165-490: Pro Caelio is a speech given on 4 April 56 BC, by the famed Roman orator Marcus Tullius Cicero in defence of Marcus Caelius Rufus , who had once been Cicero's pupil but more recently had become estranged from him. Cicero's reasons for defending Caelius are uncertain, but one motive may have been his hatred of Publius Clodius Pulcher , who two years earlier had passed a law which had forced Cicero into exile, and whose sister Cicero attacks mercilessly in this speech. The speech
330-404: A prostitute and claimed that Caelius was a smart man to disassociate himself from her. By centering his speech on attacking Clodia, Cicero avoided setting himself against public opinion or damaging his relationship with Pompey. In the end, Caelius was acquitted of all of the charges. Caelius was now free to continue with his career. He became tribune of the plebs in 52 BC, and closely allied to
495-471: A tyrant , which allowed the Caesarians to have lawful support and kept Caesar's reforms and policies intact. In April 43 BC, "diehard republicans" may have revived the ancient position of princeps senatus (leader of the senate) for Cicero. This position had been very prestigious until the constitutional reforms of Sulla in 82–80 BC, which removed most of its importance. On the other side, Antony
660-462: A Parthian invasion, causing unrest in Syria and Cilicia. Cicero restored calm by his mild system of government. He discovered that a great amount of public property had been embezzled by corrupt previous governors and members of their staff, and did his utmost to restore it. Thus he greatly improved the condition of the cities. He retained the civil rights of, and exempted from penalties, the men who gave
825-522: A Roman citizen without a trial. Cicero, having executed members of the Catiline conspiracy four years previously without formal trial, was clearly the intended target. Furthermore, many believed that Clodius acted in concert with the triumvirate who feared that Cicero would seek to abolish many of Caesar's accomplishments while consul the year before. Cicero argued that the senatus consultum ultimum indemnified him from punishment, and he attempted to gain
990-413: A central figure of the state, the pharaoh was the obligatory intermediary between the gods and humans. To the former, he ensured the proper performance of rituals in the temples ; to the latter, he guaranteed agricultural prosperity, the defense of the territory and impartial justice. In the sanctuaries, the image of the sovereign is omnipresent through parietal scenes and statues . In this iconography ,
1155-462: A cleft in the tip of his nose resembling a chickpea. The famous family names of Fabius , Lentulus , and Piso come from the Latin names of beans, lentils, and peas, respectively. Plutarch writes that Cicero was urged to change this deprecatory name when he entered politics, but refused, saying that he would make Cicero more glorious than Scaurus ("Swollen-ankled") and Catulus ("Puppy"). At
1320-628: A comprehensive account of Greek philosophy for a Roman audience, including creating a philosophical vocabulary in Latin. In 87 BC, Philo of Larissa , the head of the Platonic Academy that had been founded by Plato in Athens about 300 years earlier, arrived in Rome. Cicero, "inspired by an extraordinary zeal for philosophy", sat enthusiastically at his feet and absorbed Carneades ' Academic Skeptic philosophy. According to Plutarch, Cicero
1485-688: A conspiracy led by Lucius Sergius Catilina to overthrow the Roman Republic with the help of foreign armed forces. Cicero procured a senatus consultum ultimum (a recommendation from the senate attempting to legitimise the use of force) and drove Catiline from the city with four vehement speeches (the Catilinarian orations ), which remain outstanding examples of his rhetorical style. The Orations listed Catiline and his followers' debaucheries, and denounced Catiline's senatorial sympathizers as roguish and dissolute debtors clinging to Catiline as
1650-469: A consul in 30 BC, avenged his father's death, to a certain extent, when he announced to the Senate Mark Antony's naval defeat at Actium in 31 BC by Octavian. Octavian is reported to have praised Cicero as a patriot and a scholar of meaning in later times, within the circle of his family. However, it was Octavian's acquiescence that had allowed Cicero to be killed, as Cicero was condemned by
1815-607: A cowed Cicero concentrated on his literary works. It is uncertain whether he was directly involved in politics for the following few years. His legal work largely consisted of defending allies of the ruling triumvirs and his own personal friends and allies; he defended his former pupil Marcus Caelius Rufus against a charge of murder in 56. Under the influence of the triumvirs, he had also defended his former enemies Publius Vatinius (in August 54 BCE), Marcus Aemilius Scaurus (between July and September) and Gnaeus Plancius (with
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#17327805831961980-604: A different passage where he asserts that Darius I was the first ruler of Egypt to be honored as a king. Even after the reign of the Egyptian kings and pharaohs, the notion of Pharaoh's self-notion as a divine being survived and is described in rabbinic literature . In these sources, the Pharaoh is described as hubristically asserting his own divinity and yet, compared to the one true God, is no more than an impotent human. Genesis Rabbah 89:3 invokes Pharaoh describing himself as
2145-544: A final and desperate hope. Cicero demanded that Catiline and his followers leave the city. At the conclusion of Cicero's first speech (which was made in the Temple of Jupiter Stator ), Catiline hurriedly left the Senate. In his following speeches, Cicero did not directly address Catiline. He delivered the second and third orations before the people, and the last one again before the Senate. By these speeches, Cicero wanted to prepare
2310-415: A large amount of Latin philosophical vocabulary via lexical innovation (e.g. neologisms such as evidentia , generator , humanitas , infinitio , qualitas , quantitas ), almost 150 of which were the result of translating Greek philosophical terms . Though he was an accomplished orator and successful lawyer, Cicero believed his political career was his most important achievement. It
2475-569: A legislative requirement enacted by Pompey in 52 BC specifying an interval of five years between a consulship or praetorship and a provincial command . He served as proconsul of Cilicia from May 51 BC, arriving in the provinces three months later around August. In 53 BC Marcus Licinius Crassus had been defeated by the Parthians at the Battle of Carrhae . This opened the Roman East for
2640-451: A long trip spanning most of 79 through 77 BC. Returning to Rome in 77 BC, Cicero again busied himself with legal defence. In 76 BC, at the quaestorian elections, Cicero was elected at the minimum age required – 30 years – in the first returns from the comitia tributa , to the post of quaestor . Ex officio, he also became a member of the Senate . In the quaestorian lot, he
2805-480: A member of the Senate. In 57 BC, the consul Publius Cornelius Lentulus Spinther decreed that Ptolemy should be restored to the throne of Egypt. However, an oracle was found in the Sibylline Books that forbade Ptolemy's restoration, and the Senate was forced to rescind its decree. Exhausted from his attempts to reclaim his throne, Ptolemy retired to Ephesus . In Rome, Pompey waited for the command to claim
2970-487: A pamphlet titled On Invention relating to rhetorical argumentation and studying philosophy with Greek academics who had fled the ongoing First Mithridatic War . During this period in Roman history, Greek language and cultural studies were highly valued by the elite classes. Cicero was therefore educated in the teachings of the ancient Greek philosophers , poets and historians ; as he obtained much of his understanding of
3135-465: A part of the property in order to extend his own house. After demolishing Cicero's house, Clodius had the land consecrated and symbolically erected a temple of Liberty ( aedes Libertatis ) on the vacant land. Cicero's exile caused him to fall into depression. He wrote to Atticus: "Your pleas have prevented me from committing suicide. But what is there to live for? Don't blame me for complaining. My afflictions surpass any you ever heard of earlier". After
3300-504: A prosecution against Gaius Antonius Hybrida , Cicero's colleague in the consulship of 63 BC, for extortion. Cicero disapproved of the prosecution and took up Hybrida's defense. However, Caelius won the trial and gained recognition among Roman citizens . As a result, Caelius was able to move to the Palatine Hill , where he rented an apartment from Publius Clodius Pulcher . His apartment was located near Clodius's sister, Clodia, who
3465-459: A relationship with Horus . Aha refers to "Horus the fighter", Djer refers to "Horus the strong", etc. Later kings express ideals of kingship in their Horus names. Khasekhemwy refers to "Horus: the two powers are at peace", while Nebra refers to "Horus, Lord of the Sun". The Nesu Bity name, also known as prenomen , was one of the new developments from the reign of Den . The name would follow
