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109-512: Three stages of Proto-Finnic are distinguished in literature. Views on when and where Proto-Finnic was spoken have varied over the years. Many of the older sources do not recognize Middle Proto-Finnic, recognizing only Early and Late Proto-Finnic: Proto-Finnic is thought to have been spoken around the Gulf of Finland , but theories on its earlier location have varied; traditionally it has been considered that Proto-Finnic arrived first on

218-542: A gliding vowel or a vowel glide , is a combination of two adjacent vowel sounds within the same syllable . Technically, a diphthong is a vowel with two different targets: that is, the tongue (and/or other parts of the speech apparatus ) moves during the pronunciation of the vowel. In most varieties of English , the phrase "no highway cowboy" ( / n oʊ ˈ h aɪ w eɪ ˈ k aʊ b ɔɪ / noh HY -way KOW -boy ) has five distinct diphthongs, one in every syllable . Diphthongs contrast with monophthongs , where

327-401: A cluster to come into contact with a third consonant. When such innovative large clusters appeared, the result was the deletion of one or more elements in the cluster, usually the first. Likewise, the apocope of -i after two or more syllables could create word-final clusters, which were also simplified. This led to alternations that are still seen, though unproductive, in e.g. Finnish: Note in

436-494: A diphthong differently than when those sounds are produced in hiatus. For example, due to English diphthong raising , many North American English speakers pronounce /aɪ/ with closer vowels than /a.ɪ/ , and, among a subset of those, the diphthong /aʊ/ may be similarly raised as compared to /a.ʊ/ . In words coming from Middle English , most cases of the Modern English diphthongs [aɪ̯, oʊ̯, eɪ̯, aʊ̯] originate from

545-476: A diphthong, they can be transcribed with two vowel symbols with a period in between. Thus, lower can be transcribed ⟨ ˈloʊ.ɚ ⟩, with a period separating the first syllable, / l oʊ / , from the second syllable, ⟨ ɚ ⟩. The non-syllabic diacritic is used only when necessary. It is typically omitted when there is no ambiguity, as in ⟨ haɪ kaʊ ⟩. No words in English have

654-509: A diphthong. Diphthongs often form when separate vowels are run together in rapid speech during a conversation. However, there are also unitary diphthongs, as in the English examples above, which are heard by listeners as single-vowel sounds ( phonemes ). In the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), monophthongs are transcribed with one symbol, as in English sun [sʌn] , in which ⟨ ʌ ⟩ represents

763-609: A front-harmonic and a back-harmonic form. In non-initial syllables, the vowels e and i were originally a single reduced schwa-like vowel in Proto-Uralic, but had become differentiated in height over time. i arose word-finally, while e appeared medially. These vowels were front vowels at the time, and had back-vowel counterparts ë /ɤ/ and ï /ɯ/ . In Proto-Finnic, ï had merged with i ( /ɯ/ > /i/ ), so that i then became neutral to vowel harmony, and now occurred in both front-vowel and back-vowel words, even if /i/

872-424: A monophthong becomes a diphthong. Monophthongization or smoothing is a vowel shift in which a diphthong becomes a monophthong. While there are a number of similarities, diphthongs are not the same phonologically as a combination of a vowel and an approximant or glide. Most importantly, diphthongs are fully contained in the syllable nucleus while a semivowel or glide is restricted to the syllable boundaries (either

981-434: A monophthong. Diphthongs are transcribed with two symbols, as in English high /haɪ/ or cow /kaʊ/ , in which ⟨ aɪ ⟩ and ⟨ aʊ ⟩ represent diphthongs. Diphthongs may be transcribed with two vowel symbols or with a vowel symbol and a semivowel symbol. In the words above, the less prominent member of the diphthong can be represented with the symbols for the palatal approximant [ j ] and

1090-535: A more peripheral vowel and ends with a more central one, such as [ɪə̯] , [ɛə̯] , and [ʊə̯] in Received Pronunciation or [iə̯] and [uə̯] in Irish . Many centering diphthongs are also opening diphthongs ( [iə̯] , [uə̯] ). Diphthongs may contrast in how far they open or close. For example, Samoan contrasts low-to-mid with low-to-high diphthongs: Narrow diphthongs are the ones that end with

1199-453: A previously closed syllable, which would undo the gradation. Suffixal gradation affected the endings themselves. For example, partitive * -ta would appear as * -da when added to a two-syllable word ending in a vowel (e.g. * kala , * kalada "fish"), but as * -ta after a third syllable or a consonant (* veci , * vettä "water"). Proto-Finnic nouns declined in at least 13 cases. Adjectives did not originally decline, but adjective-noun agreement

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1308-476: A result of consonant gradation, like the voiced fricatives. Consonant gradation was a process of lenition that affected the obstruents. Short plosives became voiced fricatives, while long plosives became half-long: Voiced plosives occurred after nasals ( mb nd ŋg ), voiced fricatives in all other weak grade environments. It is unclear if single *c gradated, and if so, into what. No Finnic language has consonant gradation for former *c , both grades result in

1417-578: A result of the 1219, crusade and the Battle of Lindanise , northern Estonia became part of Denmark ( Danish Estonia ). In the 13th century, the city of Reval (Tallinn) ( Latin : Revalia ) was established on the site of modern Tallinn, capital of Estonia. As a result of the Estonian uprising in 1343 , northern Estonia was taken over by the Teutonic Order and sold by Denmark in 1346. In 1559, during

1526-407: A short vowel with the vowels /i/ , /y/ and /u/ , or equivalently with the semivowels /j/ and /w/ . No length contrast occurred in diphthongs. A long vowel followed by a close vowel as a suffix was shortened: e.g. the imperfect forms of *saa- "to receive", *söö- "to eat" were *sai , *söi . This process is the only reconstructible source of *öi , *üi . Proto-Finnic is reconstructed with

