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147-658: Korean has been richly documented since the introduction of the Hangul alphabet in the 15th century. Earlier renditions of Korean using Chinese characters are much more difficult to interpret. All modern varieties are descended from the Old Korean of the state of Silla . What little is known of other languages spoken on the peninsula before the Sillan unification (late 7th century) comes largely from placenames. Some of these languages are believed to have been Koreanic, but there

294-505: A Tungusic migration of the ancestral Korean population, identified with the Yemaek of later Chinese sources. South Korean culture-historians tended to project contemporary Korean homogeneity into the distant past, assuming that a preformed Korean people arrived in the peninsula from elsewhere, ignoring the possibility of local evolution and interaction. However, no evidence of these migrations has been found, and archaeologists now believe that

441-467: A 'blank spot. ' " All of the Stalinist orders for the "total deportation" of the thirteen nationalities (from 1937 to 1951) list each of the peoples by ethnicity as well as by a charge of treason. Soviet law required that one's guilt or innocence (for treason) should be determined individually and it should also be determined in a court of law prior to sentencing (per the 1936 Constitution). Finally, on

588-569: A 24/7 supervision of armed guards. The Soviet government was often negligent towards this process of resettlement. In one instance, 4,000 Koreans arrived by train to Kostanay on 31 December 1937. Due to the winter temperatures, they spent almost a week inside the passenger car "before there was any sign of activity from local authorities". The people were dispersed in whatever buildings were at their disposal, including abandoned hospitals, prisons and warehouses. By October 1938, 18,649 Korean households formed their own 59 kolkhozes while 3,945 joined

735-580: A 4,000 miles (6,400 km) journey in trains to the special settlements in the Kazakh and Uzbek SSR . At least 500 Koreans died as a direct result of this transfer. The corpses of the deportees who died from starvation were left behind at one of the many train stations. Instead of the planned seven, the Koreans were dispersed between 44 regions. 37,321 people were sent to the Tashkent region; 9,147 to

882-523: A Chinese text, the Jilin leishi (1103–1104), and the pharmacological work Hyangyak kugŭppang ( 鄕藥救急方 , mid-13th century). During this period, Korean absorbed a huge number of Chinese loanwords, affecting all aspects of the language. It is estimated that Sino-Korean vocabulary makes up more than half of the Korean lexicon, but only about 10% of basic vocabulary. Old Korean (6th to early 10th centuries)

1029-638: A Korean form, while the other is also found in Ryukyuan and Eastern Old Japanese . He suggests that the former group represent early loans from Korean, and that Old Japanese morphemes should not be assigned a Japonic origin unless they are also attested in Southern Ryukyuan or Eastern Old Japanese, which reduces the proposed cognates to fewer than a dozen. A link with Dravidian was first proposed by Homer Hulbert in 1905 and explored by Morgan Clippinger in 1984, but has attracted little interest since

1176-752: A State Defense Committee resolution stipulated that 8,000 Koreans should be demobilized from the Red Army and sent to labour battalions with other Koreans in Central Asia. Sporadic deportations of any remaining Koreans continued all until 1946. Entire districts in the Far Eastern Region were left empty. Red Army officials obtained the best buildings left behind. Even though the Soviet government planned to settle 17,100 families in their place, only 3,700 families moved there by 1939. We arrived at

1323-734: A complaint through their embassy in Moscow in November 1937, claiming that these Koreans were Japanese citizens, by extension of Korea as part of the Empire of Japan, and that the Soviets are not allowed to mistreat them. The Soviet officials rejected their complaint, claiming the Koreans as Soviet citizens. After Stalin's death in 1953, the new Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev started a process of de-Stalinization , reversing many of Stalin's policies. In his secret speech in 1956, Khrushchev condemned

1470-449: A consonant letter, then a vowel letter, and then potentially another consonant letter called a batchim ( Korean :  받침 ). If the syllable begins with a vowel sound, the consonant ㅇ ( ng ) acts as a silent placeholder. However, when ㅇ starts a sentence or is placed after a long pause, it marks a glottal stop . Syllables may begin with basic or tense consonants but not complex ones. The vowel can be basic or complex, and

1617-412: A dictionary in 1874. Some 250,000 Koreans lived in the area in the 1930s, when Stalin had them forcibly deported to Soviet Central Asia , particularly Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan . There are small Korean communities scattered throughout central Asia maintaining forms of Korean known collectively as Koryo-mar . There is also a Korean population on Sakhalin , descended from people forcibly transferred to

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1764-802: A directive that allowed the banished Koreans to obtain passports, though they could only be used within Central Asia, and not for the border areas. The 1959 census enumerated 74,019 Koreans in the Kazakh SSR (0.8% of the population) and 138,453 Koreans in the Uzbek SSR (1.7% of the population). Between 1959 and 1979, the number of Koreans increased by 24% in Kazakhstan; 18% in Uzbekistan; 299% in Kyrgyzstan and 373% in Tajikistan . While I

1911-665: A few northern dialects) have a form of accent, marked by vowel length in central dialects and pitch in the northeast and southeast. The position of this accent is determined by the first high pitch syllable in Middle Korean . A similar pitch accent is found in Japonic and Ainu languages, but not Tungusic, Mongolic or Turkic. Like other languages in northeast Asia, Korean has agglutinative morphology and head-final word order, with subject–object–verb order, modifiers preceding nouns, and postpositions (particles). Northeast Asia

2058-590: A glide (or a semivowel) and a monophthong. There is some disagreement about exactly how many vowels are considered Korean's monophthongs; the largest inventory features ten, while some scholars have proposed eight or nine. This divergence reveals two issues: whether Korean has two front rounded vowels (i.e. /ø/ and /y/); and, secondly, whether Korean has three levels of front vowels in terms of vowel height (i.e. whether /e/ and /ɛ/ are distinctive). Actual phonological studies done by studying formant data show that current speakers of Standard Korean do not differentiate between

2205-646: A limited distribution in Late Middle Korean, suggesting that unaccented * ɨ and * ə underwent syncope . They may also have merged with * e in accented initial position or following * j . Some authors have proposed that Late Middle Korean [jə] ⟨ㅕ⟩ reflects an eighth Proto-Korean vowel, based on its high frequency and an analysis of tongue root harmony. The Late Middle Korean script assigns to each syllable one of three pitch contours: low (unmarked), high (one dot) or rising (two dots). The rising tone may have been longer in duration, and

2352-620: A major genre . However, the use of the Korean alphabet had gone without orthographical standardization for so long that spelling had become quite irregular. In 1796, the Dutch scholar Isaac Titsingh became the first person to bring a book written in Korean to the Western world . His collection of books included the Japanese book Sangoku Tsūran Zusetsu ( An Illustrated Description of Three Countries ) by Hayashi Shihei . This book, which

2499-478: A minimum, and up to 40,000 and 50,000 people, a mortality rate ranging from 10% for the lower estimates, and up to 16.3% to 25% for the high estimates. The NKVD and Council of People's Commissars could not agree upon the status of the deported Koreans. In formal sense, they were not regarded as special settlers, nor were they considered exiled since the reason for their resettlement was not repression. Finally, on 3 March 1947, MVD minister S. N. Kruglov signed

