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39-554: Prodrazverstka , also transliterated prodrazvyorstka (Russian: продразвёрстка , IPA: [prədrɐˈzvʲɵrstkə] , short for прод овольственная развёрстка , lit.   ' food apportionment ' ), alternatively referred to in English as grain requisitioning , was a policy and campaign of confiscation of grain and other agricultural products from peasants at nominal fixed prices according to specified quotas (the noun razverstka, Russian : развёрстка , and

78-755: A Latin alphabet for the Russian language was discussed in 1929–30 during the campaign of latinisation of the languages of the USSR , when a special commission was created to propose a latinisation system for Russian. The letters of the Latin script are named in Russian as following (and are borrowed from French and/or German ): Prodotryad Alexander Tsiurupa was born in Oleshky , in Taurida Governorate , Russian Empire (now Ukraine ). His father

117-444: A Latin alphabet, is also essential for computer users to input Russian text who either do not have a keyboard or word processor set up for inputting Cyrillic, or else are not capable of typing rapidly using a native Russian keyboard layout ( JCUKEN ). In the latter case, they would type using a system of transliteration fitted for their keyboard layout , such as for English QWERTY keyboards, and then use an automated tool to convert

156-639: A Working Group of the United Nations , in 1987 recommended a romanization system for geographical names, which was based on the 1983 version of GOST 16876-71 . It may be found in some international cartographic products. American Library Association and Library of Congress (ALA-LC) romanization tables for Slavic alphabets are used in North American libraries and in the British Library since 1975. The formal, unambiguous version of

195-494: A major political figure. Victor Serge , who met him during the civil war, and was astonished to hear Tsiurupa claim that there was no black market in food, described him as "a man with a splendid white beard and candid eyes ... but he was a captive in offices whose occupants had obviously all primed him with lies." Tsiurupa died on May 8, 1928, in Mukhalatka village, Crimea ) at the age of 57. His ashes were brought buried at

234-592: A view apparently not shared by Lenin. In 1923-25, he was chairman of Gosplan of the USSR. In November 1925, when the people's commissariats for foreign and internal trade were merged, he was appointed People's Commissar for Trade. He was a member of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1923-28. Despite the high government offices he held, Tsiurupa was not

273-479: Is an adoption of an ICAO standard for travel documents. It was used in Russian passports for a short period during 2010–2013 ( see below ). The standard was substituted in 2013 by GOST R ISO/ IEC 7501-1-2013, which does not contain romanization, but directly refers to the ICAO romanization ( see below ). Names on street and road signs in the Soviet Union were romanized according to GOST 10807-78 (tables 17, 18), which

312-753: Is an equivalent of GOST 16876-71 and was adopted as an official standard of the COMECON . GOST 7.79-2000 System of Standards on Information, Librarianship, and Publishing–Rules for Transliteration of the Cyrillic Characters Using the Latin Alphabet is an adoption of ISO 9:1995 . It is the official standard of both Russia and the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). GOST 52535.1-2006 Identification cards. Machine readable travel documents. Part 1. Machine readable passports

351-423: Is based on its predecessor ISO/R 9:1968, which it deprecates; for Russian, the two are the same except in the treatment of five modern letters. ISO 9:1995 is the first language-independent, univocal system of one character for one character equivalents (by the use of diacritics) that faithfully represents the original and allows for reverse transliteration for Cyrillic text in any contemporary language. The UNGEGN ,

390-713: The February Revolution , Tsiurupa was elected to Ufa Committee of the RSDLP. This was an important grain growing district, and during 1917, he organised courses to train inspectors to account for the grain reserves, and arranged for grain supplies to be sent to Petrograd (St Petersburg). In November 1917, after the October Revolution , Tsiurupa was appointed Deputy People's Commissar, and in February 1918 People's Commissar for Food. This meant that during

429-557: The Russian Civil War , he was responsible for ensuring that grain was collected in areas of the countryside under Bolshevik control, and delivered to towns and for the Red Army, to avert the threat of starvation. With the factories turning out fewer goods that peasant farmers wanted to buy during the disruption caused by war, and paper money being of little value, from 1918 Tsiurupa was organised dozens of armed detachments from

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468-639: The 19th century. It is based on the Czech alphabet and formed the basis of the GOST and ISO systems. OST 8483 was the first Soviet standard on romanization of Russian, introduced on 16 October 1935. Developed by the National Administration for Geodesy and Cartography at the USSR Council of Ministers , GOST 16876-71 has been in service since 1973. Replaced by GOST 7.79-2000. This standard

507-470: The Ministry of Agriculture introduced razverstka as the collection of grain for defense purposes. The Russian Provisional Government established after the February Revolution of 1917 could not propose any incentives for peasants, and their state monopoly on grain sales failed to achieve its goal. In 1918 the center of Soviet Russia found itself cut off from the most important agricultural regions of