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#17327805831963630-484: A relative), and Lucius Herennius Balbus, charged him with the following crimes: Caelius spoke first in his own defense and asked Marcus Licinius Crassus to defend him during the trial. Cicero's speech was the last of the defense speeches, dealing with the last two charges. The magistrate Gnaeus Domitius presided over the trial. Marcus Caelius Rufus was probably born in 82 BC, at Interamnia in Picenum , where his father
3795-405: A rich reward in future from Caelius's services. In T. A. Dorey's article "Cicero, Clodia, & the ‘Pro Caelio'", Dorey argued that although Cicero stressed Clodia's involvement in the case against Caelius as an important role, she played only a secondary part. In fact, Herennius stated that the case against Caelius would not have been made without the prosecution against Bestia. Dorey claimed that
3960-427: A second charge against Bestia, who was running for the praetorship once again in the elections of 56 BC. Bestia's 17-year-old son, Lucius Sempronius Atratinus , did not want his father's trial to take place and so he made a charge against Caelius. If Caelius was convicted, he could not proceed with his prosecution against Bestia. Atratinus charged Caelius in the violence court ( quaestio de vi ) to prevent any delay in
4125-402: A semi-invalid, he could not enter public life and studied extensively to compensate. Little is known about Cicero's mother Helvia, but Cicero's brother Quintus wrote in a letter that she was a thrifty housewife. Cicero's cognomen , a hereditary nickname, comes from the Latin for chickpea , cicer . Plutarch explains that the name was originally given to one of Cicero's ancestors who had
4290-552: A senior senator, courted Cicero's favor, but even so Cicero slipped out of Italy and traveled to Dyrrhachium where Pompey's staff was situated. Cicero traveled with the Pompeian forces to Pharsalus in Macedonia in 48 BC, though he was quickly losing faith in the competence and righteousness of the Pompeian side. Eventually, he provoked the hostility of his fellow senator Cato, who told him that he would have been of more use to
4455-474: A single maxim: "Bring Maat and repel Isfet ", that is to say, promote harmony and repel chaos. As the nurturing father of the people, the Pharaoh ensured prosperity by calling upon the gods to regulate the waters of the Nile , by opening the granaries in case of famine and by guaranteeing a good distribution of arable land. Chief of the armies, the pharaoh was the brave protector of the borders. Like Ra who fights
4620-497: A time of civil unrest and war. Sulla's victory in the first of a series of civil wars led to a new constitutional framework that undermined libertas (liberty), the fundamental value of the Roman Republic. Nonetheless, Sulla's reforms strengthened the position of the equestrian class, contributing to that class's growing political power. Cicero was both an Italian eques and a novus homo , but more importantly he
4785-424: A war crown by many, but modern historians refrain from defining it thus. Egyptologist Bob Brier has noted that despite their widespread depiction in royal portraits, no ancient Egyptian crown has ever been discovered. The tomb of Tutankhamun that was discovered largely intact, contained such royal regalia as a crook and flail , but no crown was found among his funerary equipment. Diadems have been discovered. It
4950-640: A word specifically referring to a building to a respectful designation for the ruler presiding in that building, particularly by the time of the Twenty-Second Dynasty and Twenty-third Dynasty . The first dated appearance of the title "pharaoh" being attached to a ruler's name occurs in Year 17 of Siamun (tenth century BCE) on a fragment from the Karnak Priestly Annals, a religious document. Here, an induction of an individual to
5115-700: Is 49, which is addressed to Cicero. Dettmer points out that the striking phrase Romuli nepotes 'grandsons of Romulus' at the beginning of 49 links it to Remi nepotes 'grandsons of Remus' at the end of 58, while the word patronus 'patron' at the end of 49 links it to Caeli 'Caelius' at the beginning of 58. Thus the Caelius of poem 58 is the Caelius defended by Cicero in the year 56 BC. Marcus Tullius Cicero People Events Places Marcus Tullius Cicero ( / ˈ s ɪ s ə r oʊ / SISS -ə-roh ; Latin: [ˈmaːrkʊs ˈtʊlli.ʊs ˈkɪkɛroː] ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC)
Pro Caelio - Misplaced Pages Continue
5280-449: Is a man of good character. The jurors should not believe everything they hear about him; these charges stem from Clodia. 48–50 When the lady is of easy virtue, what reason is there for complaint? The jurors can draw their own conclusions from her conduct. Argumentatio 51–55 There are two main charges, of gold and of poison. Caelius is alleged to have told Clodia that he wanted some gold to pay for some games, but in reality to bribe
5445-413: Is a one-time friend of Catullus, who has wronged him by stealing his happiness. Since Catullus and Caelius were of similar character and age, Austin thinks it possible, or even probable, that this second Rufus is to be identified with Cicero's Caelius. One problem is that the Caelius of poem 100 is referred to as " Veronese "; for Austin and others this rules him out as the same man, since Cicero's Caelius
5610-610: Is a possibility that the title pr ꜥꜣ first might have been applied personally to Thutmose III ( c. 1479 –1425 BCE), depending on whether an inscription on the Temple of Armant may be confirmed to refer to that king. During the Eighteenth dynasty (sixteenth to fourteenth centuries BCE) the title pharaoh was employed as a reverential designation of the ruler. About the late Twenty-first Dynasty (tenth century BCE), however, instead of being used alone and originally just for
5775-591: Is an ornate, triple Atef with corkscrew sheep horns and usually two uraei. The depiction of this crown begins among New Kingdom rulers during the Early Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt . Also called the blue crown, the Khepresh crown has been depicted in art since the New Kingdom. It is often depicted being worn in battle, but it was also frequently worn during ceremonies. It used to be called
5940-499: Is one of the most interesting in Latin literature, vivid, dramatic, elliptical, familiar, and the whole collection is particularly valuable as exemplifying the type of writing fashionable among the bright young men of the day, besides expressing the writer's personality in a way that nothing else could do." In 51 Caelius became curule aedile , and made a vigorous speech arguing against abuses of Rome's water supply. Gradually he began to support Julius Caesar . In 49 BC, after voting against
6105-435: Is particularly celebrated for its connections to the poetry of Catullus . Popular critical consensus has long identified Clodia Metelli, who features so prominently in the speech, as Catullus's famed lover Lesbia . However, recent critics have assailed that connection with various degrees of success. In his book Catullan Questions , T. P. Wiseman argues that the identification of Lesbia as one of Clodius Pulcher's three sisters
6270-487: Is presumed that crowns would have been believed to have magical properties and were used in rituals. Brier's speculation is that crowns were religious or state items, so a dead king likely could not retain a crown as a personal possession. The crowns may have been passed along to the successor, much as the crowns of modern monarchies. During the Early Dynastic Period kings had three titles. The Horus name
6435-623: Is regarded as one of Cicero's most brilliant and entertaining orations. It was also famous in ancient times, being quoted by Petronius , Aulus Gellius , Fronto , Quintilian , and Jerome . For modern readers it is of interest in that Clodia has been identified with some probability with the poet Catullus 's Lesbia. Caelius was charged with vis (political violence), one of the most serious crimes in Republican Rome . Caelius' prosecutors, Lucius Sempronius Atratinus , Publius Clodius (probably not Publius Clodius Pulcher , but more likely
6600-532: Is said in the Pro Caelio §5 to come from Interamnia in Picenum (but the text is uncertain). Other scholars, however, do not see this as an obstacle to identifying the two Caeliuses. A second, but lesser, objection is that the Caelius of 58 and 100 seems to be a friend of Catullus, whereas the Rufus of 59, 69, 71, and 77 is the target of derision and invective. Despite these problems, Helena Dettmer believes that
6765-500: Is the implied charge of incest usually detected in Catullus 79 in comparison to the charges of incest against Clodia in Pro Caelio . However, Wiseman characterizes Cicero's rhetoric as remaining "on the level of mocking insinuation without proof or evidence" and notes that while there were whispers of Clodius committing incest with all three of his sisters, multiple disinterested sources exist only concerning his alleged relationship with
Pro Caelio - Misplaced Pages Continue