2646-558: A possible fifth column . As of 29 August 1937, all Korean border guards were recalled. On 5 September 1937, 12 million roubles were urgently sent to the Far East Executive Committee to assist them in implementing this operation. Even though the decree was issued in August, the Soviet officials delayed its implementation for 20 days in order to wait for the Koreans to complete the harvest. On 1 September 1937,

2793-591: A separate language. When King Sejong drove the Jurchen from what is now the northernmost part of North Hamgyong Province in 1434, he established six garrisons ( Yukchin ) in the bend of the Tumen River – Kyŏnghŭng , Kyŏngwŏn , Onsŏng , Chongsŏng, Hoeryŏng and Puryŏng – populated by immigrants from southeastern Korea. The speech of their descendents is thus markedly distinct from other Hamgyong dialects, and preserves many archaisms. In particular, Yukchin

2940-596: A shadow of a doubt, thus 'necessitating' deportation from the border areas. In contrast, the views of J. Otto Pohl and Jon K. Chang affirm the belief that the Soviet Union, its officials and everyday citizens produced and carried over (from the Tsarist era) racialized (primordialist) views, policies and tropes regarding their non-Slavic peoples. Norman M. Naimark believed that the Stalinist "nationalities deportations" were forms of national- cultural genocide . At

3087-470: A small family of two or three languages. Korean dialects form a dialect continuum stretching from the southern end of the Korean peninsula to Yanbian prefecture in the Chinese province of Jilin , though dialects at opposite ends of the continuum are not mutually intelligible . This area is usually divided into five or six dialect zones following provincial boundaries, with Yanbian dialects included in

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3234-435: A three-way contrast between plain, aspirated and reinforced stops and affricates, but Proto-Korean is reconstructed with a single set, like Proto-Japonic and Ainu, but unlike Tungusic, Mongolic and Turkic, which feature a voicing contrast. Korean also resembles Japonic and Ainu in having a single liquid consonant, while its continental neighbours tend to distinguish /l/ and /r/ . Most modern varieties (except Jeju and

3381-576: A typological characteristic shared with "Altaic" languages. Some, but not all, occurrences of /l/ are attributed to lenition of /t/ . Distinctions in the phonographic use of the Chinese characters 乙 and 尸 suggest that Old Korean probably had two sounds corresponding to later Korean l . The second of these is often spelled lh in Middle Korean, and may reflect an earlier cluster with an obstruent. Late Middle Korean had seven vowels. Based on loans from Middle Mongolian and transcriptions in

3528-473: Is a tendency in Korea to assume that all languages formerly spoken on the peninsula were early forms of Korean, but the evidence indicates much greater linguistic variety in the past. Chinese histories provide the only contemporaneous descriptions of peoples of the Korean peninsula and eastern Manchuria in the early centuries of the common era. They contain impressionistic remarks about the customs and languages of

3675-450: Is also evidence suggesting that Japonic languages were spoken in central and southern parts of the peninsula. There have been many attempts to link Koreanic with other language families, most often with Tungusic or Japonic, but no genetic relationship has been conclusively demonstrated. The various forms of Korean are conventionally described as "dialects" of a single Korean language, but breaks in intelligibility justify viewing them as

3822-681: Is based on the South Korean order. The order from the Hunminjeongeum in 1446 was: This is the basis of the modern alphabetic orders. It was before the development of the Korean tense consonants and the double letters that represent them, and before the conflation of the letters ㅇ (null) and ㆁ (ng). Thus, when the North Korean and South Korean governments implemented full use of the Korean alphabet, they ordered these letters differently, with North Korea placing new letters at

3969-542: Is believed to be secondary, arising from a contraction of a syllable with low pitch with one of high pitch. Pitch levels after the first high or rising tone were not distinctive, so that Middle Korean had a pitch accent rather than a full tone system. In the proto-language, accent was probably not distinctive for verbs, but may have been for nouns, though with a preference for accent on the final syllable. Korean uses several postnominal particles to indicate case and other relationships. The modern nominative case suffix -i

4116-595: Is derived from an earlier ergative case marker * -i . In modern Korean, verbs are bound forms that cannot appear without one or more inflectional suffixes. In contrast, Old Korean verb stems could be used independently, particularly in verb-verb compounds, where the first verb was typically an uninflected root. Old Korean pronouns were written with the Chinese characters for the corresponding Chinese pronouns, so their pronunciation must be inferred from Middle Korean forms. The known personal pronouns are * na 'I', * uri 'we' and * ne 'you'. Modern Koreanic varieties have

4263-550: Is even more sparsely attested, mostly by inscriptions and 14 hyangga songs composed between the 7th and 9th centuries and recorded in the Samguk yusa (13th century). The standard languages of North and South Korea are both based primarily on the central prestige dialect of Seoul , despite the North Korean claim that their standard is based on the speech of their capital Pyongyang . The two standards have phonetic and lexical differences. Many loanwords have been purged from

4410-608: Is extremely sparse. The most widely cited evidence for Goguryeo is chapter 37 of the Samguk sagi , a history of the Three Kingdoms period written in Classical Chinese and compiled in 1145 from earlier records that are no longer extant. This chapter surveys the part of Goguryeo annexed by Silla, listing pronunciations and meanings of placenames, from which a vocabulary of 80 to 100 words has been extracted. Although

4557-673: Is generally agreed that these glosses demonstrate that Japonic languages were once spoken in part of the Korean peninsula, but there is no consensus on the identity of the speakers. A small number of inscriptions have been found in Goguryeo, the earliest being the Gwanggaeto Stele (erected in Ji'an in 414). All are written in Classical Chinese , but feature some irregularities, including occasional use of object–verb order (as found in Korean and other northeast Asian languages) instead of

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4704-417: Is generally believed to be ancestral to all extant Korean varieties. There is no agreement on the relationship of Sillan to the languages of the other kingdoms. The issue is politically charged in Korea, with scholars who point out differences being accused by nationalists of trying to "divide the homeland". Apart from placenames, whose interpretation is controversial, data on the languages of Goguryeo and Baekje

4851-541: Is home to several relatively shallow language families. There have been several attempts to link Korean with other language families, with the most-favoured being " Altaic " ( Tungusic , Mongolic and Turkic ) and Japonic . However, none of these attempts has succeeded in demonstrating a common descent for Koreanic and any other language family. Larger proposed groupings subsuming these hypotheses, such as Nostratic and Eurasiatic , have even less support. The Altaic proposal, grouping Tungusic, Mongolic and Turkic, emerged in

4998-626: Is occasionally still the way for stylistic purposes. However, Korean is now typically written from left to right with spaces between words serving as dividers , unlike in Japanese and Chinese. Hangul is the official writing system throughout both North and South Korea. It is a co-official writing system in the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture and Changbai Korean Autonomous County in Jilin Province , China. Hangul has also seen limited use by speakers of

5145-551: Is the accepted standard. The speech of Jeju Island is not mutually intelligible with standard Korean, suggesting that it should be treated as a separate language. Standard 15th-century texts include a back central unrounded vowel /ʌ/ (written with the Hangul letter ⟨ㆍ⟩ ), which has merged with other vowels in mainland dialects but is retained as a distinct vowel in Jeju. The Hunminjeongeum Haerye (1446) states that

5292-459: Is the modern writing system for the Korean language . The letters for the five basic consonants reflect the shape of the speech organs used to pronounce them. They are systematically modified to indicate phonetic features. The vowel letters are systematically modified for related sounds, making Hangul a featural writing system . It has been described as a syllabic alphabet as it combines

