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44-450: The foundation for the study of both stages was laid out by the Basque linguist Koldo Mitxelena . The topic was launched by him in the first edition of Fonética histórica vasca in 1961. The first linguist who scientifically approached the question of the historical changes that Basque had undergone over the centuries was Koldo Mitxelena . His work on Proto-Basque focused mainly on between

88-625: A Basque Nationalist family. When he was young, he was affiliated with the Euskal Langileen Alkartasuna and the Basque Nationalist Party , and learnt about the Euskaltzaleak youth movement led by Jose Ariztimuño , known as "Aitzol." He began working in a factory while continuing his studies, also starting to attend meetings. At this time he became interested in pre-war Basque literature. When

132-630: A Spanish university). He received his doctorate in 1959. In 1968, he became professor of Indoeuropean linguistics . This period in Salamanca was to be one of the happiest times in his life, for both Mitxelena and for his family. At the same time as he began giving classes in Salamanca, the Royal Academy of the Basque Language charged him with the great responsibility of unifying the written Basque language, among other things because of

176-400: A new '-ish' adjective form is derived from other words by suffixing the reduplicated first consonant of the base followed by the segment [oχ] . This can be written succinctly as -Coχ . Below are some examples: Somali has a similar suffix that is used in forming the plural of some nouns: -aC (where C is the last consonant of the base): This combination of reduplication and affixation

220-412: A reduplication of linguistic constituents (i.e. words , stems , roots ). As a result, reduplication is interesting theoretically as it involves the interface between phonology and morphology. The base is the word (or part of the word) that is to be copied. The reduplicated element is called the reduplicant , often abbreviated as RED or sometimes just R . In reduplication, the reduplicant

264-802: A reduplication of only part of the word. For example, Marshallese forms words meaning 'to wear X' by reduplicating the last consonant-vowel-consonant ( CVC ) sequence of a base, i.e. base + CVC : Many languages often use both full and partial reduplication, as in the Motu example below: Reduplication may be initial (i.e. prefixal ), final (i.e. suffixal ), or internal (i.e. infixal ), e.g. Initial reduplication in Agta (CV- prefix) : Final reduplication in Dakota (-CCV suffix) : Internal reduplication in Samoan (-CV- infix) : Internal reduplication

308-611: A special written iteration mark 々 to indicate reduplication, although in Chinese the iteration mark is no longer used in standard writing and is often found only in calligraphy . Indo-European languages formerly used reduplication to form a number of verb forms, especially in the preterite or perfect . In the older Indo-European languages, many such verbs survive: Those forms do not survive in Modern English but existed in its parent Germanic languages . Many verbs in

352-530: A strike. In 1954 he was appointed director of the Julio de Urquijo School of Basque Philology, as well as member of the editorial board of the magazine Egan . At the same time, he began giving classes in Salamanca, on the urging of his friend Antonio Tovar . In 1958 he received the Larramendi Chair in Basque Language and Literature at Salamanca University (the first such chair dedicated to Basque in

396-502: Is commonly referred to as fixed-segment reduplication . In Tohono O'odham initial reduplication also involves gemination of the first consonant in the distributive plural and in repetitive verbs: Sometimes gemination can be analyzed as a type of reduplication. In the Malayo-Polynesian family, reduplication is used to form plurals (among many other functions): In pre-1972 Indonesian and Malaysian orthography, 2

440-459: Is contrasted to "junk-food". One may say, "En ollut eilen koulussa, koska olin kipeä. Siis kipeäkipeä" ("I wasn't at school yesterday because I was sick. Sick-sick, that is"); that means that one was actually suffering from an illness instead of making up excuses, as usual. Words can be reduplicated with their case morphemes, as in lomalla lomalla ("away, on vacation, on leave"), where the adessive morpheme - -lla appears twice. In Swiss German ,

484-780: Is copied and inserted before the medial consonant of the root. Internal R → L copying in Temiar (an Austroasiatic language of Malaysia ): A rare type of reduplication is found in Semai (an Austroasiatic language of Malaysia). "Expressive minor reduplication" is formed with an initial reduplicant that copies the first and last segment of the base: All of the examples above consist of only reduplication. However, reduplication often occurs with other phonological and morphological process, such as vowel alternation , deletion , affixation of non-reduplicating material, etc. For instance, in Tz'utujil

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528-545: Is most often repeated only once. However, in some languages, reduplication can occur more than once, resulting in a tripled form, and not a duple as in most reduplication. Triplication is the term for this phenomenon of copying two times. Pingelapese has both forms. In this article, English translations of words are shown in apostrophes: Triplication occurs in other languages, e.g. Ewe , Shipibo , Twi , Mokilese , Min Nan ( Hokkien ), Stau . Sometimes gemination (i.e.