6930-600: Is the oldest and dates to the late pre-dynastic period. The Nesu Bity name was added during the First Dynasty . The Nebty name (Two Ladies) was first introduced toward the end of the First Dynasty. The Golden falcon ( bik-nbw ) name is not well understood. The prenomen and nomen were introduced later and are traditionally enclosed in a cartouche . By the Middle Kingdom , the official titulary of
7095-500: Is undeniable. The 2nd-century writer Apuleius claimed that Catullus gave his lover Clodia the pseudonym Lesbia; Wiseman traces Apuleius's source for this claim to the historian Suetonius, and Suetonius' sources to Gaius Julius Hyginus 's De Vita Rebusque Illustrium Virorum . Hyginus had contact with several men associated with Catullus, who very likely knew Lesbia's true identity. They include Helvius Cinna , Pollio , Nepos , Varro and even Cicero himself. Moreover, scholars agree that
7260-572: The Pro Plancio ) in September, which weakened his prestige and sparked attacks on his integrity: Luca Grillo has suggested these cases as the source of the poet Catullus 's double-edged comment that Cicero was "the best defender of anybody". In 51 BC he reluctantly accepted a promagistracy (as proconsul) in Cilicia for the year; there were few other former consuls eligible as a result of
7425-402: The lex Titia , passed on 27 November 43 BC, which gave each triumvir a consular imperium for five years. The Triumvirate immediately began a proscription of their enemies, modeled after that of Sulla in 82 BC. Cicero and all of his contacts and supporters were numbered among the enemies of the state, even though Octavian argued for two days against Cicero being added to the list. Cicero
7590-549: The College of Pontiffs to rule that the consecration of his land was invalid, thereby allowing him to regain his property and rebuild his house on the Palatine. Cicero tried to re-enter politics as an independent operator, but his attempts to attack portions of Caesar's legislation were unsuccessful and encouraged Caesar to re-solidify his political alliance with Pompey and Crassus. The conference at Luca in 56 BC left
7755-527: The First Dynasty . The was -scepter is shown in the hands of both kings and deities. The flail later was closely related to the heqa -scepter (the crook and flail ), but in early representations the king was also depicted solely with the flail, as shown in a late pre-dynastic knife handle that is now in the Metropolitan museum, and on the Narmer Macehead . The earliest evidence known of
7920-712: The Narmer Palette . The white crown of Upper Egypt, the Hedjet , was worn in the Predynastic Period by Scorpion II , and, later, by Narmer. This is the combination of the Deshret and Hedjet crowns into a double crown, called the Pschent crown. It is first documented in the middle of the First Dynasty of Egypt . The earliest depiction may date to the reign of Djet , and is otherwise surely attested during
8085-561: The Pschent , the combination of both the red and white crowns became the official crown of the pharaoh. With time new headdresses were introduced during different dynasties such as the Khat , Nemes , Atef , Hemhem crown , and Khepresh . At times, a combination of these headdresses or crowns worn together was depicted. The word pharaoh ultimately derives from the Egyptian compound pr ꜥꜣ , * /ˌpaɾuwˈʕaʀ/ "great house", written with
8250-589: The Roman Republic in 30 BCE. However, regardless of gender, "king" was the term used most frequently by the ancient Egyptians for their monarchs through the middle of the Eighteenth Dynasty during the New Kingdom . The earliest confirmed instances of "pharaoh" used contemporaneously for a ruler were a letter to Akhenaten (reigned c. 1353 –1336 BCE) or an inscription possibly referring to Thutmose III ( c. 1479 –1425 BCE). In
8415-605: The Septuagint , Koinē Greek : φαραώ , romanized: pharaō , and then in Late Latin pharaō , both -n stem nouns. The Qur'an likewise spells it Arabic : فرعون firʿawn with n (here, always referring to the one evil king in the Book of Exodus story, by contrast to the good king in surah Yusuf 's story). The Arabic combines the original ayin from Egyptian along with the -n ending from Greek. In English,
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#17327805831968580-519: The Uraeus —a rearing cobra—is from the reign of Den from the first dynasty. The cobra supposedly protected the king by spitting fire at its enemies. The red crown of Lower Egypt, the Deshret crown, dates back to pre-dynastic times and symbolised chief ruler. A red crown has been found on a pottery shard from Naqada , and later, Narmer is shown wearing the red crown on both the Narmer Macehead and
8745-462: The pomerium , to retain his promagisterial powers: either in expectation of a triumph or to retain his independent command authority in the coming civil war. The struggle between Pompey and Julius Caesar grew more intense in 50 BC. Cicero favored Pompey, seeing him as a defender of the senate and Republican tradition, but at that time avoided openly alienating Caesar. When Caesar invaded Italy in 49 BC, Cicero fled Rome. Caesar, seeking an endorsement by
8910-438: The senatus consultum ultimum gave some legitimacy to the use of force against the conspirators, Cicero also argued that Catiline's conspiracy, by virtue of its treason, made the conspirators enemies of the state and forfeited the protections intrinsically possessed by Roman citizens. The consuls moved decisively. Antonius Hybrida was dispatched to defeat Catiline in battle that year, preventing Crassus or Pompey from exploiting
9075-408: The 'Old Academic' and initiator of Middle Platonism . In Asia Minor, he met the leading orators of the region and continued to study with them. Cicero then journeyed to Rhodes to meet his former teacher, Apollonius Molon, who had taught him in Rome. Molon helped Cicero hone the excesses in his style, as well as train his body and lungs for the demands of public speaking. Charting a middle path between
9240-463: The Alexandrians were not interested in giving Ptolemy back the throne of Egypt and sent a deputation of 100 citizens, led by the philosopher Dio, to the Senate to hear their case. Ptolemy reacted by bribing, intimidating and even murdering members of the deputation, which angered Roman citizens. Despite Ptolemy's efforts, Dio successfully made it to Rome and stayed in the house of Titus Coponius,
9405-678: The Amun priesthood is dated specifically to the reign of "Pharaoh Siamun ". This new practice was continued under his successor, Psusennes II , and the subsequent kings of the twenty-second dynasty. For instance, the Large Dakhla stela is specifically dated to Year 5 of king "Pharaoh Shoshenq, beloved of Amun ", whom all Egyptologists concur was Shoshenq I —the founder of the Twenty-second Dynasty —including Alan Gardiner in his original 1933 publication of this stela. Shoshenq I
9570-475: The Egyptian ruler Djoser , was cast as having had his mother as the Mesopotamian goddess Ninsun alongside his father, the previous human ruler of Uruk. Another Mesopotamian example of a god-king was Naram-Sin of Akkad . During the Early Dynastic Period , the Pharaoh was represented as the divine incarnation of Horus , and the unifier of Upper and Lower Egypt. By the time of Djedefre (26th century BCE),
9735-480: The Gauls, was able to seize letters that incriminated the five conspirators and forced them to confess in front of the Senate . The senate then deliberated upon the conspirators' punishment. As it was the dominant advisory body to the various legislative assemblies rather than a judicial body, there were limits to its power; however, martial law was in effect, and it was feared that simple house arrest or exile –
9900-640: The Italian peninsula. His severed hands and head (taken by order of Antony and displayed representing the repercussions of his anti-Antonian actions as a writer and as an orator, respectively) were then displayed on the Rostra . Petrarch 's rediscovery of Cicero's letters is often credited for initiating the 14th-century Renaissance in public affairs , humanism , and classical Roman culture. According to Polish historian Tadeusz Zieliński , "the Renaissance
10065-746: The Khat headdress, has been commonly depicted on top of the Nemes. The statue from his Serdab in Saqqara shows the king wearing the nemes headdress. Osiris is shown to wear the Atef crown, which is an elaborate Hedjet with feathers and disks. Depictions of kings wearing the Atef crown originate from the Old Kingdom. The Hemhem crown is usually depicted on top of Nemes , Pschent , or Deshret crowns. It
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#173278058319610230-514: The Pharaoh also ceased to have a father, as his mother was magically impregnated by the solar deity Ra . According to Pyramid Text Utterance 571, "... the King was fashioned by his father Atum before the sky existed, before earth existed, before men existed, before the gods were born, before death existed ..." According to an inscription on the statue of Horemheb (14th–13th centuries BCE): "he [Horemheb] already came out of his mother's bosom adorned with