5439-570: Is used to refer to Korea in general, so the name also means Korean script. It has been romanized in multiple ways: North Koreans call the alphabet Chosŏn'gŭl ( 조선글 ), after Chosŏn , the North Korean name for Korea . A variant of the McCune–Reischauer system is used there for romanization. Until the mid-20th century, the Korean elite preferred to write using Chinese characters called Hanja . They referred to Hanja as jinseo ( 진서 ; 真書 ) meaning true letters. Some accounts say

5586-600: The Book of the Later Han (5th century) contain parallel accounts of peoples neighbouring the commanderies, apparently both based on a survey carried out by the Chinese state of Wei after their defeat of Goguryeo in 244. To the north and east, the Buyeo , Goguryeo and Ye were described as speaking similar languages, with the language of Okjeo only slightly different from them. Their languages were said to differ from that of

5733-657: The Veritable Records of King Sejong and Jeong Inji 's preface to the Hunminjeongeum Haerye emphasize that he invented it himself. The project was completed sometime between December 1443 and January 1444, and described in a 1446 document titled Hunminjeongeum ( The Proper Sounds for the Education of the People ), after which the alphabet itself was originally named. The publication date of

5880-734: The Bolshevik Revolution in 1917 did not halt migration to Russia; after 1917, many Koreans were fleeing the Japanese occupation of Korea . They mostly settled along the Posyet , Suchan and Suyfun districts. Korean migrants who had moved to Russia referred to themselves as the Koryo Saram . By the 1920s, over 100,000 Koreans lived in the Primorsky Krai . Russian peasants encouraged the migration, since leasing lands to

6027-523: The Central Executive Committee of the Soviet Union issued a resolution declaring all frontiers "special defense zones", and several ethnic minorities in those border areas were considered threats to Soviet security, including Germans , Poles and Koreans. Soviet newspaper Pravda accused Koreans of being agents of Japan, while the Soviet government closed the borders and initiated a "frontier zone cleansing". On 21 August 1937,

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6174-608: The Cia-Cia language in Indonesia. The Korean alphabet was originally named Hunminjeong'eum ( 훈민정음 ) by King Sejong the Great in 1443. Hunminjeong'eum is also the document that explained logic and science behind the script in 1446. The name hangeul ( 한글 ) was coined by Korean linguist Ju Si-gyeong in 1912. The name combines the ancient Korean word han ( 한 ), meaning great, and geul ( 글 ), meaning script. The word han

6321-935: The Council of People's Commissars of the Soviet Union adopted the decree No. 1428-326сс which ordered the deportation of the Soviet Koreans from the Far East, and determined that the process should be completed by 1 January 1938. The decree was signed by the Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars of the Soviet Union Vyacheslav Molotov and Secretary of the Central Committee Joseph Stalin . The decree stated: The Council of People's Commissars and CC of

6468-672: The Empire of Japan in 1925. That same year, a proposed Korean ASSR , which would give Koreans autonomy, was rejected by Soviet officials. The 1926 Soviet Census enumerated 169,000 Koreans, 77,000 Chinese and 1,000 Japanese in the Far East Region. During the collectivization and the Dekulakization campaigns in the 1930s, more Koreans were deported from the Soviet Far East. Due to lingering sentiments from

6615-614: The Hunminjeongeum , October 9, became Hangul Day in South Korea. Its North Korean equivalent, Chosŏn'gŭl Day, is on January 15. The opening page of Hunminjeongeum contains King Sejong's foreword written in Literary Chinese, which reads: 國之語音。異乎中國。與文字不相流通。故愚民。有所欲言而終不得伸其情者。多矣。予。爲此憫然。新制二十八字。欲使人人易習。便於日用矣。 Because the speech of this country is different from that of China, it [the spoken language] does not match

6762-555: The Hunminjeongeum Haerye Edition, King Sejong expressed his intention to understand the language of the people in his country and to express their meanings more conveniently in writing. He noted that the shapes of the traditional Chinese characters, as well as factors such as the thickness, stroke count, and order of strokes in calligraphy, were extremely complex, making it difficult for people to recognize and understand them individually. A popular saying about

6909-532: The Jìlín lèishì , Lee Ki-Moon argued for a Korean Vowel Shift between the 13th and 15th centuries, a chain shift involving five of these vowels. William Labov found that this proposed shift followed different principles to all the other chain shifts he surveyed. The philological evidence for the shift has also been challenged. An analysis based on Sino-Korean readings leads to a more conservative system: The vowels * ɨ > [ɨ] and * ə > [ ʌ ] have

7056-566: The Kazakh famine of 1931–33 , while an additional one million people fled from the Republic, causing a labour shortage in that area, which Stalin sought to compensate for by deporting other ethnicities there. Historian Jon K. Chang wrote that the Soviet deportations of Koreans (and other diaspora, deported peoples such as Germans, Finns, Greeks and many others) illustrated the fact that Russian nationalism , and essentialized views of race , that is, primordialism were both wholly carried over from

7203-476: The NKVD , would go from house to house, knock on the doors, and inform the people inside that they must gather all their belongings, personal documents, and all food they can find at home in less than half an hour and follow them. They were not given prior notice where they were being deported to. By the end of September, 74,500 Koreans were evicted from Spassk, Posyet, Grodekovo , Birobidzhan and other places. In

7350-588: The Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union , many Koreans were drafted into the Red Army and sent to the front. One of them, Captain Aleksandr Pavlovich Min , was awarded the title Hero of the Soviet Union , the country's highest honor. Koreans were elected to the Parliaments of the Soviet Union and Central Asian Republics and by the 1970s the number of Koreans with a college degree was double that of

7497-534: The Russian Federation issued a decree "On the Rehabilitation of Soviet Koreans", acknowledging that their deportation was illegal and stating that they could theoretically return to the Far East. In the 2000s, post-Soviet Koreans began to lose their cultural cohesion, because the members of the new generations of them did not speak Korean anymore, and 40% of their marriages were mixed. Around

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7644-474: The Russo-Japanese War and contemporary disdain for imperialist Japan , Soviet officials increased its suspicion and mania towards the Soviet Koreans, fearing they could remain loyal subjects of the Empire and be used by Japan for espionage or " counter-revolutionary propaganda". They also feared that an increasing presence of Koreans in the U.S.S.R. could be used by Japan to justify expansion of

7791-757: The Samarkand region; 8,214 to the Fergana region; 5,799 to the Khwarazm region; 972 to the Namangan region, etc. Overall, 18,300 Korean households were deported to the Uzbek SSR, and 20,141 households to the Kazakh SSR. Some were resettled for a second time, as was the case of 570 Korean families who were evicted from the Kazakh SSR to the Astrakhan District to be given jobs in the fishing industry. Ultimately, approximately 100,000 Koreans were sent to

7938-466: The Three Kingdoms period , referring to Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla (Gaya was absorbed by Silla in the 6th century). The period ended in the late 7th century, when Silla conquered the other kingdoms in alliance with the Chinese Tang dynasty and then expelled the Tang from the peninsula. Linguistic evidence from these states is sparse and, being recorded in Chinese characters , difficult to interpret. Most of these materials come from Silla, whose language