1635-628: A similar length. In languages with only one phonemic length for pure vowels, however, diphthongs may behave like pure vowels. For example, in Icelandic , both monophthongs and diphthongs are pronounced long before single consonants and short before most consonant clusters. Some languages contrast short and long diphthongs. In some languages, such as Old English , these behave like short and long vowels, occupying one and two morae , respectively. Languages that contrast three quantities in diphthongs are extremely rare, but not unheard of; Northern Sami

1744-401: A state) in each of the two series of locative cases: inner –s- ("inside") and outer –l- ("outside", "upon", and other grammaticalized functions to denote "possessor", "instrument", etc.), to give the following system of six locative cases. In the above, A stands for either a or ä depending on vowel harmony , and V for an epenthetic vowel . Note that -nA is reconstructible as

1853-415: A syllable, but word-finally only the alveolar consonants ( *l , *n , *t , *r , *s and perhaps *c ) and the velars *k and *h occurred. Final *-k and *-h were often lost in the later Finnic languages, but occasionally left traces of their former presence. Word-internal consonant clusters were limited to two elements originally. However, the widespread syncope of -e- (detailed above) could cause

1962-484: A system of vowel harmony that is very similar to the one found in modern Finnish. Vowels in non-initial syllables had either a front or a back vowel, depending on the quality of the vowel of the first syllable. If the first syllable contained a front vowel, non-initial syllables would contain front vowels as well, while back vowels in the first syllable would be matched with back vowels in the other syllables. Thus, all inflectional and derivational suffixes came in two forms,

2071-439: A two-consonant cluster *-cr- with an affricate as the initial member. All inflectional and derivational endings containing * a or * u also had front-vowel variants with ä and ü , which matched the vowels in the word stem following the rules of vowel harmony. * o did not follow this rule, as noted above. Endings which closed the final syllable of a word triggered radical gradation on that syllable. An ending could also open

2180-563: A vowel which on a vowel chart is quite close to the one that begins the diphthong, for example Northern Dutch [eɪ] , [øʏ] and [oʊ] . Wide diphthongs are the opposite – they require a greater tongue movement, and their offsets are farther away from their starting points on the vowel chart. Examples of wide diphthongs are RP/GA English [aɪ] and [aʊ] . Languages differ in the length of diphthongs, measured in terms of morae . In languages with phonemically short and long vowels, diphthongs typically behave like long vowels, and are pronounced with

2289-884: A vowel, European Portuguese has 14 phonemic diphthongs (10 oral and 4 nasal), all of which are falling diphthongs formed by a vowel and a nonsyllabic high vowel. Brazilian Portuguese has roughly the same amount, although the European and non-European dialects have slightly different pronunciations ( [ɐj] is a distinctive feature of some southern and central Portuguese dialects, especially that of Lisbon). A [w] onglide after /k/ or /ɡ/ and before all vowels as in quando [ˈkwɐ̃du] ('when') or guarda [ˈɡwaɾðɐ ~ ˈɡwaʁdɐ] ('guard') may also form rising diphthongs and triphthongs . Additionally, in casual speech, adjacent heterosyllabic vowels may combine into diphthongs and triphthongs or even sequences of them. In addition, phonetic diphthongs are formed in most Brazilian Portuguese dialects by

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2398-456: Is 400 km (250 mi) and the width varies from 70 km (43 mi) near the entrance to 130 km (81 mi) on the meridian of Moshchny Island ; in the Neva Bay , it decreases to 12 km (7.5 mi). The gulf is relatively shallow, with the depth decreasing from the entrance to the gulf to the continent. The sharpest change occurs near Narva-Jõesuu , which is why this place

2507-591: Is a front vowel. The vowels e /e/ and ë /ɤ/ appear to have remained distinct in Proto-Finnic, and remained so in North and South Estonian (as e and õ ) and Votic. In the other Finnic languages, /ɤ/ and /e/ merged into e /e/ . Stress was not contrastive. Words were stressed in a trochaic pattern, with primary stress on the first syllable of a word, and secondary stress on every following odd-numbered syllable. The occurrence of two-vowel sequences

2616-434: Is a less precise or broader transcription, since these diphthongs usually end in a vowel sound that is more open than the semivowels [j w] or the close vowels [i u] . Transcribing the diphthongs as ⟨ aɪ̯ aʊ̯ ⟩ is a more precise or narrower transcription, since the English diphthongs usually end in the near-close vowels [ɪ ʊ] . The non-syllabic diacritic , the inverted breve below ⟨◌̯⟩ ,

2725-541: Is apparent in an older, now-obsolete essive case form of the superlative in Finnish, which ended in -inna (< *-im-na < *-ime-na with syncope). Proto-Finnic had a series of possessive suffixes for nominals, which acted partly as genitives. These have been lost from productive use in all southern languages (traces remain in e.g. folk poetry). The system given below may therefore represent Proto-Northern Finnic rather than Proto-Finnic proper. The original vowels in

2834-544: Is by the 20th century lost everywhere except in the Southeastern Tavastian dialect of Finnish, around the municipalities of Iitti and Orimattila , and even there only in the nominative in the first and second person singular. The original 3PS / 3PP contrast is lost everywhere except Ingrian. In most cases, both ending variants however still remain in use, with different endings generalized in different varieties. Standard Finnish adopts 1PP -mme (derived from

2943-666: Is called the Narva wall. The average depth is 38 m (125 ft) with the maximum of 115 m (377 ft). The depth of the Neva Bay is less than 6 metres (20 ft); therefore, in March 2019, a channel was dug at the bottom for safe navigation. Because of the large influx of fresh water from rivers, especially from the Neva River (two-thirds of the total runoff), the gulf water has very low salinity – between 0.2 and 0.3 ‰ at

3052-492: Is carried out in spring and autumn. Grey seal and ringed seal are met in the gulf, but the latter is very rare. Many ancient sites were discovered on the shores of the gulf dated to up to 9000 years old. Humans began to inhabit these places soon after the ice age glaciers retreated and the water level of the Littorina Sea lowered to reveal the land. Remains of about 11 Neolithic settlements were found since 1905 in