572-577: Is much less common than the initial and final types. A reduplicant can copy from either the left edge of a word ( left-to-right copying) or from the right edge ( right-to-left copying). There is a tendency for prefixing reduplicants to copy left-to-right and for suffixing reduplicants to copy right-to-left: Initial L → R copying in Oykangand Kunjen (a Pama–Nyungan language of Australia ): Final R → L copying in Sirionó : Copying from

616-460: Is often used when a speaker adopts a tone more "expressive" or figurative than ordinary speech and is also often, but not exclusively, iconic in meaning. Reduplication is found in a wide range of languages and language groups, though its level of linguistic productivity varies. Examples of it can be found at least as far back as Sumerian , where it was used in forming some color terms , e.g. babbar "white", kukku "black". Reduplication

660-481: Is repeated exactly or with a slight change. The classic observation on the semantics of reduplication is Edward Sapir's : "generally employed, with self-evident symbolism, to indicate such concepts as distribution, plurality, repetition, customary activity, increase of size, added intensity, continuance." Reduplication is used in inflections to convey a grammatical function, such as plurality, intensification, etc., and in lexical derivation to create new words. It

704-575: Is the standard term for this phenomenon in the linguistics literature. Other terms that are occasionally used include cloning , doubling , duplication , repetition , and tautonym when it is used in biological taxonomies , such as Bison bison . Reduplication is often described phonologically in one of two ways: either (1) as reduplicated segments (sequences of consonants / vowels ) or (2) as reduplicated prosodic units ( syllables or moras ). In addition to phonological description, reduplication often needs to be described morphologically as

748-662: The Confederación Nacional del Trabajo and the Basque Nationalist Party. Together with this, three important Galicians fell: Ramón Piñeiro and the Saco brothers. Mitxelena was sentenced to two years. He was released on January 30, 1948, after passing through a few more prisons: Alcalá , Ocaña , Yeserías , and Talavera . In 1948, Mitxelena was once again in Errenteria, but he enrolled in

792-740: The Spanish coup of July 1936 took place, Mitxelena volunteered to join the Euzko Gudarostea , the army of the Basque Government . He was taken captive in Santoña and was condemned to death on September 7, 1937, but the sentence was commuted to 30 years in prison. He thus came to know the prisons of El Dueso , Larrinaga , and Burgos . In the Burgos prison, he made the acquaintance of many intellectuals and university professors. It

836-501: The 5th century BC and the 1st century AD, just before and after initial contact with the Romans . By comparing variants of the same word in modern dialects and the changes that Latin loanwords had undergone, he deduced the ancestral forms and the rules for historical sound changes. His groundbreaking work, which culminated with the publication of his book Fonética histórica vasca (1961) (a revised version of his doctoral thesis of 1959),

880-714: The Department of Philology at the University of the Basque Country , and was a member of the Royal Academy of the Basque Language . He is described as "the greatest scholar the Basque language has ever seen." He is known for the complete reconstruction of Proto-Basque he undertook in the 1950s, as well as the formal demonstration in 1954 that the Aquitanian language was an ancestral form of Basque. Mitxelena

924-546: The EHU-UPV and was active in preparing the first generation of Basque philologists. Mitxelena also spent many years preparing a Basque dictionary. The first volume of the General Basque Dictionary was finally published in 1987, but Mitxelena was unable to see it, as he had died shortly before, in that same year. Later, Ibon Sarasola , who had worked with Mitxelena on the project, continued to lead work on

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968-677: The Faculty of Philosophy and Letters in Madrid, having been encouraged by Francisco Jordá, his prison mate. The two decades of the 50s and 60s were important for Mitxelena. He underwent a significant intellectual development, but was living on a shoestring and had to work more than one job to make a living. Due to his criminal record, it was not easy to find a stable job. Luckily, a few of his friends were familiar with his worth and skills ( Arrue , Tovar , Amorós, Agud , Vallejo …). In 1949 he married Matilde Martínez de Ilarduya. In 1951, he took part in