10395-460: The Pharaoh was the supreme officiant; the first of the priests of the country. More widely, the pharaonic gesture covered all the fields of activity of the collective and ignored the separation of powers . Also, every member of the administration acts only in the name of the royal person, by delegation of power. From the Pyramid Texts , the political actions of the sovereign were framed by
10560-498: The Senate for the worst possible case; he also delivered more evidence, against Catiline. Catiline fled and left behind his followers to start the revolution from within while he himself assaulted the city with an army of "moral and financial bankrupts, or of honest fanatics and adventurers". It is alleged that Catiline had attempted to involve the Allobroges , a tribe of Transalpine Gaul , in their plot, but Cicero, working with
10725-402: The accusation. In fact Caelius was a pupil of Cicero himself, at his father's request. 10–14 Caelius has also been criticised for associating with Catiline ; yet Catiline deceived many people, even Cicero himself for a time. 15–18 Cicero claims that it is quite untrue that Caelius supported Catiline's conspiracy; Caelius is also innocent of bribery and corruption. There is no proof that he
10890-497: The adoption of patrician Publius Clodius Pulcher into a plebeian family and had him elected as one of the ten tribunes of the plebs for 58 BC. Clodius used the triumvirate's backing to push through legislation that benefited them. He introduced several laws (the leges Clodiae ) that made him popular with the people, strengthening his power base, then he turned on Cicero. Clodius passed a law which made it illegal to offer "fire and water" (i.e. shelter or food) to anyone who executed
11055-612: The age of 15, in 90 BC, Cicero started serving under Pompey Strabo and later Sulla in the Social war between Rome and its Italian allies. When in Rome during the turbulent plebeian tribunate of Publius Sulpicius Rufus in 88 BC which saw a short bout of fighting between the Sulpicius and Sulla, who had been elected consul for that year, Cicero found himself greatly impressed by Sulpicius' oratory even if he disagreed with his politics. He continued his studies at Rome, writing
11220-506: The age of 36, Cicero launched his first high-profile prosecution against Verres, an emblem of the corrupt Sullan supporters who had risen in the chaos of the civil war. The prosecution of Gaius Verres was a great forensic success for Cicero. While Verres hired the prominent lawyer, Quintus Hortensius , after a lengthy period in Sicily collecting testimonials and evidence and persuading witnesses to come forward, Cicero returned to Rome and won
11385-480: The archives and placed under the responsibility of the vizier , applied to all, for the common good and social agreement. Sceptres and staves were a general symbol of authority in ancient Egypt . One of the earliest royal scepters was discovered in the tomb of Khasekhemwy in Abydos . Kings were also known to carry a staff, and Anedjib is shown on stone vessels carrying a so-called mks -staff. The scepter with
11550-506: The area, and local potentates. Adeptly balancing those responsibilities, he won their gratitude. He was also appreciated by local Syracusans for the rediscovery of the lost tomb of Archimedes , which he personally financed. Promising to lend the Sicilians his oratorical voice, he was called on a few years after his quaestorship to prosecute the Roman province's governor Gaius Verres , for abuse of power and corruption. In 70 BC, at
11715-473: The article that Clodia's involvement in the trial as "vindictive spite and the desire to revenge herself on Caelius for casting her off" was a part of Cicero's strategy in his defense of Caelius. By proving that Clodia was attacking Caelius out of spite, he proved Caelius's innocence. In fact, the prosecution's strategy hinged on the jury's acceptance of Clodia's evidence. Cicero's strategy then depended on his ability to disprove Clodia in three ways: by proving that
11880-400: The case in a series of dramatic court battles. His unique style of oratory set him apart from the flamboyant Hortensius. On the conclusion of this case, Cicero came to be considered the greatest orator in Rome. The view that Cicero may have taken the case for reasons of his own is viable. Hortensius was, at this point, known as the best lawyer in Rome; to beat him would guarantee much success and
12045-514: The case was brought against Caelius because Clodia was being vindictive, by casting doubt on the reliability of witnesses and by discrediting Clodia completely. Therefore, Cicero unleashed a cruel attack against Clodia in his defense, but the attack had been provoked. Clodia had helped loot Cicero's house during his exile after the Catiline events, and in 60 BC, Cicero wrote a letter to Atticus in which he "[indulged] in an extremely lewd witticism at Clodia's expense". Among Cicero's orations, Pro Caelio
12210-536: The cause of the optimates if he had stayed in Rome. After Caesar's victory at the Battle of Pharsalus on 9 August, Cicero refused to take command of the Pompeian forces and continue the war. He returned to Rome, still as a promagistrate with his lictors , in 47 BC, and dismissed them upon his crossing the pomerium and renouncing his command. In a letter to Varro on c. 20 April 46 BC , Cicero outlined his strategy under Caesar's dictatorship. Cicero, however,
12375-577: The chain of verbal and structural links connecting the six poems makes it clear that they all form part of a single cycle, and that they all refer to the same man, Cicero's Caelius Rufus. She also argues that the parallels between poems 58 and 59 indicate that the "Rufa the Bononian" (i.e. from Bologna ) is a pseudonym for Lesbia. If this is correct, it appears that Catullus and Caelius were close friends until Caelius angered Catullus by stealing Lesbia from him. Another poem of interest for this identification
12540-411: The charges in detail, and Balbus spoke against Caelius's behavior and morality. The defence speeches began with Caelius making witty jeers at Clodia. Then, Crassus defended against the first three charges, and finally, Cicero, after dealing briefly with the murder of Dio, attacked Clodia. Cicero's speech took place on April 4, the second day of the trial. He made accusations that Clodia was no better than
12705-577: The comedies of Caecilius ? Or should he speak to him like the indulgent father in Terence 's Adelphoe ? But could anyone blame Caelius when Clodia's behaviour is like that of a courtesan? 39–42 Perhaps people will blame Cicero for Caelius's behaviour, since Caelius was my pupil. But that strictness of the past is obsolete these days. A young man should be allowed to have his fling, provided he does not do it to excess. 43–47 One could mention many well-known men who misbehaved in their youth. But Caelius
12870-474: The competing Attic and Asiatic styles , Cicero would ultimately become considered second only to Demosthenes among history's orators. While Cicero had feared that the law courts would be closed forever, they were reopened in the aftermath of Sulla's civil war and the purging of Sulla's political opponents in the proscriptions . Many of the orators whom Cicero had admired in his youth were now dead from age or political violence. His first major appearance in
13035-472: The conspirators, began, "How I could wish that you had invited me to that most glorious banquet on the Ides of March!" Cicero became a popular leader during the period of instability following the assassination. He had no respect for Mark Antony, who was scheming to take revenge upon Caesar's murderers. In exchange for amnesty for the assassins, he arranged for the Senate to agree not to declare Caesar to have been
13200-400: The country or attacking others when it was believed that this would contribute to Maat, such as to obtain resources. During the early days prior to the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt , the Deshret or the "Red Crown", was a representation of the kingdom of Lower Egypt, while the Hedjet , the "White Crown", was worn by the kings of Upper Egypt. After the unification of both kingdoms,
13365-444: The countryside again. Cassius and his legions followed them, harrying them wherever they went, eventually ambushing and defeating them near Antigonea. Another large troop of Parthian horsemen was defeated by Cicero's cavalry who happened to run into them while scouting ahead of the main army. Cicero next defeated some robbers who were based on Mount Amanus and was hailed as imperator by his troops. Afterwards he led his army against
13530-411: The courts was in 81 BC at the age of 26 when he delivered Pro Quinctio , a speech defending certain commercial transactions which Cicero had recorded and disseminated. His more famous speech defending Sextus Roscius of Ameria – Pro Roscio Amerino – on charges of parricide in 80 BC was his first appearance in criminal court. In this high-profile case, Cicero accused a freedman of
13695-569: The death penalty. Cicero had the conspirators taken to the Tullianum , the notorious Roman prison, where they were strangled. Cicero himself accompanied the former consul Publius Cornelius Lentulus Sura , one of the conspirators, to the Tullianum. Cicero received the honorific " pater patriae " for his efforts to suppress the conspiracy, but lived thereafter in fear of trial or exile for having put Roman citizens to death without trial. While