8085-508: The Tsarist era. These Soviet tropes and biases were transformed into a decidedly, un-Marxist Soviet " yellow peril " which the Koreans (and the Chinese) symbolized. The prevalence of racism lay in the fact that (Slavs, some Jews, Armenians and members of other ethnic groups) could be wholly or individually judged based on what class they belonged to but the Koreans could not. The Koreans could not pass as Slavs (such as Bronstein "passing" as Trotsky) without intermarrying. Scholar Vera Tolz from

8232-453: The University of Manchester considered this deportation of Korean civilians an example of a racist policy in the USSR . Terry Martin, a professor of Russian studies, categorized this event as an act of ethnic cleansing without an ethnic bias. Alexander Kim, Associate Professor at the Primorye State Agricultural Academy, agrees and according to his assessment, the Soviet Koreans were the first victims of ethnic repression and persecution in

8379-460: The Yayoi culture . Placename glosses in the Samguk sagi and other evidence suggest that Japonic languages persisted in central and southwestern parts of the peninsula into the early centuries of the common era. The early Japanese state received many cultural innovations via Korea, which may also have influenced the language. Alexander Vovin points out that Old Japanese contains several pairs of words of similar meaning in which one word matches

8526-399: The Yilou to the northeast. The latter language is completely unattested, but is believed, on the basis of the description of the people and their location, to have been Tungusic . To the south lay the Samhan ('three Han'), Mahan , Byeonhan and Jinhan , who were described in quite different terms from Buyeo and Goguryeo. The Mahan were said to have a different language from Jinhan, but

8673-448: The emphatic consonants were standardized to ㅺ, ㅼ, ㅽ, ㅆ, ㅾ and final consonants restricted to ㄱ, ㄴ, ㄹ, ㅁ, ㅂ, ㅅ, ㅇ, ㄺ, ㄻ, ㄼ . Long vowels were marked by a diacritic dot to the left of the syllable, but this was dropped in 1921. A second colonial reform occurred in 1930. The arae-a was abolished: the emphatic consonants were changed to ㄲ, ㄸ, ㅃ, ㅆ, ㅉ and more final consonants ㄷ, ㅈ, ㅌ, ㅊ, ㅍ, ㄲ, ㄳ, ㄵ, ㄾ, ㄿ, ㅄ were allowed, making

8820-500: The mayor of Seoul . Letters in the Korean alphabet are called jamo ( 자모 ). There are 14 consonants ( 자음 ) and 10 vowels ( 모음 ) used in the modern alphabet. They were first named in Hunmongjahoe  [ ko ] , a hanja textbook written by Choe Sejin . Additionally, there are 27 complex letters that are formed by combining the basic letters: 5 tense consonant letters, 11 complex consonant letters, and 11 complex vowel letters. In typography design and in IME automata,

8967-474: The unification of the peninsula by Silla . Thus proto-Koreanic is reconstructed largely by applying internal reconstruction to Middle Korean, supplemented with philological analysis of the fragmentary records of Old Korean. A relatively simple inventory of consonants is reconstructed for Proto-Koreanic: Many of the consonants in later forms of Korean are secondary developments: Middle Korean /l/ ⟨ㄹ⟩ does not occur initially in native words,

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9114-417: The 1930s, the Soviet state considered nationality (ethnicity) and political loyalty (ideology) primordial equivalents. Thus, it was not a surprise when the regime resorted to "deportation." In Martin's view, the Soviet regime was not deporting the various diaspora peoples because of their nationality. Rather, nationality (ethnicity or phenotype) served as a referent or a signifier for the political ideology of

9261-404: The 1980s. There have also been proposals to link Korean with Austronesian , but these have few adherents. All modern varieties are descended from the language of Unified Silla . Evidence for the earlier linguistic history of the Korean peninsula is extremely sparse. Various proposals have been based on archaeological and ethnological theories and vague references in early Chinese histories. There

9408-408: The 19th century as a residue when the larger Ural–Altaic grouping was abandoned. Korean was added to the proposal by Gustaf Ramstedt in 1924, and others later added Japanese. The languages share features such as agglutinative morphology, subject–object–verb order and postpositions . Many cognates have been proposed, and attempts have been made to reconstruct a proto-language. The Altaic theory

9555-527: The 205 already established kolkhozes in these areas. Some sent letters to the chairman of the kolkhozes, warning about starvation or a lack of fresh water. They also faced shortage of medicine and even employment. Many survived thanks to the kindness of Kazakh or Uzbek locals who shared food with them or gave them shelter, even though they themselves had limited amounts. The settlers in collective farms were assigned with production of rice, vegetables, fishing and cotton. The Soviet government failed to prepare

9702-456: The 21 vowels used in the modern Korean alphabet in South Korean alphabetic order with Revised Romanization equivalents for each letter and pronunciation in IPA (see Korean phonology for more). The vowels are generally separated into two categories: monophthongs and diphthongs. Monophthongs are produced with a single articulatory movement (hence the prefix mono), while diphthongs feature an articulatory change. Diphthongs have two constituents:

9849-444: The 4th century. Some authors believe that the Puyŏ languages belong to the Tungusic family. Others believe that there is insufficient evidence to support a classification. As Chinese power ebbed in the early 4th century, centralized states arose on the peninsula. The Lelang commandery was overrun by Goguryeo in 314. In the south, Baekje , the Gaya confederacy and Silla arose from Mahan, Byeonhan and Jinhan respectively. Thus began

9996-409: The Crimea) in order to remove Soviet nationalities whose political allegiances were allegedly suspect or inimical to Soviet socialism . In this view, the USSR did not practice direct negative ethnic animus or discrimination ("In neither case did the Soviet state itself conceive of these deportations as ethnic."). Political ideology of all Soviet peoples was the primary consideration. Martin stated that

10143-456: The Japanese part of the island before 1945. Most Koreans in Japan are descendants of immigrants during the Japanese occupation. Most Korean-language schools in Japan follow the North Korean standard. The form of Korean spoken in Japan also shows the influence of Japanese, for example in a reduced vowel system and some grammatical simplification. Korean-speakers are also found throughout the world, for example in North America, where Seoul Korean

10290-402: The Kazakh SSR and more than 70,000 to Uzbek SSR. In 1940, a further number of Koreans were resettled, this time from the Murmansk region to the Altai Krai . A decree signed by the chief of the Soviet secret police Lavrentiy Beria ordered that 675 families containing 1,743 people, including Germans, Poles, Chinese and Koreans, should be removed from the border regions. On 10 January 1943,

10437-475: The Korean alphabet or mixed script as their official writing system, with ever-decreasing use of Hanja especially in the North. Beginning in the 1970s, Hanja began to experience a gradual decline in commercial or unofficial writing in the South due to government intervention, with some South Korean newspapers now only using Hanja as abbreviations or disambiguation of homonyms. However, as Korean documents, history, literature and records throughout its history until

10584-466: The Korean consonants by their respective categories and subcategories. All Korean obstruents are voiceless in that the larynx does not vibrate when producing those sounds and are further distinguished by degree of aspiration and tenseness. The tensed consonants are produced by constricting the vocal cords while heavily aspirated consonants (such as the Korean ㅍ , /pʰ/ ) are produced by opening them. Korean sonorants are voiced. The chart below shows

10731-581: The Korean peninsula and adjacent areas of eastern Manchuria have been continuously occupied since the Late Pleistocene . The projection of the Yemaek back to this period has also been criticized as unjustified. Moreover, most comparativists no longer accept the core Altaic family itself, even without Korean, believing most of the commonalities to be the result of prolonged contact. The shared features turned out to be rather common among languages across