546-619: The Oxford University Press, and a variation was used by the British Library to catalogue publications acquired up to 1975. The Library of Congress system (ALA-LC) is used for newer acquisitions. The BGN/PCGN system is relatively intuitive for Anglophones to read and pronounce. In many publications, a simplified form of the system is used to render English versions of Russian names, typically converting ë to yo , simplifying -iy and -yy endings to -y , and omitting apostrophes for ъ and ь . It can be rendered using only

585-552: The agencies of the People's Commissariat for Provisions and prodotriads (singular: продовольственный отряд, food brigades) with the help of kombeds (комитет бедноты, committees of the poor ) and of local Soviets . Initially, prodrazverstka covered the collection of grain and fodder . During the procurement campaign of 1919–20, prodrazverstka also included potatoes and meat . By the end of 1920, it included almost every kind of agricultural product. According to Soviet statistics ,

624-608: The authorities collected 107.9 million poods (1.77 million metric tons ) of grain and fodder in 1918–19, 212.5 million poods (3.48 million metric tons) in 1919–20, and 367 million poods (6.01 million metric tons) in 1920–21. Prodrazverstka allowed the Soviet government to solve the important problem of supplying the Red Army and the urban population, and of providing raw materials for various industries. Prodrazverstka left its mark on commodity-money relations, since

663-473: The authorities had prohibited selling of bread and grain . It also influenced relations between the city and the village and became one of the most important elements of the system of war communism . As the Russian Civil War approached its end in the 1920s, prodrazverstka lost its actuality, but it had done much damage to the agricultural sector and had caused growing discontent among peasants. As

702-622: The basic letters and punctuation found on English-language keyboards: no diacritics or unusual letters are required, although the interpunct character (·) may be used to avoid ambiguity. This particular standard is part of the BGN/PCGN romanization system which was developed by the United States Board on Geographic Names and by the Permanent Committee on Geographical Names for British Official Use . The portion of

741-469: The behaviour of the tsarist police. The historian Orlando Figes describes the activities of these detachments as a "battle for grain ... with the brigades using terror to squeeze out the stocks and the peasants counteracting them with passive resistance and outright revolt" including about 200 violent clashes between peasants and grain collectors in July to August 1918 alone. The detachments were disbanded with

780-410: The bread monopoly of the state and advocates of free "predatory", "speculative" trade. Vladimir Lenin believed that prodrazvyorstka was the only possible way - in the circumstances - to procure sufficient amounts of grain and other agricultural products for the population of the cities during the civil war. Before prodrazverstka, Lenin's May 9, 1918 decree ("О продовольственной диктатуре") introduced

819-481: The concept of "produce dictatorship". This and other subsequent decrees ordered the forced collection of foodstuffs, without any limitations, and used the Red Army to accomplish this. A decree of the Sovnarkom introduced prodrazvyorstka throughout Soviet Russia on January 11, 1919. The authorities extended the system to Ukraine and Belarus in 1919, and to Turkestan and Siberia in 1920. In accordance with

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858-698: The country - at this stage of the Russian Civil War the White movement controlled many of the traditional food-producing areas. Reserves of grain ran low, causing hunger among the urban population, from which the Bolshevik government received its strongest support. In order to satisfy minimal food needs, the Soviet government introduced strict control over the food surpluses of prosperous rural households. Since many peasants were extremely unhappy with this policy and tried to resist it, they were branded as " saboteurs " of

897-553: The decree of the People's Commissariat for Provisions on the procedures of prodrazvyorstka (January 13, 1919), the number of different kinds of products designated for collection by the state was calculated on the basis of the data on each guberniia 's areas under crops, crop capacity and the reserves of past years. Within each guberniia, the collection plan was broken down between uezds , volosts , villages, and then separate peasant households. The collection procedures were performed by

936-800: The government switched to the NEP (New Economic Policy), a decree of the 10th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) in March 1921 replaced prodrazverstka with prodnalog (food tax). Transliteration of Russian The romanization of the Russian language (the transliteration of Russian text from the Cyrillic script into the Latin script ), aside from its primary use for including Russian names and words in text written in

975-630: The idea from the grain razverstka introduced in the Russian Empire in 1916 during World War I . 1916 saw a food crisis in the Russian Empire. While the harvest was good in Lower Volga Region and Western Siberia , its transportation by railroads collapsed. Additionally, the food market was in disarray as fixed prices for government purchases were unattractive. A decree of November 29, 1916 signed by Aleksandr Rittich of

1014-443: The introduction of a dedicated Latin alphabet for writing the Russian language. Such an alphabet would not necessarily bind closely to the traditional Cyrillic orthography. The transition from Cyrillic to Latin has been proposed several times throughout history (especially during the Soviet era), but was never conducted on a large scale, except for informal romanizations in the computer era. The most serious possibility of adoption of