13860-513: The deities were made of gold and the pyramids and obelisks are representations of (golden) sun -rays. The gold sign may also be a reference to Nubt, the city of Set. This would suggest that the iconography represents Horus conquering Set. The prenomen and nomen were contained in a cartouche. The prenomen often followed the King of Upper and Lower Egypt ( nsw bity ) or Lord of the Two Lands ( nebtawy ) title. The prenomen often incorporated
14025-840: The dictator Sulla, Chrysogonus , of fabricating Roscius' father's proscription to obtain Roscius' family's property. Successful in his defence, Cicero tactfully avoided incriminating Sulla of any wrongdoing and developed a positive oratorical reputation for himself. While Plutarch claims that Cicero left Rome shortly thereafter out of fear of Sulla's response, according to Kathryn Tempest, "most scholars now dismiss this suggestion" because Cicero left Rome after Sulla resigned his dictatorship. Cicero, for his part, later claimed that he left Rome, headed for Asia, to develop his physique and develop his oratory. After marrying his wife, Terentia , in 80 BC, he eventually left for Asia Minor with his brother Quintus , his friend Titus Atticus , and others on
14190-557: The dictatorship of Julius Caesar , Cicero was a supporter of the Optimates faction. Following Caesar's death, Cicero became an enemy of Mark Antony in the ensuing power struggle, attacking him in a series of speeches . He was proscribed as an enemy of the state by the Second Triumvirate and consequently executed by soldiers operating on their behalf in 43 BC, having been intercepted during an attempted flight from
14355-534: The divinity of the Pharaoh, though this may reflect Greek notions of divine kingship just as much as it could reflect Egyptian ones. The historian Herodotus explicitly denies this, claiming that Egyptian priests rejected any notion of the divinity of the king. The only explicit classical Greek source which describes the divinity of Pharaoh is contained in the writings of Diodorus Siculus in the 1st century BCE, who in turn relies on Hecataeus of Abdera as his source of information. Diodorus slightly contradicts himself in
14520-569: The early dynasties, ancient Egyptian kings had as many as three titles : the Horus , the Sedge and Bee ( nswt-bjtj ), and the Two Ladies or Nebty ( nbtj ) name. The Golden Horus and the nomen and prenomen titles were added later. In Egyptian society, religion was central to everyday life. One of the roles of the king was as an intermediary between the deities and the people. The king thus
14685-451: The glyphs for the "Sedge and the Bee". The title is usually translated as king of Upper and Lower Egypt. The nsw bity name may have been the birth name of the king. It was often the name by which kings were recorded in the later annals and king lists. The earliest example of a Nebty ( Two Ladies ) name comes from the reign of king Aha from the First Dynasty . The title links the king with
14850-482: The god over the Nile river. In Exodus Rabbah 10:2, Pharaoh boasts that he is the creator and owner of the Nile. God is then said to have responded to this statement by challenging the Pharaoh over who owns the Nile, as God proceeds to create a disaster by bringing forth frogs from it that consume Egypt's agriculture. In other midrashic texts, Pharaoh asserts himself as the creator of the universe and even of himself. In
15015-407: The goddesses of Upper and Lower Egypt, Nekhbet and Wadjet . The title is preceded by the vulture (Nekhbet) and the cobra (Wadjet) standing on a basket (the neb sign). The Golden Horus or Golden Falcon name was preceded by a falcon on a gold or nbw sign. The title may have represented the divine status of the king. The Horus associated with gold may be referring to the idea that the bodies of
15180-465: The gods and man. This institution represents an innovation over that of Sumerian city-states where, though the clan leader or king mediated between his people and the gods, did not himself represent a god on Earth. The few Sumerian exceptions to this would post-date the origins of this practice in ancient Egypt. For example, the legendary king Gilgamesh , thought to have reigned in Uruk as a contemporary of
15345-619: The independent Cilician mountain tribes, besieging their fortress of Pindenissum . It took him 47 days to reduce the place, which fell in December. On 30 July 50 BC Cicero left the province to his brother Quintus , who had accompanied him on his governorship as his legate . On his way back to Rome he stopped in Rhodes and then went to Athens, where he caught up with his old friend Titus Pomponius Atticus and met men of great learning. Cicero arrived in Rome on 4 January 49 BC. He stayed outside
15510-459: The intervention of recently elected tribune Titus Annius Milo , acting on the behalf of Pompey who wanted Cicero as a client , the Senate voted in favor of recalling Cicero from exile. Clodius cast the single vote against the decree. Cicero returned to Italy on 5 August 57 BC, landing at Brundisium . He was greeted by a cheering crowd, and, to his delight, his beloved daughter Tullia. In his Oratio De Domo Sua Ad Pontifices , Cicero convinced
15675-549: The jurors that it is a public holiday; the court is one concerning a charge of political violence, but Caelius has not committed a crime within the competence of the court. The real reason for the trial is a certain woman. Praemunitio 3–5 It is not true that Caelius has disrespected his father, nor that he is out of favour with the people of his home town, who have sent a delegation in his support. 6–9 The criticisms of Caelius's way of life in his youth are baseless; Cicero feels sorry for Atratinus in having to make this part of
15840-685: The king of the Parthians, had crossed the Euphrates , and was ravaging the Syrian countryside and had even besieged Cassius (the interim Roman commander in Syria) in Antioch . Cicero eventually marched with two understrength legions and a large contingent of auxiliary cavalry to Cassius's relief. Pacorus and his army had already given up on besieging Antioch and were heading south through Syria, ravaging
16005-488: The latter had lost the election and taken up arms, but he was not among the people prosecuted for their involvement in the conspiracy. From 62 to 60, Caelius left Rome to serve with the governor of Africa , Quintus Pompeius Rufus . As a young man, that was a very good opportunity for Caelius to see the world and make a little money. However, Caelius still wanted to make a name for himself in Rome, and in April 59 BC, he brought
16170-533: The litter in a gladiatorial gesture to ease the task. By baring his neck and throat to the soldiers, he was indicating that he would not resist. According to Plutarch, Herennius first slew him, then cut off his head. On Antony's instructions his hands, which had penned the Philippics against Antony, were cut off as well; these were nailed along with his head on the Rostra in the Forum Romanum according to
16335-419: The longest history seems to be the heqa -sceptre, sometimes described as the shepherd's crook. The earliest examples of this piece of regalia dates to prehistoric Egypt . A scepter was found in a tomb at Abydos that dates to Naqada III . Another scepter associated with the king is the was -sceptre . This is a long staff mounted with an animal head. The earliest known depictions of the was -scepter date to
16500-484: The mention of a hircus 'he-goat' (i.e. bad smell) in the armpits of the unnamed lover in poem 71 clearly links it to a similar phrase in poem 69. Scholars differ as to whether any of the six different poems above refer to Cicero's Caelius Rufus. Some, such as Wiseman, argue that none of them are Cicero's Caelius, some argue that all of them are, while others take an intermediate view; for example, Austin believes that poem 77 may refer to Cicero's Caelius. The Rufus of 77
16665-485: The most important bodies of primary material for the writing and revision of Roman history , especially the last days of the Roman Republic . Marcus Tullius Cicero was born on 3 January 106 BC in Arpinum , a hill town 100 kilometers (62 mi) southeast of Rome. He belonged to the tribus Cornelia. His father was a wealthy member of the equestrian order and possessed good connections in Rome. However, being
16830-410: The name of Re . The nomen often followed the title, Son of Re ( sa-ra ), or the title, Lord of Appearances ( neb-kha ). In Ancient Egypt , the Pharaoh was often considered to be divine. This precept originated before 3000 BCE and the Egyptian office of divine kingship would go on to influence many other societies and kingdoms, surviving into the modern era . The Pharaoh also became a mediator between
16995-414: The new triumvirate. Pharaoh Pharaoh ( / ˈ f ɛər oʊ / , US also / ˈ f eɪ . r oʊ / ; Egyptian : pr ꜥꜣ ; Coptic : ⲡⲣ̄ⲣⲟ , romanized: Pǝrro ; Biblical Hebrew : פַּרְעֹה Parʿō ) is the vernacular term often used for the monarchs of ancient Egypt , who ruled from the First Dynasty ( c. 3150 BCE ) until the annexation of Egypt by