10878-521: The Korean peninsula at that time into Puyŏ and Han groups. Lee originally proposed that these were two branches of a Koreanic language family, a view that was widely adopted by scholars in Korea. He later argued that the Puyŏ languages were intermediate between Korean and Japanese. Alexander Vovin and James Marshall Unger argue that the Han languages were Japonic, and were replaced by Koreanic Puyŏ languages in

11025-621: The Koreans was profitable. Around that time, 45,000 Koreans (30%) were granted citizenship, but in 1922, 83.4% of all Soviet Korean households were landless. On 22 November 1922, the Soviet Union annexed the Far Eastern Republic , claiming all the populace there as their citizens, including Koreans residing there. With the newly established Soviet rule, circumstances began to change. In order to discourage further immigration, 700 to 800 Koreans were deported from Okhotsk to

11172-399: The Koreans who were deported, the consequences of the deportation included the loss of their ability as well as the loss of their right to return to the Far East; the loss of all knowledge of their native language and the loss of all knowledge of their cultural traditions . According to the 1970 Soviet Census, between 64% and 74% of Soviet Koreans spoke Korean as their first language, but by

11319-471: The North Korean standard, while South Korea has expanded Sino-Korean vocabulary and adopted loanwords, especially from English. Nonetheless, due to its origin in the Seoul dialect, the North Korean standard language is easily intelligible to all South Koreans. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, in response to poor harvests and the Japanese annexation of Korea , people emigrated from the northern parts of

11466-682: The Soviet Union The deportation of Koreans in the Soviet Union ( Russian : Депортация корейцев в СССР ; Korean : 고려인의 강제 이주 ) was the forced transfer of nearly 172,000 Soviet Koreans (Koryo-saram or Koryoin) from the Russian Far East to unpopulated areas of the Kazakh SSR and the Uzbek SSR in 1937 by the NKVD on the orders of Soviet leader Joseph Stalin and Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars of

11613-695: The Soviet Union Vyacheslav Molotov . 124 trains were used to resettle them 6,400 km (12,000 miles) to Central Asia . The reason was to stem "the infiltration of Japanese espionage into the Far Eastern Krai ", as Koreans were at the time subjects of the Empire of Japan , which was the Soviet Union's rival. However, some historians regard it as part of Stalin's policy of "frontier cleansing". Estimates based on population statistics suggest that between 16,500 and 50,000 deported Koreans died from starvation, exposure, and difficulties adapting to their new environment in exile. After Nikita Khrushchev became

11760-405: The Soviet Union during that time. Even though the earlier de-kulakization deportations were justified as a fight against the rich peasants who were declared " class enemies ", the deportation of the Koreans contradicted this Soviet policy, since they were from every class, and most of them were poor peasants from the rural areas. Upon hearing about the resettlement, the Japanese officials lodged

11907-564: The Soviet Union, a violation of the state pledge of the equality of all people. Farid Shafiyev, chairman of the Baku -based Center of Analysis of International Relations, assumes that the Soviet policy has always been the Russification of border regions, especially the Asian peripheries. Modern historians and scholars consider this deportation an example of a racist policy which existed in

12054-517: The USSR and the Stalinist regime as having practiced and carried out in politics, education and Soviet society relatively pure socialism and Marxist practices. This view has been supported by several of the major historians of the USSR, those in Russian and even Korean studies. Alyssa Park, in her archival work, found very little evidence that Koreans had proven or were able to prove their loyalties beyond

12201-464: The USSR and they also consider it an act of ethnic cleansing. Nonetheless, the dominant view among historians of Russia and the USSR was and remains that of Harvard's Terry Martin and his theory of " Soviet xenophobia ." This theory is based on the belief that the Soviet Union ethnically cleansed the border peoples of the USSR from 1937 to 1951 (including the peoples of the Caucasus and the peoples of

12348-493: The VCP (b) hereby order: To prevent the penetration of Japanese espionage to the Far East region undertake the following acts: The official justification for resolution 1428-326cc was that it had been planned with the aim to "prevent the infiltration of Japanese spies into the Far East", without trying to determine how to distinguish those who were spies from those who were loyal to the state, as Stalin considered many Soviet minorities

12495-409: The [Chinese] letters. Therefore, even if the ignorant want to communicate, many of them in the end cannot state their concerns. Saddened by this, I have [had] 28 letters newly made. It is my wish that all the people may easily learn these letters and that [they] be convenient for daily use. The Korean alphabet was designed so that people with little education could learn to read and write. According to

12642-409: The alphabet is, "A wise man can acquaint himself with them before the morning is over; even a stupid man can learn them in the space of ten days." Another document published in 1446 and titled Hunminjeongeum Haerye ( Hunminjeongeum Explanation and Examples) was discovered in 1940. This document explains that the design of the consonant letters is based on articulatory phonetics and the design of

12789-505: The annexation and Korean was written in a mixed Hanja-Hangul script , where most lexical roots were written in Hanja and grammatical forms in the Korean alphabet. Japan banned earlier Korean literature from public schooling, which became mandatory for children. The orthography of the Korean alphabet was partially standardized in 1912, when the vowel arae-a ( ㆍ )—which has now disappeared from Korean—was restricted to Sino-Korean roots:

12936-694: The area based on second-hand reports, and sometimes contradict one another. The later Korean histories lack any discussion of languages. In 108 BC, the Chinese Han dynasty conquered northern Korea and established the Four Commanderies of Han , the most important being Lelang , which was centred on the basin of the Taedong River and lasted until 314 AD. Chapter 30 of the Records of the Three Kingdoms (late 3rd century) and Chapter 85 of

13083-545: The arts, and a Korean pedagogical institute and college, making the country the center of Korean intellectual life in the Soviet Union. Some ethnic Koreans went on to become significant figures or leaders in the Soviet Union. Dozens of Koreans in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan were designated Heroes of Socialist Labor , including chairman of a collective farm Kim Pen-Hwa, member of the Uzbek Communist Party Hwan Man-Kim, and farmer Lyubov Li. After

13230-421: The basic letters: 5 tense consonant letters, 11 complex consonant letters, and 11 complex vowel letters. Four basic letters in the original alphabet are no longer used: 1 vowel letter and 3 consonant letters. Korean letters are written in syllabic blocks with the alphabetic letters arranged in two dimensions. For example, the South Korean city of Seoul is written as 서울 , not ㅅㅓㅇㅜㄹ . The syllables begin with

13377-602: The best matches are found only in Manchu and closely related languages, and thus could be the result of language contact. Scholars outside of Korea have given greater attention to possible links with Japonic, which were first investigated by William George Aston in 1879. The phoneme inventories of the two proto-languages are similar, with a single series of obstruents, a single liquid consonant and six or seven vowels. Samuel Martin , John Whitman and others have proposed hundreds of possible cognates, with sound correspondences. Most of

13524-712: The boundaries of Korea. Between 1928 and 1932, anti-Korean and anti-Chinese violence increased in the Soviet Far East, causing 50,000 Korean emigrants to flee to Manchuria and Korea. On 13 April 1928, a Soviet decree was passed stipulating that Koreans should be removed away from the vulnerable Soviet-Korean border, from Vladivostok to the Khabarovsk Oblast , and to settle Slavs in their place, mostly demobilized Red Army soldiers. An official plan intended to resettle 88,000 Koreans without citizenship north of Khabarovsk, except those who "proved their complete loyalty and devotion to Soviet power". On 17 July 1937,

