necessary. Ozma invited several people from the outside world to come live in the Land of Oz, most notably Dorothy, The Wizard, Aunt Em , Uncle Henry , Betsy Bobbin , Trot , Button Bright and Cap'n Bill . According to
9880-425: The value of money, diminishes the ability of the money to function as a store of value. The functions of money are that it is a medium of exchange, a unit of account, and a store of value. To fulfill these various functions, money must be: In economics, money is any financial instrument that can fulfill the functions of money (detailed above). These financial instruments together are collectively referred to as
9984-399: The world followed Gresham's law : keeping gold and silver paid but paying out in notes. This did not happen all around the world at the same time, but occurred sporadically, generally in times of war or financial crisis, beginning in the early part of the 20th century and continuing across the world until the late 20th century, when the regime of floating fiat currencies came into force. One of
10088-485: The world's largest producers of gem tourmalines. The Empress Dowager Cixi of China loved pink tourmaline and bought large quantities for gemstones and carvings from the then new Himalaya Mine, located in San Diego County , California. It is not clear when the first tourmaline was found in California. Native Americans have used pink and green tourmaline as funeral gifts for centuries. The first documented case
10192-482: Was discouraged. By the beginning of the 20th century, almost all countries had adopted the gold standard, backing their legal tender notes with fixed amounts of gold. After World War II and the Bretton Woods Conference , most countries adopted fiat currencies that were fixed to the U.S. dollar . The U.S. dollar was in turn fixed to gold. In 1971 the U.S. government suspended the convertibility of
10296-486: Was given by Tschermak in 1884 for this dravite approximately corresponds to the formula NaMg 3 (Al,Mg) 6 B 3 Si 6 O 27 (OH) , which is in good agreement (except for the OH content) with the endmember formula of dravite as known today. Dravite varieties include the deep green chromium dravite and the vanadium dravite. A lithium-tourmaline elbaite was one of three pegmatitic minerals from Utö , Sweden , in which
10400-593: Was in 1890 when Charles Russel Orcutt found pink tourmaline at what later became the Stewart Mine at Pala, California in San Diego County . Almost every color of tourmaline can be found in Brazil, especially in Minas Gerais and Bahia . The new type of tourmaline, which soon became known as paraiba tourmaline, came in blue and green. Brazilian paraiba tourmaline usually contains abundant inclusions. Much of
10504-515: Was named after her. Tourmaline Tourmaline ( / ˈ t ʊər m ə l ɪ n , - ˌ l iː n / TOOR -mə-lin, -leen ) is a crystalline silicate mineral group in which boron is compounded with elements such as aluminium , iron , magnesium , sodium , lithium , or potassium . This gemstone comes in a wide variety of colors. The name is derived from the Sinhalese tōramalli ( ටෝරමල්ලි ), which refers to
10608-517: Was portrayed as no more than a human princess, born shortly before the Wizard 's arrival in Oz. Later in the series, Baum revealed that Ozma is actually a fairy , descending from "a long line of fairy queens" as stated in The Scarecrow of Oz . In The Magic of Oz , Glinda tells Dorothy that no one knows how old Ozma really is. And in Baum's final book, Ozma herself explains that she was in fact
10712-461: Was the fine dravite tourmalines of Yinnietharra , in western Australia. The deposit was discovered in the 1970s, but is now exhausted. All hemimorphic crystals are piezoelectric , and are often pyroelectric as well. A crystal of tourmaline is built up of units consisting of a six-member silica ring that binds above to a large cation, such as sodium. The ring binds below to a layer of metal ions and hydroxyls or halogens, which structurally resembles
10816-485: Was then named "Schorl" (or minor variants of this name), and the village had a nearby tin mine where, in addition to cassiterite , black tourmaline was found. The first description of schorl with the name "schürl" and its occurrence (various tin mines in the Ore Mountains ) was written by Johannes Mathesius (1504–1565) in 1562 under the title "Sarepta oder Bergpostill". Up to about 1600, additional names used in
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