17160-523: The nickname "Atticus", and whose sister married Cicero's brother) would become, in Cicero's own words, "as a second brother", with both maintaining a lifelong correspondence. In 79 BC, Cicero left for Greece, Asia Minor and Rhodes . This was perhaps to avoid the potential wrath of Sulla , as Plutarch claims, though Cicero himself says it was to hone his skills and improve his physical fitness. In Athens he studied philosophy with Antiochus of Ascalon ,
17325-562: The old man might be equally severe with Caelius; but he says he will deal with Caelius later. For now he imagines what her younger brother Publius Clodius Pulcher , with whom she is so "intimate", might say to her: "Why are you so worried about losing this handsome young man, sister? You have some gardens right next to the Tiber, where all the young men go to swim: you can pick up another one there any day!" 37–38 How should Cicero deal with Caelius? Should he imagine one of those stern fathers from
17490-463: The other about some poison. Both are connected with Clodia, who is Caelius's real enemy. 33–34 Cicero imagines what her famous ancestor Appius Claudius Caecus might say to her: "Are you not moved, Clodia, by the memory of your father, uncle, and other ancestors, both male and female, or of your distinguished husband Quintus Metellus ? How come you became so intimate with this Caelius? Was it not just foolishness and lust?" 35–36 Cicero admits that
17655-458: The other accusations; it is a pity he did not deal with the murder of Dio. But the murder of Dio is completely irrelevant to the present proceedings. 25–30 Herennius's speech scolding Caelius on his sinful behaviour can also be dismissed as absurd. Herennius spoke much about the dissipation of young people in general, but the jurors must not let this prejudice them in this particular case. 30–32 The real charges are two: one about some gold, and
17820-559: The palace, it began to be added to the other titles before the name of the king, and from the Twenty-Fifth Dynasty (eighth to seventh centuries BCE, during the declining Third Intermediate Period ) it was, at least in ordinary use, the only epithet prefixed to the royal appellative. From the Nineteenth dynasty onward pr-ꜥꜣ on its own, was used as regularly as ḥm , "Majesty". The term, therefore, evolved from
17985-610: The period of Persian domination of Egypt. The Persian emperor Darius the Great (522–486 BCE) was referred to as a divine being in Egyptian temple texts. Such descriptions continued and were designated to Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt, and later still for the rulers of the Ptolemaic Kingdom that succeeded Alexander's rule. Descriptions of the divinity of the Pharaoh are much more infrequent in sources from Classical Greece . One Ptolemaic-era hymn describes
18150-423: The pharaoh is invariably represented as the equal of the gods. In the religious speech, he is however only their humble servant, a zealous servant who makes multiple offerings. This piety expresses the hope of a just return of service. Filled with goods, the gods must favorably activate the forces of nature for a common benefit to all Egyptians. The only human being admitted to dialogue with the gods on an equal level,
18315-401: The poison was given to Publius Licinius, to be handed over to Clodia's slaves in a public bathhouse; that the slaves told their mistress, who arranged for some young men to catch Licinius when he handed over the poison. And yet these men allowed Licinius to get away! The whole thing is a farce. And why did Clodia free those slaves, if not to cover something up? It is scarcely surprising that there
18480-423: The politician Titus Annius Milo , who, despite Cicero's famous defence ( pro Milone ), was condemned in that year for the murder of Publius Clodius and went into exile. In the following year, 51 BC, Cicero was sent to Cilicia as governor of the province. Before he left, he arranged with Caelius to send him political news from Rome. 17 letters from Caelius to Cicero survive, of which it has been said: "His style
18645-452: The post-Sullan establishment, and the leaders of municipalities throughout post-Social War Italy. His co-consul for the year, Gaius Antonius Hybrida , played a minor role. He began his consular year by opposing a land bill proposed by a plebeian tribune which would have appointed commissioners with semi-permanent authority over land reform. Cicero was also active in the courts, defending Gaius Rabirius from accusations of participating in
18810-405: The prestige and the divine color ..." Inscriptions regularly described the Pharaoh as the "good god" or "perfect god" ( nfr ntr ). By the time of the New Kingdom , the divinity of the king was imbued as he possessed the manifestation of the god Amun-Re ; this was referred to as his 'living royal ka ' which he received during the coronation ceremony. The divinity of Pharaoh was still held to during
18975-412: The prestige that Cicero needed to start his career. Cicero's oratorical ability is shown in his character assassination of Verres and various other techniques of persuasion used on the jury. One such example is found in the speech In Verrem , where he states "with you on this bench, gentlemen, with Marcus Acilius Glabrio as your president, I do not understand what Verres can hope to achieve". Oratory
19140-545: The proceedings of the trial. A certain Publius Clodius and Lucius Herennius Balbus came to Atratinus's assistance. The charges made against Caelius were linked to the attempt of Pharaoh Ptolemy XII Auletes to recover his throne after being deposed in 59 BC. After he had been deposed, Ptolemy fled to Rome, where he pleaded with the Roman Senate to give him an army so that he might reclaim his throne. However,
19305-418: The proconsul's tent. Everyone seemed to have abandoned Cicero. After Clodius passed a law to deny to Cicero fire and water (i.e. shelter) within four hundred miles of Rome, Cicero went into exile. He arrived at Thessalonica , on 23 May 58 BC. In his absence, Clodius, who lived next door to Cicero on the Palatine, arranged for Cicero's house to be confiscated by the state, and was even able to purchase
19470-415: The property back. Besides this, he was extremely frugal in his outlays for staff and private expenses during his governorship, and this made him highly popular among the natives. Besides his activity in ameliorating the hard pecuniary situation of the province, Cicero was also creditably active in the military sphere. Early in his governorship he received information that prince Pacorus , son of Orodes II
19635-481: The prosecution of Caelius was an attempt at delaying the second charge against Bestia, and was caused by Caelius' new attack against the family of Bestia and Atratinus. Throughout the speech, Cicero displaced the cause of the attack on Clodia, instead of an attack on Atratinus, to build his defense of Caelius. Dorey claims that cannot be believed, however, because an orator and a historian in Ancient Rome were not
19800-523: The province of Africa in 23 BC. He died in AD 7 at the age of 78. In some speeches there is a narratio following the exordium but in this speech there is a long section ( praemunitio ) devoted to clearing away some of the insinuations and aspersions on the character of Caelius made by the prosecutors. The narration is briefly found in §30 and then again in sketchy form in §51. The speech may be summarised as follows: Exordium 1–2 Cicero reminds
19965-429: The reign of Den . The khat headdress consists of a kind of "kerchief" whose end is tied similarly to a ponytail . The earliest depictions of the khat headdress comes from the reign of Den , but is not found again until the reign of Djoser . The Nemes headdress dates from the time of Djoser . It is the most common type of royal headgear depicted throughout Pharaonic Egypt. Any other type of crown, apart from
20130-522: The repeated word pulcher , meaning "pretty", in Catullus's poem 79 is a pun on Clodius's cognomen, Pulcher. Thus, the Lesbius in that poem is Clodius Pulcher, and Lesbia must be one of his three sisters. However, all three sisters possessed the name Clodia and so difficulties arise in proving that Catullus's lover must have been the Clodia featured in Pro Caelio . The most common evidence for that connection
20295-427: The republic would be restored along with him. Shortly after completing his consulship, in late 62 BC, Cicero arranged the purchase of a large townhouse on the Palatine Hill previously owned by Rome's richest citizen, Marcus Licinius Crassus. To finance the purchase, Cicero borrowed some two million sesterces from Publius Cornelius Sulla , whom he had previously defended from court. Cicero boasted his house
20460-456: The royal palace and not a person. Sometime during the era of the New Kingdom , pharaoh became the form of address for a person who was king. The earliest confirmed instance where pr ꜥꜣ is used specifically to address the ruler is in a letter to the eighteenth dynasty king, Akhenaten (reigned c. 1353 –1336 BCE), that is addressed to "Great House, L, W, H, the Lord". However, there