13671-473: The combination /jʌ/ was not found in the standard speech of that time, but did occur in some dialects. It is also distinguished in Jeju. This suggests that Jeju diverged from other dialects some time before the 15th century. The Yukchin dialect, spoken in the northernmost part of Korea and adjacent areas in China, forms a dialect island separate from neighbouring northeastern dialects, and is sometimes considered

13818-611: The contemporary period were written primarily in Literary Chinese using Hanja as its primary script, a good working knowledge of Chinese characters especially in academia is still important for anyone who wishes to interpret and study older texts from Korea, or anyone who wishes to read scholarly texts in the humanities. A high proficiency in Hanja is also useful for understanding the etymology of Sino-Korean words as well as to enlarge one's Korean vocabulary. North Korea instated Hangul as its exclusive writing system in 1949 on

13965-502: The deported peoples. Amir Weiner's argument is similar to Martin's argument, substituting "territorial identity" for "xenophobia." The "Soviet xenophobia" argument also does not hold up semantically. Xenophobia is the fear of invasion or loss of territory and influence to foreigners by natives. The "Russians" and other Eastern Slavs are coming into the territory of the natives (the deported peoples) who were simply Soviet national minorities. They were not foreign elements. The Russian empire

14112-513: The difficulty of learning the Korean and Chinese languages, as well as the large number of Chinese characters that are used. To promote literacy among the common people, the fourth king of the Joseon dynasty, Sejong the Great , personally created and promulgated a new alphabet. Although it is widely assumed that King Sejong ordered the Hall of Worthies to invent Hangul, contemporary records such as

14259-755: The early 2000s, this percentage had gone down to only 10%. On 14 November 1989, the Supreme Council of the Soviet Union declared that all of Stalin's deportations were "illegal and criminal". On 26   April 1991 the Supreme Soviet of the Russian Socialist Federal Soviet Republic , under its chairman Boris Yeltsin , followed suit and passed the law On the Rehabilitation of Repressed Peoples with Article 2 denouncing all mass deportations as "Stalin's policy of defamation and genocide ". On 1 April 1993,

14406-694: The elite referred to the Korean alphabet derisively as 'amkeul ( 암클 ) meaning women's script, and 'ahaetgeul ( 아햇글 ) meaning children's script, though there is no written evidence of this. Supporters of the Korean alphabet referred to it as jeong'eum ( 정음 ; 正音 ) meaning correct pronunciation, gungmun ( 국문 ; 國文 ) meaning national script, and eonmun ( 언문 ; 諺文 ) meaning vernacular script. Koreans primarily wrote using Literary Chinese alongside native phonetic writing systems that predate Hangul by hundreds of years, including Idu script , Hyangchal , Gugyeol and Gakpil. However, many lower class uneducated Koreans were illiterate due to

14553-427: The end of the alphabet and South Korea grouping similar letters together. The double letters are placed after all the single letters (except the null initial ㅇ , which goes at the end). All digraphs and trigraphs , including the old diphthongs ㅐ and ㅔ , are placed after the simple vowels, again maintaining Choe's alphabetic order. The order of the final letters ( 받침 ) is: Deportation of Koreans in

14700-531: The ethnic deportations. However, he did not mention the deported Koreans. In 1957 and 1958, the Koreans started to petition the Soviet authorities, demanding full rehabilitation . It was not until Yuri Andropov 's speech in October 1982 during his ascent to the Party General Secretary that Soviet Koreans were mentioned as one of the nationalities which were living without equal rights. For

14847-562: The features of alphabetic and syllabic writing systems. Hangul was created in 1443 by Sejong the Great , fourth king of the Joseon dynasty. It was an attempt to increase literacy by serving as a complement to Hanja , which were Chinese characters used to write Literary Chinese in Korea by the 2nd century BCE, and had been adapted to write Korean by the 6th century CE. Modern Hangul orthography uses 24 basic letters: 14 consonant letters and 10 vowel letters. There are also 27 complex letters that are formed by combining

14994-449: The first group consisting out of 11,807 Koreans were deported. Koreans had to leave their movable property behind and receive "exchange receipts", but these were rushed and filled out in a way that they were not considered binding legal documents. The Soviet authorities charged the deported Koreans 5 roubles for each day of their journey. Those Koreans who did not resist the resettlement were awarded with 370 roubles. The Soviet secret police,

15141-703: The form (C)V, limiting the precision of the transcription. About half of them appear to be Koreanic. Based on these words and a passage in the Book of Zhou (636), Kōno Rokurō argued that the kingdom of Baekje was bilingual, with the gentry speaking a Puyŏ language and the common people a Han language. Hangul The Korean alphabet , known as Hangul or Hangeul in South Korea ( English: / ˈ h ɑː n ɡ uː l / HAHN -gool ; Korean :  한글 ; Korean pronunciation: [ha(ː)n.ɡɯɭ] ) and Chosŏn'gŭl in North Korea ( 조선글 ; North Korean pronunciation [tsʰo.sʰɔn.ɡɯɭ] ),

15288-648: The general population. According to the Korean Ministry of Foreign Affairs , in 2013, 176,411 Koreans lived in the Russian Federation, 173,832 Koreans lived in Uzbekistan , and 105,483 Koreans lived in Kazakhstan . Russian historian Pavel Polian considered all of the deportations of entire ethnic groups which occurred during Stalin's rule a crime against humanity . He concluded that

15435-407: The husband was Korean, the entire family was subject to deportation. Only if the husband was non-Korean and the wife Korean was the family exempt from this order. NKVD officers were allowed to stay in the abandoned houses of the Koreans. Five to six families (25 to 30 people) were sent to each compartment of a cargo train. Their journey lasted between 30 and 40 days. The sanitation inside these trains

15582-409: The language of Baekje was the same as that of Goguryeo. According to Korean traditional history, the kingdom of Baekje was founded by immigrants from Goguryeo who took over Mahan. The Japanese history Nihon Shoki , compiled in the early 8th century from earlier documents, including some from Baekje, records 42 Baekje words. These are transcribed as Old Japanese syllables, which are restricted to

15729-546: The letters that make up a block are called jaso ( 자소 ). The chart below shows all 19 consonants in South Korean alphabetic order with Revised Romanization equivalents for each letter and pronunciation in IPA (see Korean phonology for more). ㅇ is silent syllable-initially and is used as a placeholder when the syllable starts with a vowel. ㄸ , ㅃ , and ㅉ are never used syllable-finally. The consonants are broadly categorized into two categories: The chart below lists

15876-508: The literary elite, including Choe Manri and other Korean Confucian scholars. They believed Hanja was the only legitimate writing system. They also saw the circulation of the Korean alphabet as a road to break away from the Sinosphere as well as a threat to their status. However, the Korean alphabet entered popular culture as King Sejong had intended, used especially by women and writers of popular fiction. Prince Yeonsan banned

16023-422: The looting of the material intended for the construction of their houses. Some deportees lived in houses made out of straw and mud. Many died of hunger, sickness and exposure during the first years in Central Asia. Typhus and malaria were also the causes of fatalities. Estimates based on population statistics suggest that the total number of deported Koreans who died in exile is between 16,500 to 28,200 at