1012-616: The Indo-European languages exhibit reduplication in the present stem, rather than the perfect stem, often with a different vowel from that used for the perfect: Latin gigno, genui ("I beget, I begat") and Greek τίθημι, ἔθηκα, τέθηκα (I place, I placed, I have placed). Other Indo-European verbs used reduplication as a derivational process: compare Latin sto ("I stand") and sisto ("I remain"). All of those Indo-European inherited reduplicating forms are subject to reduction by other phonological laws. Reduplication can be used to refer to

1056-523: The beginning of a word (also ⟨d⟩ , but only in auxiliary verbs), while only fortes were allowed in final position. The fortis–lenis contrast was therefore restricted to word-internal position. Evidence for the Proto-Basque consonant system comes from sound correspondences between modern dialects, the distribution of sounds in native (i.e. non-borrowed) vocabulary, and from the phonological adaptation of early Latin/Romance borrowings. E.g.,

1100-425: The beginning, he would often visit Martinet's house, and he eventually entered into his circle of friends and scientists, as well as into his publishing network. Mitxelena was a linguist of true calling, and had knowledge of many languages, but beyond that, he was an avid reader of literature, including detective novels. He also had an interest in the cinema, writing many interesting reviews and critiques in Basque. He

1144-512: The consonant system in Modern Basque dialects: most notable is the lack of /m/, /p/, the semivowels /w/ and /j/, and the entire palatal consonant series in Proto-Basque, and on the other hand the distinction between fortis and lenis nasals and laterals which is not found in the modern language. This relatively small consonant system was further subject to positional restrictions: only the lenes ⟨b, g, z, s, n, l⟩ occurred at

1188-407: The dictionary, until completing its publication in 2005. Mitxelena wrote twelve books, 260 articles, and 236 reviews and critiques. Some of his works are: [REDACTED] Media related to Koldo Mitxelena at Wikimedia Commons Reduplication In linguistics , reduplication is a morphological process in which the root or the stem of a word (or part of it), or even the whole word,

1232-412: The disputes caused by the use of the letter H. His point of view was not the neutral one of a linguist, but also had the input of sociolinguistics in his mind. He clearly saw that it would be necessary to build Unified Basque on the most useful of the central Basque dialects. In the same way, he saw where the future could come from, and knew to connect with the sensibilities had by the young Bascophiles of

1276-486: The doubling of consonants or vowels) is considered to be a form of reduplication. The term dupleme has been used (after morpheme ) to refer to different types of reduplication that have the same meaning. Full reduplication involves a reduplication of the entire word. For example, Kham derives reciprocal forms from reflexive forms by total reduplication: Another example is from Musqueam Halkomelem "dispositional" aspect formation: Partial reduplication involves

1320-488: The language, called Pre-Proto-Basque (or Old Proto-Basque ), that preceded the Celtic invasion of Iberia . Onomastic attestations of the Aquitanian language , which is only known from the names of places, persons and deities in inscriptions from the first centuries AD, closely match the reconstructed form of Proto-Basque. For instance, Aquitanian names contain elements such as Seni- or Sembe- that fully correspond to

1364-505: The most prototypical instance of a word's meaning. In such a case, it is called contrastive focus reduplication . Finnish colloquial speech uses the process; nouns can be reduplicated to indicate genuinity, completeness, originality and being uncomplicated, as opposed to being fake, incomplete, complicated or fussy. It can be thought as compound word formation. For example, Söin jäätelöä ja karkkia, sekä tietysti ruokaruokaa. "I ate ice cream and candy, and of course food-food". Here, "food-food"

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1408-571: The other direction is possible although less common: Initial R → L copying in Tillamook : Final L → R copying in Chukchi : Internal reduplication can also involve copying the beginning or end of the base. In Quileute, the first consonant of the base is copied and inserted after the first vowel of the base. Internal L → R copying in Quileute : In Temiar, the last consonant of the root

1452-578: The positional restrictions of Proto-Basque explain why the Common Romance affricate in / ts elu/ 'sky' (< Classical Latin caelum ) became a fricative in Basque ( z eru ) at the beginning of a word, whereas the simple fricative at the end of the Latin word corpu s 'body' was adopted as an affricate in Basque ( gorpu tz ). Further, the voicing contrast of stops in Latin/Romance borrowings