20625-438: The ruler consisted of five names; Horus, Nebty, Golden Horus, nomen, and prenomen for some rulers, only one or two of them may be known. The Horus name was adopted by the king, when taking the throne. The name was written within a square frame representing the palace, named a serekh . The earliest known example of a serekh dates to the reign of king Ka , before the First Dynasty. The Horus name of several early kings expresses
20790-456: The same mistakes as his father. He attacked Antony in a series of speeches he called the Philippics , named after Demosthenes's denunciations of Philip II of Macedon . At the time, Cicero's popularity as a public figure was unrivalled. Cicero supported Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus as governor of Cisalpine Gaul ( Gallia Cisalpina ) and urged the Senate to name Antony an enemy of
20955-519: The same since an orator's job was "to win his case" and a historian's was to tell "the truth". In his article, Dorey claims that the prosecution's aim was that "even if Caelius were acquitted, there was the chance of his emerging so discredited as seriously to jeopardize his prospects of success in his renewed action against Bestia". To do so, the prosecution charged him with two attempted murders. The charges would have been indisputable because Clodia had previously provided Caelius with funds before, and there
21120-541: The senate's demand that Caesar should surrender his army, Caelius fled north to join Caesar. Eventually, however, he fell out with Caesar and died in a scuffle against Caesarian troops in Thurii in southern Italy in 48 BC. As for the 17-year-old Atratinus , though he lost the case, at least Caelius refrained from prosecuting his father again. He went on to have a distinguished career, becoming Consul in 34 BC, and governor of
21285-399: The serpent Apophis , the king of Egypt repels the plunderers of the desert, fights the invading armies and defeats the internal rebels. The Pharaoh was always the sole victor; standing up and knocking out a bunch of prisoners or shooting arrows from his battle chariot . As the only legislator, the laws and decrees he promulgated were seen as inspired by divine wisdom. This legislation, kept in
21450-405: The situation for their own political aims. After the suppression of the conspiracy, Cicero was proud of his accomplishment. Some of his political enemies argued that though the act gained Cicero popularity, he exaggerated the extent of his success. He overestimated his popularity again several years later after being exiled from Italy and then allowed back from exile. At this time, he claimed that
21615-441: The slaves of Lucceius, with whom Dio was staying. This can be refuted by hearing the witness statement of Lucceius himself. ( Testimony of Lucceius ). 56–60 As for the poison, why should Caelius have wanted to poison Clodia? There is nothing consistent in the story. And Clodia would do better not to mention poisons in view of the sudden and tragic death of her husband Metellus the previous year! 61–69 The prosecutors allege that
21780-488: The standard options – would not remove the threat to the state. At first Decimus Junius Silanus spoke for the "extreme penalty"; but during the debate many were swayed by Julius Caesar, who decried the precedent it would set and argued in favor of life imprisonment in various Italian towns. Cato the Younger then rose in defense of the death penalty and the Senate finally agreed on the matter, and came down in support of
21945-518: The state, not to satisfy the vengefulness of a woman. He is an honourable and hard-working young man, as his whole life shows. Cicero begs the jurors to preserve him for the State and for his unhappy father. When in the last few days a true criminal such as Sextus Cloelius, who destroyed Cicero's house and burnt his brother's, has been acquitted, it is fitting that the jurors should acquit a man of good character such as Caelius. He promises that they will reap
22110-546: The state. The speech of Lucius Piso , Caesar's father-in-law, delayed proceedings against Antony. Antony was later declared an enemy of the state when he refused to lift the siege of Mutina , which was in the hands of Decimus Brutus. Cicero's plan to drive out Antony failed. Antony and Octavian reconciled and allied with Lepidus to form the Second Triumvirate after the successive battles of Forum Gallorum and Mutina . The alliance came into official existence with
22275-446: The support of the senators and consuls, especially of Pompey. Cicero grew out his hair, dressed in mourning and toured the streets. Clodius' gangs dogged him, hurling abuse, stones and even excrement. Hortensius, trying to rally to his old rival's support, was almost lynched. The Senate and the consuls were cowed. Caesar, who was still encamped near Rome, was apologetic but said he could do nothing when Cicero brought himself to grovel in
22440-656: The term was at first spelled "Pharao", but the translators for the King James Bible revived "Pharaoh" with "h" from the Hebrew. Meanwhile, in Egypt, *[par-ʕoʔ] evolved into Sahidic Coptic ⲡⲣ̅ⲣⲟ pərro and then ərro by rebracketing p- as the definite article "the" (from ancient Egyptian pꜣ ). Other notable epithets are nswt , translated to "king"; ḥm , "Majesty"; jty for "monarch or sovereign"; nb for "lord"; and ḥqꜣ for "ruler". As
22605-479: The theory and practice of rhetoric from the Greek poet Archias . Cicero used his knowledge of Greek to translate many of the theoretical concepts of Greek philosophy into Latin, thus translating Greek philosophical works for a larger audience. It was precisely his broad education that tied him to the traditional Roman elite. Cicero's interest in philosophy figured heavily in his later career and led to him providing
22770-594: The three-man alliance in domination of the republic's politics; this forced Cicero to recant and support the triumvirate out of fear from being entirely excluded from public life. After the conference, Cicero lavishly praised Caesar's achievements, got the Senate to vote a thanksgiving for Caesar's victories, and grant money to pay his troops. He also delivered a speech 'On the consular provinces' ( Latin : de provinciis consularibus ) which checked an attempt by Caesar's enemies to strip him of his provinces in Gaul. After this,
22935-550: The throne of Egypt. In 57 BC, Dio was murdered by one Publius Asicius. The public directed most of their anger toward Pompey, whom they believed to be responsible for the murder. At first, Publius Asicius, who was supposedly an agent of Pompey, was prosecuted for the murder of Dio. However, after Cicero successfully defended him, Asicius was acquitted, and Caelius was prosecuted for the murder. The actual trial took place April 3–4, 56 BC. The prosecution spoke first, and Atratinus attacked Caelius's character and morals, Clodius described
23100-543: The tradition of Marius and Sulla, both of whom had displayed the heads of their enemies in the Forum. Cicero was the only victim of the proscriptions who was displayed in that manner. According to Cassius Dio , in a story often mistakenly attributed to Plutarch, Antony's wife Fulvia took Cicero's head, pulled out his tongue, and jabbed it repeatedly with her hairpin in final revenge against Cicero's power of speech. Cicero's son, Marcus Tullius Cicero Minor, during his year as
23265-634: The two biliteral hieroglyphs pr "house" and ꜥꜣ "column", here meaning "great" or "high". It was the title of the royal palace and was used only in larger phrases such as smr pr-ꜥꜣ "Courtier of the High House", with specific reference to the buildings of the court or palace. From the Twelfth Dynasty onward, the word appears in a wish formula "Great House, May it Live, Prosper, and be in Health ", but again only with reference to
23430-541: The unlawful killing of plebeian tribune Lucius Appuleius Saturninus in 100 BC. The prosecution occurred before the comita centuriata and threatened to reopen conflict between the Marian and Sullan factions at Rome. Cicero defended the use of force as being authorised by a senatus consultum ultimum , which would prove similar to his own use of force under such conditions. Most famously – in part because of his own publicity – he thwarted
23595-428: The youngest possible age: quaestor in 75 BC (age 30), aedile in 69 BC (age 36), and praetor in 66 BC (age 39), when he served as president of the "Reclamation" (or extortion) Court. He was then elected consul at age 42. Cicero, seizing the opportunity offered by optimate fear of reform, was elected consul for the year 63 BC; he was elected with the support of every unit of the centuriate assembly , rival members of
23760-467: The youngest sister, Clodia Luculli. Wiseman concludes that while it is certain Lesbia was one of Clodius's three sisters named Clodia, it is impossible to determine which of these she was. Catullus addresses a Caelius in poems 58 and 100, and a Rufus in poems 69 and 77. There is also a Rufulus ('little Rufus') in poem 59 (although the text is uncertain). Poem 71 does not mention Rufus or Caelius by name, but