3161-758: Is expected that after this completes it should reduce the ecological risks for Saint Petersburg. Ust-Luga is envisioned to be the largest transportation and logistics hub in northwestern Russia. However, in 2015 it was reported that some construction plans in Ust-Luga were frozen, and the construction of Ust-Luga Multimodal Complex, supposed to be the transit point for radioactive waste, never started. Diphthong A diphthong ( / ˈ d ɪ f θ ɒ ŋ , ˈ d ɪ p -/ DIF -thong, DIP - ; from Ancient Greek δίφθογγος (díphthongos)  'two sounds', from δίς (dís)  'twice' and φθόγγος (phthóngos)  'sound'), also known as

3270-411: Is known to contrast long, short and "finally stressed" diphthongs, the last of which are distinguished by a longer second element. In some languages, diphthongs are single phonemes , while in others they are analyzed as sequences of two vowels, or of a vowel and a semivowel. Certain sound changes relate to diphthongs and monophthongs . Vowel breaking or diphthongization is a vowel shift in which

3379-400: Is more close than the first (e.g. [ai] ); in opening diphthongs, the second element is more open (e.g. [ia] ). Closing diphthongs tend to be falling ( [ai̯] ), and opening diphthongs are generally rising ( [i̯a] ), as open vowels are more sonorous and therefore tend to be more prominent. However, exceptions to this rule are not rare in the world's languages. In Finnish , for instance,

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3488-399: Is not clear which symbol represents the syllable nucleus, or when they have equal weight. Superscripts are especially used when an on- or off-glide is particularly fleeting. The period ⟨ . ⟩ is the opposite of the non-syllabic diacritic: it represents a syllable break. If two vowels next to each other belong to two different syllables ( hiatus ), meaning that they do not form

3597-460: Is placed under the less prominent part of a diphthong to show that it is part of a diphthong rather than a vowel in a separate syllable: [aɪ̯ aʊ̯] . When there is no contrastive vowel sequence in the language, the diacritic may be omitted. Other common indications that the two sounds are not separate vowels are a superscript, ⟨ aᶦ aᶷ ⟩, or a tie bar, ⟨ a͡ɪ a͡ʊ ⟩ or ⟨ a͜ɪ a͜ʊ ⟩. The tie bar can be useful when it

3706-415: Is possible for languages to contrast [ij] and [iː] . Diphthongs are also distinct from sequences of simple vowels. The Bunaq language of Timor, for example, distinguishes /sa͡i/ [saj] 'exit' from /sai/ [saʲi] 'be amused', /te͡i/ [tej] 'dance' from /tei/ [teʲi] 'stare at', and /po͡i/ [poj] 'choice' from /loi/ [loʷi] 'good'. Some languages or dialects also articulate the component sounds of

3815-469: Is significant contamination by ions of mercury and copper , organochlorine pesticides , phenols , petroleum products and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons . Cleaning of waste water in Saint Petersburg was started in 1979 and by 1997 about 74% of wastewater was purified. This number rose to 85% in 2005, to 91.7% by 2008, and as of 2009 was expected to reach 100% by 2011 with the completion of

3924-610: Is the easternmost arm of the Baltic Sea . It extends between Finland to the north and Estonia to the south, to Saint Petersburg in Russia to the east, where the river Neva drains into it. Other major cities around the gulf include Helsinki and Tallinn . The eastern parts of the Gulf of Finland belong to Russia, and some of Russia's most important oil harbors are located farthest in, near Saint Petersburg (including Primorsk ). As

4033-732: Is the main transhipment cargo port for Russia), Hanko (containers, vehicles), Turku (containers, rail ferry), Kilpilahti/Sköldvik harbour ( oil refinery ); in Estonia: Tallinn (grains, refrigerators, oil), Paldiski , Sillamäe . Gulf of Finland is also part of the Volga–Baltic Waterway and White Sea–Baltic Canal . Important goods include apatite from the Kola Peninsula , Karelian granite and greenstone , timber from Arkhangelsk Oblast and Vologda , ferrous metals from Cherepovets , coal from Donbas and

4142-460: Is very similar to that found in the Finnic languages. However, it was still productive after certain sound changes specific to Finnic, such as the apocope of final *-i , so it was probably present as a phonetic "post-processing" rule (a surface filter ) over a long period of time. It is no longer fully productive in any Finnic language, but most languages still retain large amounts of words preserving

4251-470: The English and Italian languages, among others, many phoneticians do not consider rising combinations to be diphthongs, but rather sequences of approximant and vowel. There are many languages (such as Romanian ) that contrast one or more rising diphthongs with similar sequences of a glide and a vowel in their phonetic inventory (see semivowel for examples). In closing diphthongs, the second element

4360-579: The Kuznetsk Basin , pyrite from Ural, potassium chloride from Solikamsk , oil from Volga region, and grains from many regions of Russia. Passenger transport on the gulf includes a number of ferry lines which connect the following ports: Helsinki and Hanko (Finland), Mariehamn ( Åland ), Stockholm and Kapellskär (Sweden), Tallinn and Paldiski (Estonia), Rostock (Germany), Saint Petersburg and Kaliningrad (Russia), as well as many other cities. Another major and historical activity in

4469-574: The Livonian War , the Bishop of Ösel-Wiek in Old Livonia sold his lands to King Frederick II of Denmark . The Danish king gave the territory to his younger brother Magnus who landed on Saaremaa with an army in 1560. The whole of Saaremaa became a Danish possession in 1573, and remained so until it was transferred to Sweden in 1645. In the 12th and 13th centuries, the Finnish tribes on

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4578-531: The Middle High German diphthongs than to standard German diphthongs: Apart from these phonemic diphthongs, Bernese German has numerous phonetic diphthongs due to L-vocalization in the syllable coda, for instance the following ones: Yiddish has three diphthongs: Diphthongs may reach a higher target position (towards /i/ ) in situations of coarticulatory phenomena or when words with such vowels are being emphasized. There are five diphthongs in