16170-620: The neighboring Primorsky Krai (ceded to Russia from China in the Amur Annexation ) was recorded in the early 1860s. By the 1880s, 5,300 Koreans , distributed in 761 families, were living in 28 Cossack villages. Under the terms of a Russo-Korean treaty signed on 25 June 1884, all Koreans living in the Far East up until that date were granted citizenship and land in the Russian Empire , but all others who would arrive after 1884 were not allowed to stay longer than two years. Even

16317-508: The new Soviet Premier in 1953 and undertook a process of de-Stalinization , he condemned Stalin's ethnic deportations, but did not mention Soviet Koreans among these exiled nationalities. The exiled Koreans remained living in Central Asia, integrating into the Kazakh and Uzbek society, but the new generations gradually lost their culture and language. This marked the precedent of the first Soviet ethnic deportation of an entire nationality, which

16464-501: The next. Chang and Martin both believe that the Stalinist regime took a turn towards primordializing nationality in the 1930s. After the "primordialist turn" by the Stalinist regime in the mid-1930s, the Soviet Greeks , Finns , Poles , Chinese, Koreans, Germans , Crimean Tatars and other deported peoples were all seen as being loyal to their "titular" nations (or they were seen as being loyal to non-Soviet polities) because in

16611-511: The northeastern Hamgyŏng group. Dialects differ in palatalization and the reflexes of Middle Korean accent, vowels, voiced fricatives, word-medial /k/ and word-initial /l/ and /n/ . Korean is extensively and precisely documented from the introduction of the Hangul alphabet in the 15th century (the Late Middle Korean period). Earlier forms, written with Chinese characters using a variety of strategies, are much more obscure. The key sources on Early Middle Korean (10th to 14th centuries) are

16758-459: The orders of Kim Il Sung of the Workers' Party of Korea , and officially banned the use of Hanja. Systems that employed Hangul letters with modified rules were attempted by linguists such as Hsu Tsao-te  [ zh ] and Ang Ui-jin to transcribe Taiwanese Hokkien , a Sinitic language , but the usage of Chinese characters ultimately ended up being the most practical solution and

16905-659: The orthography more morphophonemic . The double consonant ㅆ was written alone (without a vowel) when it occurred between nouns, and the nominative particle 가 was introduced after vowels, replacing 이 . Ju Si-gyeong , the linguist who had coined the term Hangul to replace Eonmun or Vulgar Script in 1912, established the Korean Language Research Society (later renamed the Hangul Society ), which further reformed orthography with Standardized System of Hangul in 1933. The principal change

17052-571: The other end of the "primordial" spectrum, the Eastern Slavs (Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians) were inherently seen as being more loyal and more representative of the Soviet people. According to Chang, this is a deviation from socialism and Marxist–Leninism. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union , several Koreans in Central Asia travelled to South Korea to visit their distant relatives, but most of them declined to permanently move to South Korea, citing cultural differences, and there

17199-528: The peninsula to eastern Manchuria and the southern part of Primorsky Krai in the Russian Far East . Korean labourers were forcibly moved to Manchuria as part of the Japanese occupation of Manchuria . There are now about 2 million Koreans in China , mostly in the border prefecture of Yanbian , where the language has official status. The speech of Koreans in the Russian Far East was described by Russian scholars such as Mikhail Putsillo, who compiled

17346-404: The pronunciations recorded using Chinese characters are difficult to interpret, some of these words appear to resemble Tungusic , Korean or Japonic words. Scholars who take these words as representing the language of Goguryeo have come to a range of conclusions about the language, some holding that it was Koreanic, others that it was Japonic, and others that it was somehow intermediate between

17493-472: The proposed matches with Korean were from the neighbouring Tungusic group. A detailed comparison of Korean and Tungusic was published by Kim Dongso in 1981, but it has been criticized for teleological reconstructions, failing to distinguish loanwords and poor semantic matches, leaving too few comparisons to establish correspondences. Much of this work relies on comparisons with modern languages, particularly Manchu , rather than reconstructed proto-Tungusic. Many of

17640-587: The railroad station on October 31. There was no shed, and we have stayed with small children for 5–6 days in the cold open air. We speak about anti-human attitude towards settlers. They still do not have a permanent home. The local authorities have no intention of dealing with Korean settlers. A Korean man recalling his deportation experiences . The deportees were allowed to take livestock with them and received some compensation (on average 6,000 roubles per family) for property left behind. Upon arrival at their destination, some deportees were sent to barracks under

17787-526: The real reason for the deportation was Stalin's policy of "frontier cleansing" the western and eastern regions of the USSR. Kazakhstani Korean scholar German Kim assumes that one of the reasons for this deportation may have been Stalin's intent to oppress ethnic minorities that could have posed a threat to his socialist system or he may have intended to consolidate the border regions with China and Japan by using them as political bargaining chips. Additionally, Kim points out that 1.7 million people perished in

17934-462: The same time, young Koreans travelled to the Russian Far East, exploring the possibility of migrating back to that region and turning it into an autonomous Korean area, but the Russian authorities and the local population did not support their efforts. Ultimately, they abandoned that idea. Significant Korean institutions from across the Soviet Union congregated in Kazakhstan, including the long-running Korean-language newspaper Kore Ilbo , theater and

18081-642: The second consonant can be basic, complex or a limited number of tense consonants. How the syllables are structured depends solely if the baseline of the vowel symbol is horizontal or vertical. If the baseline is vertical, the first consonant and vowel are written above the second consonant (if present), but all components are written individually from top to bottom in the case of a horizontal baseline. As in traditional Chinese and Japanese writing, as well as many other texts in East and southeast Asia, Korean texts were traditionally written top to bottom, right to left, as

18228-593: The second phase of the deportation, starting from 27 September 1937, the Soviet authorities expanded their search to encompass Koreans from Vladivostok, the Buryat Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic , the Chita Oblast and Khabarovsk Kray . The deportees were transported by railway in 124 trains. During this operation, 7,000 Soviet Chinese were also deported together with Soviet Koreans. In case of mixed marriages, if

18375-431: The shared words concern the natural environment and agriculture. However, Koreanic and Japonic have a long history of interaction, which may explain their grammatical similarities and makes it difficult to distinguish inherited cognates from ancient loanwords. Most linguists studying the Japonic family believe that it was brought to the Japanese archipelago from the Korean peninsula around 700–300 BC by wet-rice farmers of

18522-478: The study and publication of the Korean alphabet in 1504 during his kingship, after a document criticizing him was published. Similarly, King Jungjong abolished the Ministry of Eonmun, a governmental institution related to Hangul research, in 1506. The late 16th century, however, saw a revival of the Korean alphabet as gasa and sijo poetry flourished. In the 17th century, the Korean alphabet novels became

18669-470: The terrain for the influx of so many resettled people, with some areas lacking building materials for construction of new houses or schools. In the Tashkent area, of the 4,151 planned two-flat houses for the deportees, only 1,800 were completed by the end of 1938, forcing many to find improvised accommodation in barracks, earthhouses and other places. Additional problems were high taxes imposed on Koreans and

18816-441: The three families. Other authors point out that most of the place names come from central Korea, an area captured by Goguryeo from Baekje and other states in the 5th century, and none from the historical homeland of Goguryeo north of the Taedong River . These authors suggest that the place names reflect the languages of those states rather than that of Goguryeo. This would explain why they seem to reflect multiple language groups. It