23925-606: Was "in conspectu prope totius urbis" ("in sight of nearly the whole city"), only a short walk from the Roman Forum . In 60 BC, Julius Caesar invited Cicero to be the fourth member of his existing partnership with Pompey and Marcus Licinius Crassus, an assembly that would eventually be called the First Triumvirate . Cicero refused the invitation because he suspected it would undermine the Republic, and because he
24090-479: Was "little doubt" that Caelius had taken part in the intimidation and persecution of the Alexandrian envoys; Cicero even admitted it in his speech. Even though Cicero tried to "ridicule" Licinius and the slaves of Clodia's rendezvous at the baths to defend Caelius, there was no doubt that the event took place and that "a casket containing some substance to be administered to Clodia" was exchanged. Dorey argued in
24255-501: Was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, writer and Academic skeptic , who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises that led to the establishment of the Roman Empire . His extensive writings include treatises on rhetoric , philosophy and politics. He is considered one of Rome's greatest orators and prose stylists and the innovator of what became known as "Ciceronian rhetoric". Cicero
24420-426: Was a Roman constitutionalist . His social class and loyalty to the Republic ensured that he would "command the support and confidence of the people as well as the Italian middle classes". The optimates faction never truly accepted Cicero, and this undermined his efforts to reform the Republic while preserving the constitution. Nevertheless, he successfully ascended the cursus honorum, holding each magistracy at or near
24585-449: Was a member of the equites (knight) class, a wealthy middle class placed just below the patrician upper class. From 66 to 63 BC, Caelius served a political apprenticeship under Crassus and Cicero. Throughout that apprenticeship, he became familiar with life in the Roman Forum . In 63 BC, Caelius turned his back on Cicero to support Catiline , who was running for consulship . It is unclear whether or not Caelius supported Catiline after
24750-418: Was a story in connection with the flask which is too obscene to mention but he is sure the jurors will understand what he means! This story would not have been believed if it did not fit the character of the woman it was told about. Peroratio 70–80 The jurors can see how Caelius has been victimised. It is quite wrong to accuse him under the lex Lutatia , whose purpose is to curb major uprisings against
24915-463: Was above all things a revival of Cicero, and only after him and through him of the rest of Classical antiquity ." The peak of Cicero's authority and prestige came during the 18th-century Enlightenment , and his impact on leading Enlightenment thinkers and political theorists such as John Locke , David Hume , Montesquieu , and Edmund Burke was substantial. His works rank among the most influential in global culture, and today still constitute one of
25080-461: Was an extremely talented student, whose learning attracted attention from all over Rome, affording him the opportunity to study Roman law under Quintus Mucius Scaevola . Cicero's fellow students were Gaius Marius Minor, Servius Sulpicius Rufus (who became a famous lawyer, one of the few whom Cicero considered superior to himself in legal matters), and Titus Pomponius . The latter two became Cicero's friends for life, and Pomponius (who later received
25245-401: Was assigned to Sicily for 75 BC. The post, which was largely one related to financial administration in support of the state or provincial governors, proved for Cicero an important place where he could gain clients in the provinces. His time in Sicily saw him balance his duties – largely in terms of sending more grain back to Rome – with his support for the provincials, Roman businessmen in
25410-403: Was considered a great art in ancient Rome and an important tool for disseminating knowledge and promoting oneself in elections, in part because there were no regular newspapers or mass media. Cicero was neither a patrician nor a plebeian noble ; his rise to political office despite his relatively humble origins has traditionally been attributed to his brilliance as an orator. Cicero grew up in
25575-476: Was consul and leader of the Caesarian faction, and unofficial executor of Caesar's public will. Relations between the two were never friendly and worsened after Cicero claimed that Antony was taking liberties in interpreting Caesar's wishes and intentions. Octavian was Caesar's adopted son and heir. After he returned to Italy, Cicero began to play him against Antony. He praised Octavian, declaring he would not make
25740-474: Was deputised for the deities in a role that was both as civil and religious administrator. The king owned all of the land in Egypt, enacted laws, collected taxes, and served as commander-in-chief of the military . Religiously, the king officiated over religious ceremonies and chose the sites of new temples. The king was responsible for maintaining Maat ( mꜣꜥt ), or cosmic order, balance, and justice, and part of this included going to war when necessary to defend
25905-457: Was during his consulship that the Catiline conspiracy attempted to overthrow the government through an attack on the city by outside forces, and Cicero (by his own account) suppressed the revolt by summarily and controversially executing five conspirators without trial, an act which would later lead to his exile. During the chaotic middle period of the first century BC, marked by civil wars and
26070-600: Was educated in Rome and in Greece. He came from a wealthy municipal family of the Roman equestrian order , and served as consul in 63 BC. He greatly influenced both ancient and modern reception of the Latin language. A substantial percentage of his work has survived, and he was admired by both ancient and modern authors alike. Cicero adapted the arguments of the chief schools of Hellenistic philosophy in Latin and created
26235-511: Was given away by Philologus, a freedman of his brother Quintus Cicero. As reported by Seneca the Elder , according to the historian Aufidius Bassus , Cicero's last words are said to have been: Ego vero consisto. Accede, veterane, et, si hoc saltim potes recte facere, incide cervicem. I go no further: approach, veteran soldier, and, if you can at least do so much properly, sever this neck. He bowed to his captors, leaning his head out of
26400-467: Was in debt; and the rent he paid for his house has been exaggerated. It was on his father's advice that he went to live in Rome; and it is a pity he did so for there he met his " Medea ". 19–22 The senator who will be produced alleging that Caelius beat him up, and the witnesses who allege that Caelius assaulted their wives after a dinner-party can be dismissed straightaway. The truth cannot be discovered in this way. 23–24 Crassus has already dealt with
26565-546: Was one of the most viciously and doggedly hunted among the proscribed. He was viewed with sympathy by a large segment of the public and many people refused to report that they had seen him. He was caught on 7 December 43 BC leaving his villa in Formiae in a litter heading to the seaside, where he hoped to embark on a ship destined for Macedonia. When his killers – Herennius (a Centurion) and Popilius (a Tribune) – arrived, Cicero's own slaves said they had not seen him, but he
26730-410: Was strongly opposed to anything unconstitutional that limited the powers of the consuls and replaced them with non-elected officials. During Caesar's consulship of 59 BC, the triumvirate had achieved many of their goals of land reform, publicani debt forgiveness, ratification of Pompeian conquests, etc. With Caesar leaving for his provinces, they wished to maintain their hold on politics. They engineered
26895-519: Was taken by surprise when the Liberatores assassinated Caesar on the ides of March , 44 BC. Cicero was not included in the conspiracy, even though the conspirators were sure of his sympathy. Marcus Junius Brutus called out Cicero's name, asking him to restore the republic when he lifted his bloodstained dagger after the assassination. A letter Cicero wrote in February 43 BC to Trebonius , one of
27060-584: Was the second successor of Siamun. Meanwhile, the traditional custom of referring to the sovereign as, pr-ˤ3 , continued in official Egyptian narratives. The title is reconstructed to have been pronounced *[parʕoʔ] in the Late Egyptian language , from which the Greek historian Herodotus derived the name of one of the Egyptian kings, Koinē Greek : Φερων . In the Hebrew Bible , the title also occurs as Hebrew : פרעה [parʕoːh] ; from that, in
27225-607: Was then 36 and recently widowed. Caelius and Clodia soon became lovers. In late 57 or early 56 BC, Caelius broke from the Clodii for some unknown reason. Clodius and Clodia were determined to punish Caelius for leaving them. On February 11, 56 BC, Caelius charged Atratinus's father Lucius Calpurnius Bestia with electoral malpractice in the elections for praetor in 57 BC; he also insinuated that Bestia had poisoned his wives with aconite . Cicero came to Bestia's defense and saw him acquitted. However, Caelius would not admit defeat and made
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