4687-484: The Proto-Finno-Ugric locative marker (the ancestor of the Finnic essive case ), -tA the separative ("from") (ancestor of the partitive case ), and –n , –s or –k the lative ("to"). This system is probably a Finnic innovation, although the –s and –l cases have corresponding forms in some other Uralic languages (Sami and Volgaic; and Permian, respectively). Adjectives formed comparatives using

4796-587: The Treaty of Stolbovo (1617) the lands on the Gulf of Finland and Neva River became part of the Swedish Ingria . Its capital Nyen was located in the delta of Neva River. Russia reclaimed the eastern part of the gulf as a result of the victory in the Great Northern War (1700–1721). On 16 May 1703, Saint Petersburg was founded in the mouth of Neva River, not far from Nyen, and in 1712 it became

4905-486: The evacuation of the Baltic Fleet from Tallinn to Kronstadt, German forces sank 15 Russian military vessels, (5 destroyers , 2 submarines , 3 guard ships , 2 minesweepers , 2 gunboats and 1 Motor Torpedo Boat ) as well as 43 transport and support ships. Several ships still remain on the gulf bottom near Cape Juminda, and a monument was raised there in memory of those lost in the events. In 1978, construction

5014-592: The incision of large rivers during the Cenozoic prior to the Quaternary glaciation . These rivers eroded the sedimentary strata above the Fennoscandian Shield . In particular the eroded material was made up of Ediacaran (Vendian) and Cambrian -aged claystone and sandstone. As erosion progressed, the rivers encountered harder layers of Ordovician -aged limestone , leading to the formation of

5123-509: The spawning of fish. Extraction of sand and gravel in the Neva Bay for the land reclamation destroy spawning sites of European smelt . Construction of the Saint Petersburg Dam reduced water exchange of the Neva Bay with the eastern part of the gulf by 10–20% that increased the contamination level of Neva Bay. The largest changes occur within 5 km (3 mi) from the dam. Some shallow areas between Saint Petersburg and

5232-666: The vocalization of /l/ in the syllable coda with words like sol [sɔw] ('sun') and sul [suw] ('south') as well as by yodization of vowels preceding / s / or its allophone at syllable coda [ ʃ ~ ɕ ] in terms like arroz [aˈʁojs ~ ɐˈʁo(j)ɕ] ('rice'), and / z / (or [ ʒ ~ ʑ ] ) in terms such as paz mundial [ˈpajz mũdʒiˈaw ~ ˈpa(j)ʑ mũdʑiˈaw] ('world peace') and dez anos [ˌdɛjˈz‿ɐ̃nu(j)s ~ ˌdɛjˈz‿ɐ̃nuɕ] ('ten years'). Phonetically, Spanish has seven falling diphthongs and eight rising diphthongs. In addition, during fast speech, sequences of vowels in hiatus become diphthongs wherein one becomes non-syllabic (unless they are

5341-648: The Baltic Sea. The waste, mostly depleted uranium hexafluoride , is further transported through Saint Petersburg to Novouralsk , Angarsk and other cities of eastern Russia. This transit point will be moved from Saint Petersburg to the port Ust-Luga , which is about 110 kilometres (68 mi) west of Saint Petersburg, and within the Border Security Zone of Russia , as decided by the Russian government in 2003 (Order No. 1491-r of 14 October 2003). It

5450-705: The Great in the Great Northern War (1710). In 1323, the Treaty of Nöteborg set the border between Sweden and Russia along the river Sestra. In the 15th century, the Izhorian lands of the Novgorod Republic were attached to the Grand Duchy of Moscow . In 1550, Gustav I of Sweden founded a city on the site of modern Helsinki . As a result of the Russian defeat in the Ingrian War (1610–1617) and

5559-731: The Middle English long monophthongs [iː, ɔː, aː, uː] through the Great Vowel Shift , although some cases of [oʊ̯, eɪ̯] originate from the Middle English diphthongs [ɔu̯, aɪ̯] . The dialect of Hamont (in Limburg ) has five centring diphthongs and contrasts long and short forms of [ɛɪ̯] , [œʏ̯] , [ɔʊ̯] , and [ɑʊ̯] . The Afrikaans language has its origin in Dutch but differs in many significant ways, including

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5668-590: The Oslo dialect of Norwegian , all of them falling: An additional diphthong, [ʉ͍ɪ] , occurs only in the word hui in the expression i hui og hast "in great haste". The number and form of diphthongs vary between dialects. Diphthongs in Faroese are: Diphthongs in Icelandic are the following: Combinations of semivowel /j/ and a vowel are the following: In French , /wa/ , /wɛ̃/ , /ɥi/ and /ɥɛ̃/ may be considered true diphthongs (that is, fully contained in

5777-746: The Soikkola dialect of Ingrian, suffixing the usual nominative plural marker -t , e.g. venehe-mme-t 'our boats'. Old Finnish shows two archaic features in the possessive paradigm: the number-of-possessed contrast (singular poikaise-mi 'my son', versus plural luu-ni 'my bones'), and the 2nd person singular ending may attach also to the consonant stem of a nominal, with a non-assibilated ending -ti (the expected regular development before old *s , *t and *h < *š ): e.g. rakkaus  : rakkaut-ti 'your love', tutkain  : tutkain-ti 'your prod' (modern Finnish rakkaute-si , tutkaime-si ). A series of dual possessors has been proposed to account for

5886-642: The Swedish marshal Torkel Knutsson . The castle was fought over for decades between Sweden and the Novgorod Republic . By the Treaty of Nöteborg in 1323, Vyborg was finally recognized as a part of Sweden . It withstood a prolonged siege by Daniil Shchenya during the Russo-Swedish War of 1496–1499 . The town's trade privileges were chartered by King Eric of Pomerania in 1403. Vyborg remained in Swedish hands until its capture by Peter

5995-682: The capital city of Russia. To protect the city from the Swedish fleet, the Kronshlot fortress was built on an artificial island near the Kotlin Island in May 1704. By 1705, five more such forts were built nearby composing the city Kronstadt . These fortifications, nicknamed by the contemporaries "the Russian Dardanelles ", were designed to control the Gulf waterway. In 1710, the cities of Peterhof and Oranienbaum were founded on