1496-520: The reconstructed Proto-Basque words *seni 'boy' and *sembe 'son'. A small sample of what is thought to be a form of Proto-Basque has been discovered on the Hand of Irulegi , an inscribed bronze artifact in the shape of a right hand dated to the 1st century BC. The consonant system of Proto-Basque was reconstructed by Mitxelena as follows: The characteristic fortis–lenis contrast was realized in three ways: This consonant system differed in many ways from

1540-514: The time. One of the famous consequences of the events of May 1968 in France was the decentralization and extension of the university. Between 1969 and 1971, Mitxelena taught comparative Basque linguistics at the Sorbonne as professeur associé and chargé de cours in the École Pratique des Hautes Études . The friendship Mitxelena had with André Martinet at this time should be mentioned. At

1584-580: Was 27, in ill health. Jose Uranga, an entrepreneur from Errenteria offered him an accounting job in Madrid . He took it immediately, and began engaging in clandestine activities while working. The entire opposition had one hope: that the Allied Forces in World War II would win, and thus cause Francoist Spain to fall. On April 10, 1946, Mitxelena was again arrested for his activities related to

1628-468: Was also one of the main participants in the creation of "Euskara Batua" or Standard Basque . In 1987 he was declared Seme Kuttun of the City of Errenteria, literally 'beloved son'. Mitxelena was born into a family engaged in industrial crafts. When still a child, illness kept him bed-ridden for a long time. This awoke his interest in reading, and also his love for the Basque language . Mitxelena came from

1672-563: Was asked to be part of many juries at cultural events, and his advice was sought for judgments on the level of education and culture. During the period of Spain's political transition and first elections, Mitxelena was still in Salamanca. He nevertheless maintained close ties with the Basque Country and took part in many major events there. One was the creation of the University of the Basque Country (EHU-UPV) and cultural normalization. In his later years, starting in 1978, Mitxelena taught at

1716-447: Was carried out mostly before the Aquitanian inscriptions were found, but they fully backed up Mitxelena's proposed Proto-Basque forms. Since then, a number of other prominent linguists, such as Larry Trask , Alfonso Irigoien, Henri Gavel and most recently Joseba Lakarra, Joaquín Gorrotxategi and Ricardo Gómez, have made further contributions to the field. Some of them, such as Lakarra, have focused their attention on even older layers of

1760-449: Was extensive reduplication and that later, certain initial consonants were deleted, leaving the VCV pattern of Proto-Basque: Koldo Mitxelena Koldo Mitxelena Elissalt ( Basque pronunciation: [koldo mitʃelena] ) (also known as Luis Michelena ; 1915, Errenteria , Gipuzkoa – 11 October 1987, San Sebastián ) was an eminent Spanish Basque linguist. He taught in

1804-483: Was lost between vowels and that Proto-Basque had no *m. Both are relatively unusual cross-linguistically, but /n/ was also partially deleted between vowels during the history of the nearby Gascon and Galician-Portuguese . One of the puzzles of Basque is the large number of words that begin with vowels in which the initial and second vowels are the same. Joseba Lakarra proposes that in Pre-Proto-Basque there

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1848-515: Was only preserved in medial position (e.g. la c um > la k u 'lake' versus re g em > erre g e 'king'), but not in word-initial position due to the lack of the fortis-lenis contrast in this position; thus for instance, both p- and b- became b- in Basque: b enedica- > b eindika 'bless', p acem > b ake 'peace'. Studying the behaviour of Latin and early Romance loanwords in Basque, Mitxelena discovered that Proto-Basque *n

1892-548: Was shorthand for the reduplication that forms plurals: orang "person", orang-orang or orang2 "people". This orthography has resurfaced widely in text messaging and other forms of electronic communication. The Nama language uses reduplication to increase the force of a verb : go , "look;", go-go "examine with attention". Chinese also uses reduplication: 人 rén for "person", 人人 rénrén for "everybody". Japanese does it too: 時 toki "time", tokidoki 時々 "sometimes, from time to time". Both languages can use

1936-525: Was there that Francisco Jordá (later a professor of archaeology ) convinced him to undertake university studies. Difficulties prevented him from doing so until 1948. Two books played a large role in motivating him: the Manual de Gramática Española ( Manual of Spanish Grammar ) by Menéndez Pidal and Aguado Bleye 's History of Spain . He was released on January 13, 1943, after 5 years, 4 months, and 5 days of prison. Mitxelena returned to Errenteria when he

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