18963-524: The two accounts differ on the relationship between the languages of Byeonhan and Jinhan, with the Records of the Three Kingdoms describing them as similar, but the Book of the Later Han referring to differences. The Zhōuhú (州胡) people on a large island to the west of Mahan (possibly Jeju) were described as speaking a different language to Mahan. Based on this text, Lee Ki-Moon divided the languages spoken on

19110-487: The usual Chinese verb–object order, and particles 之 and 伊, for which some authors have proposed Korean interpretations. Alexander Vovin argues that the Goguryeo language was the ancestor of Koreanic, citing a few Goguryeo words in Chinese texts such as the Book of Wei (6th century) that appear to have Korean etymologies, as well as Koreanic loanwords in Jurchen and Manchu . The Book of Liang (635) states that

19257-521: The various deportations of the Soviet border peoples were simply the "culmination of a gradual shift from predominantly class-based terror" which began during collectivization (1932–33) to "national/ethnic" based terror (1937). Accordingly, Martin also claimed that the deportations of the nationalities were "ideological, not ethnic. They were spurred by an ideological hatred and a suspicion of foreign capitalist governments, not by national hatred of non-Russians." His theory entitled "Soviet xenophobia" paints

19404-423: The very least, the deportations changed the cultures, ways of life and world views of the deported peoples because the majority of them were sent to Soviet Central Asia and Siberia. "Primordialism" is simply another way of saying ethnic chauvinism or racism because the said "primordial" peoples or ethnic groups are seen as possessing "permanent" traits and characteristics, which they pass on from one generation to

19551-400: The vowel letters is based on the principles of yin and yang and vowel harmony . After the creation of Hangul, people from the lower class or the commoners had a chance to be literate. They learned how to read and write Korean, not just the upper classes and literary elite. They learn Hangul independently without formal schooling or such. The Korean alphabet faced opposition in the 1440s by

19698-479: The vowels ㅔ and ㅐ in pronunciation. Alphabetic order in the Korean alphabet is called the ganada order, ( 가나다순 ) after the first three letters of the alphabet. The alphabetical order of the Korean alphabet does not mix consonants and vowels. Rather, first are velar consonants , then coronals , labials , sibilants , etc. The vowels come after the consonants. The collation order of Korean in Unicode

19845-458: The world, and typology is no longer considered evidence of a genetic relationship. While many cognates are found between adjacent groups, few are attested across all three. The proposed sound correspondences have also been criticized for invoking too many phonemes, such as the four phonemes that are said to have merged as *y in proto-Turkic. Similarly, Koreanic * r is said to result from the merger of four proto-Altaic liquids. In any case, most of

19992-499: Was adopted in official documents for the first time in 1894. Elementary school texts began using the Korean alphabet in 1895, and Tongnip sinmun , established in 1896, was the first newspaper printed in both Korean and English. After the Japanese annexation, which occurred in 1910, Japanese was made the official language of Korea. However, the Korean alphabet was still taught in Korean-established schools built after

20139-591: Was endorsed by the Ministry of Education of Taiwan . The Hunminjeong'eum Society in Seoul attempted to spread the use of Hangul to unwritten languages of Asia. In 2009, it was unofficially adopted by the town of Baubau , in Southeast Sulawesi , Indonesia, to write the Cia-Cia language . A number of Indonesian Cia-Cia speakers who visited Seoul generated large media attention in South Korea, and they were greeted on their arrival by Oh Se-hoon ,

20286-410: Was incorporated into the influential two-wave migration model of Korean ethnic history proposed in the 1970s by the archaeologist Kim Won-yong , who attributed cultural transitions in prehistoric Korea to migrations of distinct ethnic groups from the north. The appearance of Neolithic Jeulmun pottery was interpreted as a migration of a Paleosiberian group, while the arrival of bronze was attributed to

20433-416: Was later repeated during the population transfer in the Soviet Union during and after World War II when millions of people belonging to other ethnic groups were resettled. Modern historians and scholars view this deportation as an example of a racist policy in the USSR and ethnic cleansing , common of Stalinism , as well as a crime against humanity . Emigration from the Joseon kingdom of Korea to

20580-463: Was living in Uzbekistan, I knew I would never be truly accepted there. People would always ask: 'Why are you here?'. An Uzbek Korean who moved to South Korea, 2001 This forced transfer marked the precedent of Stalin's first ethnic deportation of an entire nationality, which would become a pattern during and after World War II , when dozens of other nationalities were uprooted from their homes, amounting to 3,332,589 persons who were deported in

20727-659: Was never a major movement for the repatriation of Soviet Koreans. Missionaries from South Korea have traveled to Central Asia and Russia to teach the Korean language for free at schools and universities which are located there. K-pop music inspired a new generation of Central Asian Koreans to learn Korean. Korean films and dramas were popular in Uzbekistan in the 2000s, especially among the local Korean population. Due to hostilities towards non-Muslims in independent Uzbekistan, some local Koreans moved to South Korea. The bilateral turnover between Kazakhstan and Korea amounted to $ 505.6 million in 2009. In 2014, Seoul City established

20874-411: Was not the "native" state, polity or government in the Russian Far East, the Caucasus and many other regions of the deported peoples. Koguryo followed by Parhae /Balhae/Bohai were the first states of the Russian Far East. John J. Stephan called the "erasure" of Chinese and Korean history (state-formation, cultural contributions, peoples) to the region by the USSR and Russia the intentional "genesis of

21021-723: Was of poor quality. Deported Koreans had to eat, cook, sleep and excrete inside these wagons. A correspondence sent by the NKVD official Nikolay Yezhov , dated 25 October 1937, indicated that the deportation was complete, having removed 36,442 Korean families. The only remaining Koreans, 700 settlers in Kamchatka and Okhotsk, were supposed to be deported by 1 November 1937. The correspondence also reveals that 2,500 Koreans were arrested during this operation; presumably, they were all shot because they protested moving out of their homes. In total, 171,781 persons were deported. They were sent on

21168-684: Was published in 1785, described the Joseon Kingdom and the Korean alphabet. In 1832, the Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland supported the posthumous abridged publication of Titsingh's French translation. Thanks to growing Korean nationalism , the Gabo Reformists ' push, and Western missionaries' promotion of the Korean alphabet in schools and literature, the Hangul Korean alphabet

21315-423: Was published in 1946, just after Korean independence from Japanese rule. In 1948, North Korea attempted to make the script perfectly morphophonemic through the addition of new letters , and, in 1953, Syngman Rhee in South Korea attempted to simplify the orthography by returning to the colonial orthography of 1921, but both reforms were abandoned after only a few years. Both North Korea and South Korea have used

21462-438: Was to make the Korean alphabet as morphophonemically practical as possible given the existing letters. A system for transliterating foreign orthographies was published in 1940. Japan banned the Korean language from schools and public offices in 1938 and excluded Korean courses from the elementary education in 1941 as part of a policy of cultural assimilation and genocide . The definitive modern Korean alphabet orthography

21609-462: Was unaffected by the palatalization found in most other dialects. About 10 percent of Korean speakers in central Asia use the Yukchin dialect. Koreanic is a relatively shallow language family. Modern varieties show limited variation, most of which can be treated as derived from Late Middle Korean (15th century). The few exceptions indicate a date of divergence only a few centuries earlier, following

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