6104-461: The cliffs of Baltic Klint in northern Estonia and Ingria . Subsequently, the depression was somewhat reshaped by glacier activities. Its retreat formed the Littorina Sea , whose water level was some 7–9 metres higher than the present level of the Baltic Sea. Some 4,000 years ago the sea receded and shoals in the gulf have become its islands. Later uplifting of the Baltic Shield skewed

6213-548: The dam are turning into swamps. Waterlogging and the associated rotting of plants may eventually lead to eutrophication of the area. Also worrying is expansion of oil ports in the gulf and the construction of a treatment center for spent fuel from the Leningrad Nuclear Power Plant . The port of Kronstadt is currently serving as a transit point for the import in Russia of radioactive waste through

6322-597: The diphthong instead, giving leida- and köis . Short ö was also generally added to the system by researchers for reasons of symmetry, to complete the system of vowel harmony (see below). This happened in Finnish näkö 'sight' < Proto-Finnic *näko , but not in Votic näko . The existence of öö is clear, as this sound had regularly evolved from other combinations of sounds, in words of Uralic origin (e.g. *söö- 'to eat' ← Proto-Uralic *sewi- ). Proto-Finnic also possessed diphthongs , which were formed by combinations of

6431-591: The dominant activity in the gulf. The major port cities and their functions are, in Russia: Saint Petersburg (all kinds of goods), Kronstadt (container shipping), Lomonosov (general cargo, containers, metals), Vyborg (general cargo), Primorsk (oil and petroleum products), Vysotsk (oil and coal), Ust-Luga ( oil , coal, timber, containers); in Finland: Helsinki (containers), Kotka (containers, timber, agricultural products; it

6540-516: The earlier alternations. The Proto-Finnic vowel inventory is reconstructed to a great similarity to that of modern Finnish, although the distribution of the sounds was different. The following table lists the monophthong vowels reconstructable for Proto-Finnic. All vowels could occur both short and long . In Proto-Uralic, rounded vowels /u y o/ ( *u , *ü , *o ) did not occur in non-initial syllables, but because of sound changes, they emerged in Proto-Finnic. The short unrounded mid back vowel *ë

6649-653: The east, the gulf ends with Neva Bay; in the west it merges with the Baltic Sea. The gulf contains numerous banks, skerries and islands. The largest include Kotlin Island with the city of Kronstadt (population 42,800), Beryozovye Islands , Lisiy Island, Maly Vysotsky Island with the nearby city of Vysotsk (population 1706), Gogland (Suursaari), Moshtchny (Lavansaari), Bolshoy Tyuters (Tytärsaari), Sommers , Naissaar , Kimitoön , Kökar , Seskar (Seiskari), Pakri Islands and others. Starting in 1700, Russia constructed nineteen artificial islands with fortresses in

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6758-639: The eastern coast of the Gulf of Finland, but it has also been suggested that Middle Proto-Finnic was spoken in an area in modern-day Estonia and northeastern parts of Latvia . The sounds of Proto-Finnic can be reconstructed through the comparative method . Reconstructed Proto-Finnic is traditionally transcribed using the Uralic Phonetic Alphabet . The following UPA and related conventions are adopted in this article for transcribing Proto-Finnic forms: The Proto-Finnic consonant inventory had relatively few phonemic fricatives, much like that of

6867-532: The environment. Mines were laid in the gulf during World War I (38,932 units), the Russian Civil War , and the Winter War (1939–1940), with an estimated total number of 60,000; 85,000 more mines were set during World War II, and only a fraction of all those were eliminated after the wars. The ecological condition of the Gulf of Finland, Neva Bay and Neva River is unsatisfactory. There

6976-818: The examples of * tuhatta and * kolmatta that Proto-Finnic did not initially tolerate clusters of a sonorant plus a geminate consonant (i.e. clusters like * -ntt- ). Through loanwords, analogy and further syncope, these have only later become permissible in the Finnic languages. Traditionally a single three-consonant cluster *-str- has been reconstructed for a small group of words showing *-tr- in Southern Finnic and in Eastern Finnish, *-sr- in Karelian and Veps, and /-hr-/ in Western Finnish. This has recently been suggested to be reinterpreted as

7085-487: The expansion of the main sewerage plant. Nevertheless, in 2008, the Federal Service of Saint Petersburg announced that no beach of Saint Petersburg is fit for swimming. Fish catchment decreased 10 times between 1989 and 2005. Apart from pollution, another reason for that is hydraulic and engineering works. For example, construction of new ports in Ust-Luga and Vysotsk and on Vasilyevsky Island adversely affected

7194-418: The fall of 1743, 17 Russian warships returning from Finland sank in just 7 hours, and in the summer of 1747, 26 merchant vessels sank within 4 hours near Narva. A record was set in 1721 when during the evacuation of Russian troops from Finland, more than 100 vessels were lost within 3 months, including 64 in a single night. By the end of 1996, about 5,000 submerged objects were identified in the Russian part of

7303-850: The far eastern part of the gulf vegetation of the marshy areas consists mainly of bulrush and reeds , as well as fully aquatic plants, such as white and yellow waterlilies and acute sedge . Aquatic plants in the shallow waters of the gulf include Ruppia and spiny naiad . Fish species of the gulf include Atlantic salmon , viviparous eelpout , gobies , belica , loach , European chub , common minnow , silver bream , common dace , ruffe , Crucian carp , stickleback , European smelt , common rudd , brown trout , tench , pipefish , burbot , perch , gudgeon , lumpsucker , roach , lamprey , vendace , garfish , common whitefish , common bream , zander , orfe , northern pike , spined loach , sprat , Baltic herring , sabre carp , common bleak , European eel and Atlantic cod . Commercial fishing

7412-537: The following contexts: There are also certain instances of compensatory diphthongization in the Majorcan dialect so that /ˈtroncs/ ('logs') (in addition to deleting the palatal plosive) develops a compensating palatal glide and surfaces as [ˈtrojns] (and contrasts with the unpluralized [ˈtronʲc] ). Diphthongization compensates for the loss of the palatal stop (part of Catalan's segment loss compensation). There are other cases where diphthongization compensates for