1053-578: The introduction of the New Economic Policy in 1921, after which Tsiurupa was responsible for introducing a new tax system of tax in kind, when Russia lacked a stable currency. There is a story that while travelling by train to organise the seizure of grain, Tsiurupa fainted from hunger. This may just be a myth. But in June 1919, Lenin noted that Tsiurupa was unable to feed his large family on his salary, and ordered that it be doubled. Tsiurupa

1092-484: The new system and the old one, citizens who wanted to retain the old version of a name's transliteration, especially one that had been in the old pre-2010 passport, could apply to the local migration office before they acquired a new passport. The standard was abandoned in 2013. In 2013, Order No. 320 of the Federal Migration Service of Russia came into force. It states that all personal names in

1131-738: The newspaper Iskra , Tsiurupa became an Iskra agent, in Ufa and, from 1901, in Kharkiv . In 1902, he was arrested and sentenced to three years exile in Olonets . He returned to Ufa in November 1904, and worked as a manager on the estates of Prince Vyacheslav Kugushev, an Ufa landowner whom Tsiurupa persuaded to secretly back the Bolsheviks During the 1905 Revolution , Tsiurupa helped organise strikes, and an underground printing press. After

1170-459: The passports must be transliterated by using the ICAO system , which is published in Doc 9303 " Machine Readable Travel Documents, Part 3 ". The system differs from the GOST R 52535.1-2006 system in two things: ц is transliterated into ts (as in pre-2010 systems), ъ is transliterated into ie (a novelty). In a second sense, the romanization or Latinization of Russian may also indicate

1209-410: The system for bibliographic cataloguing requires some diacritics, two-letter tie characters , and prime marks. The standard is also often adapted as a "simplified" or "modified Library of Congress system" for use in text for a non-specialized audience, omitting the special characters and diacritics, simplifying endings, and modifying iotated initials. British Standard 2979:1958 is the main system of

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1248-502: The system pertaining to the Russian language was adopted by BGN in 1944 and by PCGN in 1947. In Soviet international passports , transliteration was based on French rules but without diacritics and so all names were transliterated in a French-style system . In 1997, with the introduction of new Russian passports , a diacritic-free English-oriented system was established by the Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs , but

1287-447: The system was also abandoned in 2010. In 2006, GOST R 52535.1-2006 was adopted, which defines technical requirements and standards for Russian international passports and introduces its own system of transliteration. In 2010, the Federal Migration Service of Russia approved Order No. 26, stating that all personal names in the passports issued after 2010 must be transliterated using GOST R 52535.1-2006. Because of some differences between

1326-483: The text into Cyrillic. There are a number of distinct and competing standards for the romanization of Russian Cyrillic , with none of them having received much popularity, and, in reality, transliteration is often carried out without any consistent standards. Scientific transliteration, also known as the International Scholarly System , is a system that has been used in linguistics since

1365-412: The towns who went out and seized grain. He claimed that the squads were sent out only when all other methods had been tried and failed, and denied a rumour that on arrival in a village, they got drunk and went on a rampage. He claimed that they were not simply military detachments, but also propagandists bringing political awareness to the villages. He did, though, concede that sometimes the brigades copied

1404-559: The verb razverstat , refer to the partition of the requested total amount as obligations from the suppliers). This strategy often led to the deaths of many country-dwelling people, such as its involvement with the Holodomor and Kazakh famines of 1919–1922 and 1930–1933 . The term is commonly associated with war communism during the Russian Civil War when it was introduced by the Bolshevik government. However, Bolsheviks borrowed

1443-621: Was Deputy Chairman of the Council of People's Commissar of the Russian Federation in 1921-23. In 1922, he was made head of Rabkrin , succeeding Joseph Stalin , who was appointed General Secretary of the Communist Party - although when Stalin was running Rabkrin, he and Tsiurupa clashed over the issue of food supplies, and Rabrkin did an audit of Tsiurupa's department, which found that it was “very imperfect, cumbersome, expensive, works poorly, (and) requires significant urgent measures” -

1482-497: Was amended by newer Russian GOST R 52290-2004 (tables Г.4, Г.5), the romanizations in both the standards are practically identical. ISO/R 9, established in 1954 and updated in 1968, was the adoption of the scientific transliteration by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). It covers Russian and seven other Slavic languages. ISO 9:1995 is the current transliteration standard from ISO. It

1521-700: Was an official. After graduating from a local school, in 1887 he enrolled in the Kherson Agricultural Institute, but in 1893 was arrested and expelled for distributing anti-government literature. He worked as a statistician and agronomist, but in 1895 was arrested again. After his release, he moved to Ufa , where he joined the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) when it was founded, in 1898, made contact with railway workers, and met Nadezhda Krupskaya , Lenin's in 1900. After Lenin had launched

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