7521-624: The former is given first, followed by the latter. Proto-Finnic possessed two phonemic levels of consonant duration , short and long (geminate). The contrast itself had been inherited from Proto-Uralic, but was considerably expanded: all consonants except *r, *h, *j and *w could be short or long. The three plosives and the affricate *c /ts/ also possessed a half-long duration ( [pˑ] , [tˑ] , [kˑ] and [tsˑ] ), but these appear to have been in complementary ( allophonic ) distribution with fully long consonants, and therefore are not thought to have been phonemic. They appeared in predictable positions as

7630-826: The gulf from the south. From the north flow the Sestra River , Porvoo , Vantaa and several other small rivers. The Saimaa Canal connects the gulf with the Saimaa lake. The International Hydrographic Organization defines the western limit of the Gulf of Finland as a line running from Spithami (59°13'N), in Estonia, through the Estonian island of Osmussaar from SE to NW and on to the SW extremity of Hanko Peninsula (22°54'E) in Finland. The modern depression can be traced to

7739-405: The gulf is fishing, especially on the northern coast near Vyborg, Primorsk and on the southern coast near Ust-Luga. Commercial fish species are herring , sprats , European smelt , whitefishes , carp bream , roaches , perch , European eel , lamprey and others. In 2005, the catchment was 2000 tons by the ships of Saint Petersburg and Leningrad Oblast alone. In September 2005 the agreement

7848-472: The gulf is high and winding, with abundant small bays and skerries , but only a few large bays ( Vyborg ) and peninsulas (Hanko and Porkkalanniemi ). The coast is mostly sloping; there are abundant sandy dunes, with occasional pine trees. The southern shores are smooth and shallow, but along the entire coast runs a limestone escarpment, the Baltic Klint , with a height up to 55 m (180 ft). In

7957-446: The gulf is one of the world's largest ship cemeteries . Because of the low salinity and cold waters, and no shipworms , the ships are relatively well preserved. Since the 6th century, major waterways were running through the gulf, and from the 8th to the 10th century, about 3,000 tonnes of silver was transported there. Later, the gulf was actively used by Sweden and Russia for transport of goods. Every year saw dozens of lost ships. In

8066-546: The gulf, including 2,500 ships, 1,500 airplanes, and small items such as boats, anchors , tanks, tractors, cars, cannons, and even naval mines , aerial bombs , torpedoes, and other ammunition. The ships belonged to Russia (25%), Germany (19%), United Kingdom (17%), Sweden (15%), Netherlands (8%), and Finland (7%). The remaining 9% are from Norway, Denmark, France, United States, Italy, Estonia, and Latvia. These objects present potential hazards to navigation, fishery, coastal construction, laying of submarine pipelines and cables, and

8175-607: The gulf. They aimed to defend Russia from maritime attacks, especially in the context of the Great Northern War of 1700–1721. Such fortresses include Fort Alexander , Krasnaya Gorka , Ino , Totleben and Kronshlot  [ ru ] . The largest rivers flowing into the gulf are the Neva (from the east), the Narva (from the south), and the Kymi (from the north). Keila , Pirita , Jägala , Kunda , Luga , Sista and Kovashi flow into

8284-417: The labiovelar approximant [ w ] , with the symbols for the close vowels [ i ] and [ u ] , or the symbols for the near-close vowels [ ɪ ] and [ ʊ ] : Some transcriptions are broader or narrower (less precise or more precise phonetically) than others. Transcribing the English diphthongs in high and cow as ⟨ aj aw ⟩ or ⟨ ai̯ au̯ ⟩

8393-475: The latter as ⟨eeu⟩ . In diminutives ending in /ki/ formed to monosyllabic nouns, the vowels /u, ɪə, ʊə, ɛ, ə, œ, ɔ, a, ɑː/ are realised as closing diphthongs [ui, ei, oi, ɛi, əi, œi, ɔi, ai, ɑːi] . In the same environment, the sequences /ɛn, ən, œn, ɔn, an/ are realized as [ɛiɲ, əiɲ, œiɲ, ɔiɲ, aiɲ] , i.e. as closing diphthongs followed by palatal nasal. Phonemic diphthongs in German : In

8502-470: The loss of point of articulation features (property loss compensation) as in [ˈaɲ] ('year') vs [ˈajns] ('years'). The dialectal distribution of this compensatory diphthongization is almost entirely dependent on the dorsal plosive (whether it is velar or palatal) and the extent of consonant assimilation (whether or not it is extended to palatals). The Portuguese diphthongs are formed by the labio-velar approximant [w] and palatal approximant [j] with

8611-412: The modern Finnic languages. Voicing was not phonemically contrastive, but the language did possess voiced allophones of certain voiceless consonants. The table below lists the consonantal phonemes of Late Proto-Finnic. Phones written in parentheses represent allophones and are not independent phonemes. When a consonant is notated in this article with a symbol distinct from the corresponding IPA symbol,

8720-426: The mouth of the river Sestra River (Leningrad Oblast) . They contain arrow tips and scrapers made of quartz , numerous food utensils and traces of fire camps – all indicative of hunting rather than agricultural or animal husbandry activities. The gulf coast was later populated by Finnic peoples . Estonians inhabited the region of the modern Estonia, Votes were living on the south of the gulf and Izhorians to

8829-569: The north of the gulf were conquered by the Swedes who then proceeded to the Slavs. The first encounter is attributed to 1142 when 60 Swedish ships attacked 3 Russian merchant vessels. After a Swedish attack in 1256, the Russian army of Alexander Nevsky crossed the frozen gulf and raided the Swedish territories in the modern Finland. In 1293, the Vyborg Castle and city of Vyborg was founded by

8938-435: The onset or the coda). This often manifests itself phonetically by a greater degree of constriction, but the phonetic distinction is not always clear. The English word yes , for example, consists of a palatal glide followed by a monophthong rather than a rising diphthong. In addition, the segmental elements must be different in diphthongs [ii̯] and so when it occurs in a language, it does not contrast with [iː] . However, it

9047-462: The opening diphthongs /ie̯/ and /uo̯/ are true falling diphthongs, since they begin louder and with higher pitch and fall in prominence during the diphthong. A third, rare type of diphthong that is neither opening nor closing is height-harmonic diphthongs, with both elements at the same vowel height. These may have occurred in Old English : A centering diphthong is one that begins with

9156-479: The plural possessor endings are not settled: evidence exists for both *A (that is, *a ~ *ä ) and *e . Laakso (2001) recognizes variation only for 1PP and 2PP (giving *A for 3PP). Hakulinen (1979) , giving an Early Proto-Finnic paradigm, does not include vowel-final variants for 3PS. Possessive suffixes were ordered after case endings, and typically attach to the oblique vowel stem: e.g. *sormi  : *sorme-mi 'my finger'. The number-of-possessed contrast

9265-464: The same outcome (mostly s ). Gradation occurred in two different environments, and can therefore be split into two types: It is unclear whether consonant gradation was a Finnic innovation, or a retention of an old Uralic feature that was lost in most other Uralic branches. It is likely that it was inherited from an earlier stage that was also the ancestor of the Sami languages , which have gradation that

9374-493: The seaway to Saint Petersburg, the Gulf of Finland has been and continues to be of considerable strategic importance to Russia . Some of the environmental problems affecting the Baltic Sea are at their most pronounced in the shallow gulf. Proposals for a tunnel through the gulf have been made. The gulf has an area of 30,000 km (12,000 sq mi). The length (from the Hanko Peninsula to Saint Petersburg)

9483-432: The singular possessed series, with analogical mm based on the verbal inflection), but 1PS -ni , 2PP -nne (derived from the plural possessed series, with regular *nd > nn ); and adopts 3PS -nsA in the nominative, illative and instructive (nominative käte-nsä 'her/his hand'), but -Vn (< *-hen ) in all other cases (e.g. inessive kädessä-än 'in her/his hand'). New plurality-of-possessed marking has emerged in

9592-498: The south of Neva River. Korela tribes settled to the west of Lake Ladoga . They were engaged in slash-and-burn agriculture, animal husbandry, hunting and fishing. From the 8th to the 13th century, the Gulf of Finland and Neva were parts of the waterway from Scandinavia to the Byzantine Empire . From the 9th century, the eastern coast of the gulf was controlled by Veliky Novgorod and was called Vodskaya Pyatina . As

9701-697: The southern shore of the Gulf of Finland. On 27 July 1714, near the Hanko Peninsula , the Russian Navy won the Battle of Gangut – a decisive victory over the Imperial Swedish Navy. The Russo-Swedish war ended in 1721 by the Treaty of Nystad , by which Russia received all the lands along the Neva and the Gulf of Finland, as well as Estland , Swedish Livonia and western part of the Karelian Isthmus , including Vyborg. However, Finland

9810-519: The structure CVCV, CVCCV, CVVCV. Rarer root types included monosyllabic roots, CVV, with either a long vowel (e.g. *maa "land, earth"; *puu "tree, wood") or a diphthong (e.g. *täi "louse", *käü-däk "to walk"); roots with three syllables: CVCVCV (e.g. *petägä "pine"; *vasara "hammer") or CVCCVCV (e.g. *kattila "kettle"); and roots with a long vowel in a closed syllable: CVVCCV (e.g. *mëëkka "sword"). A syllable could begin and end with at most one consonant. Any consonant phoneme could begin or end

9919-420: The suffix *-mpa . This suffix survives in all Finnic languages, although in several the nominative has been replaced with -mpi for unclear reasons. Only the northernmost Finnic languages have a distinct superlative suffix, like Finnish -in ~ -impa- . The suffix was possibly originally a consonantal stem *-im(e)- , which was modified to resemble the comparative more closely in Finnish. Its consonantal nature

10028-551: The surface and 0.3–0.5 ‰ near the bottom. The average water temperature is close to 0 °C (32 °F) in winter; in summer, it is 15–17 °C (59–63 °F) at the surface and 2–3 °C (36–37 °F) at the bottom. Parts of the gulf can freeze from late November to late April; the freezing starts in the east and gradually proceeds to the west. Complete freezing usually occurs by late January, and it may not occur in mild winters. Frequent strong western winds cause waves, surges of water and floods . The northern coast of

10137-520: The surface of the gulf; for this reason, its ancient northern shores are significantly higher than the southern ones. The climate in the area is humid continental climate , characterized by temperate to hot summers and cold, occasionally severe winters with regular precipitation. The vegetation is dominated by a mixture of coniferous and deciduous forests and treeless coastal meadows and cliffs. The major forest trees are pine , spruce , birch , willows , rowan , aspen , common and gray alder . In

10246-612: The syllable nucleus: [u̯a], [u̯ɛ̃], [y̯i], [y̯ɛ̃] ). Other sequences are considered part of a glide formation process that turns a high vowel into a semivowel (and part of the syllable onset) when followed by another vowel. Diphthongs Semivowels In Quebec French , long vowels are generally diphthongized in informal speech when stressed . Catalan possesses a number of phonetic diphthongs, all of which begin ( rising diphthongs ) or end ( falling diphthongs ) in [j] or [w] . In standard Eastern Catalan, rising diphthongs (that is, those starting with [j] or [w] ) are possible only in

10355-492: The terms "falling" and "rising" are used, instead, to refer to vowel height , i.e. as synonyms of the terms "closing" and "opening". See below.) The less prominent component in the diphthong may also be transcribed as an approximant , thus [aj] in eye and [ja] in yard . However, when the diphthong is analysed as a single phoneme , both elements are often transcribed with vowel symbols ( /aɪ̯/ , /ɪ̯a/ ). Semivowels and approximants are not equivalent in all treatments, and in

10464-403: The tongue or other speech organs do not move and the syllable contains only a single vowel sound. For instance, in English, the word ah is spoken as a monophthong ( / ɑː / ), while the word ow is spoken as a diphthong in most varieties ( / aʊ / ). Where two adjacent vowel sounds occur in different syllables (e.g. in the English word re-elect ) the result is described as hiatus , not as

10573-611: The two different variants of 3PS, 1PP and 2PP endings; the variants ending in *-n would match with the dual possessor endings in Proto-Samic . This hypothesis has not been generally accepted. Proto-Finnic inherited at least the following grammatical moods : Gulf of Finland The Gulf of Finland ( Estonian : Soome laht ; Finnish : Suomenlahti [ˈsuo̯menˌlɑhti] ; Russian : Фи́нский зали́в , romanized :  Finskiy zaliv , pronounced [ˈfʲinskʲɪj zɐˈlʲif] ; Swedish : Finska viken )

10682-433: The use of diphthongs in the place of several non-diphthong Dutch double vowels, or double-vowels being pronounced differently. Examples include: The long diphthongs (or 'double vowels') are phonemically sequences of a free vowel and a non-syllabic equivalent of /i/ or /u/ : [iu, ui, oːi, eu, ɑːi] . Both [iu] and [eu] tend to be pronounced as [iu] , but they are spelled differently: the former as ⟨ieu⟩ ,

10791-570: The varieties of German that vocalize the /r/ in the syllable coda , other diphthongal combinations may occur. These are only phonetic diphthongs, not phonemic diphthongs, since the vocalic pronunciation [ɐ̯] alternates with consonantal pronunciations of /r/ if a vowel follows, cf. du hörst [duː ˈhøːɐ̯st] 'you hear' – ich höre [ʔɪç ˈhøːʀə] 'I hear'. These phonetic diphthongs may be as follows: The diphthongs of some German dialects differ from standard German diphthongs. The Bernese German diphthongs, for instance, correspond rather to

10900-440: The vowel sequences *[a.ɪ a.ʊ] , so the non-syllabic diacritic is unnecessary. Falling (or descending ) diphthongs start with a vowel quality of higher prominence (higher pitch or volume) and end in a semivowel with less prominence, like [aɪ̯] in eye , while rising (or ascending ) diphthongs begin with a less prominent semivowel and end with a more prominent full vowel, similar to the [ja] in yard . (Sometimes, however,

11009-412: Was formed in two different ways: Both types are still found in Finnish, although unevenly distributed. In the western type, the regular loss of -d- after an unstressed (even-numbered) syllable has created forms such as -ain (< *-a-den ), which are now archaic, or dialectal. The reconstructed locative cases of Proto-Finnic can be classified according to a three-way contrast ( to , in and from

11118-472: Was innovated in Proto-Finnic. The plural of the nominative and accusative was marked with the ending * -t , while the plural of the other cases used * -i- . The genitive and accusative singular were originally distinct (genitive *-n , accusative *-m ), but had fallen together when final *-m became *-n through regular sound change. Some pronouns had a different accusative ending, which distinguished them. The following cases were present: The genitive plural

11227-492: Was much more restricted in non-initial syllables than in initial syllables. Long vowels were absent, and some diphthongs only occurred as a result of the late contraction of disyllabic *Vji to diphthongal *Vi but were otherwise absent. Some modern Finnic languages have redeveloped long vowels and additional diphthongs in non-initial syllables as a result of the loss of certain consonants (generally d , g and h ). Root words included at least two moras , and generally followed

11336-623: Was not an independent vowel, but appeared as the counterpart of the front vowel *e in the system of harmony. It merged with *e in Northern Finnic. See below under vowel harmony for more details. The status of short *ö is unclear. It was not present in ancestral Proto-Uralic, and many instances of ö found in modern Finnic languages have only developed after Proto-Finnic, due to various sound changes. For example, Finnish has öy from *eü : löytä- 'to find', köysi 'rope' < Proto-Finnic *leütä- , *keüci , while Estonian has unrounded

11445-672: Was repeatedly contested, invaded and occupied, first by the Soviet Union in 1940, then by Nazi Germany in 1941, and was ultimately reoccupied in 1944 by, and annexed into, the USSR as an administrative subunit (Estonian SSR). Estonia regained independence in 1991. In March 1921, the Kronstadt rebellion by sailors was put down by the Red Army. The Gulf of Finland had several major naval operations during World War II. In August 1941, during

11554-533: Was returned to Finland. On 6 December 1917, the Parliament of Finland promulgated the Finnish Declaration of Independence . Western Karelia was annexed by the Soviet Union after the Winter War . Estonia declared independence in 1918, and in 1918–1920 fought a successful war of independence against Soviet Russia. Estonia declared neutrality at the outbreak of World War II; however the country

11663-544: Was returned to Sweden. The war resumed in (1788–1790), and the Battle of Hogland occurred on 6 July 1788 near the island Gogland . Both the battle and the war were relatively minor and indecisive, with the outcome of Russia retaining its territories. The next Russo-Swedish war was fought in (1808–1809). It ended with the Treaty of Fredrikshamn giving the Russia rights on the territory of Finland and Åland . A newly established Grand Duchy of Finland in 1809 received broad autonomy from Russian Empire, and Western Karelia

11772-716: Was signed on the construction of the Nord Stream 1 offshore gas pipeline on the Baltic Sea, from Vyborg to the German city of Greifswald . The first line was expected become operational in 2011. Afterwards, the first line of Nord Stream was laid by May 2011 and was inaugurated on 8 November 2011; the second line was inaugurated on 8 October 2012, and was completed in September 2021, but has not entered service yet, as its approval got halted in February 2022. The bottom of

11881-467: Was started on the Saint Petersburg Dam aiming to protect Saint Petersburg from the frequent floods . The work was halted at 60% completion in the late 1980s, due to the financial problems related to the breakup of the Soviet Union; it was resumed in 2001 and is – as of August 2011 – complete. The southern coast of the gulf contains the Leningrad Nuclear Power Plant and a network of ports and unique natural and historical places. Navigation has long been

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