Pontic Steppe
87-419: Caucasus East Asia Eastern Europe Northern Europe Pontic Steppe Northern/Eastern Steppe Europe South Asia Steppe Europe Caucasus India Indo-Aryans Iranians East Asia Europe East Asia Europe Indo-Aryan Iranian Indo-Aryan Iranian Others European Proto-Iranian or Proto-Iranic
174-518: A pause : e.g. kā́mas ('erotic love') becomes kā́maḥ . Additionally, the Proto-Indo-European aspirated voiced palato-velar *ǵʰ [ɟʱ] became [ɦ] through successive affrication, assibilation and debuccalization: e.g. *bʰeh₂ǵʰús "arm" becomes Sanskrit bāhúḥ . In many Eastern Bengali dialects, the voiceless palato-alveolar sibilant /ʃ/ can become debuccalized to glottal [h] or [ɦ] , e.g. /ʃälä/ "wife's brother"
261-512: A collection of Tamil and later Sanskrit scriptures chiefly constituting the methods of temple construction and creation of murti , worship means of deities, philosophical doctrines, meditative practices, attainment of sixfold desires and four kinds of yoga. The worship of tutelary deity , sacred flora and fauna in Hinduism is also recognized as a survival of the pre-Vedic Dravidian religion. Ancient Tamil grammatical works Tolkappiyam ,
348-549: A further descendant (e.g. /fs/ in Ossetian ). This change is typical for Old Persian and its descendants, as opposed to Avestan and most languages first attested in the Middle or New Iranian periods. Kurdish and Balochi may again have shared this change as well. Indian religions Indian religions as a percentage of world population Indian religions , sometimes also termed Dharmic religions or Indic religions , are
435-409: A glottal stop [ʔ] in two environments: in word-final position before another consonant (American English IPA) Before a syllabic [n̩] following /l/ , /r/ , /n/ , a vowel, or a diphthong. The /t/ may then also be nasally released . (American English IPA) In Cockney English , /t/ is often realized as a glottal stop [ʔ] between vowels, liquids , and nasals (notably in the word bottle ),
522-535: A half-human, half-buffalo monster attacking a tiger, which may be a reference to the Sumerian myth of such a monster created by goddess Aruru to fight Gilgamesh . Some seals show a man wearing a hat with two horns and a plant sitting on a throne with animals surrounding him. Some scholars theorize that this was a predecessor to Shiva wearing a hat worn by some Sumerian divine beings and kings. In contrast to contemporary Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilisations,
609-457: A king was considered to be divine by nature and possessed religious significance. The king was 'the representative of God on earth' and lived in a "koyil", which means the "residence of a god". The Modern Tamil word for temple is koil . Titual worship was also given to kings. Modern words for god like "kō" ("king"), "iṟai" ("emperor"), and "āṇḍavar" ("conqueror") now primarily refer to gods. These elements were incorporated later into Hinduism like
696-540: A lord of animals; and often depicted as having three eyes. The seal has hence come to be known as the Pashupati Seal , after Pashupati (lord of all animals), an epithet of Shiva. While Marshall's work has earned some support, many critics and even supporters have raised several objections. Doris Srinivasan has argued that the figure does not have three faces, or yogic posture, and that in Vedic literature Rudra
783-563: A much minor degree, all other Brazilian dialects, debuccalize /s/ (that is, [ɕ ~ ʑ] ) but less so than in Spanish. However, a mar-mas merger or even a mar-mais merger occurs: mas mesmo assim "but even so" or mas mesma, sim "though, right, the same (f) one" [mɐɦ ˈmeɦmə ˈsĩ] ; mais light "lighter, more slim", or also "less caloric/fatty" [ˈmaɦ ˈlajtɕ] ; mas de mim, não "but from me, no" or mais de mim, não "not more from me" [ˈmaɦ dʑi ˈmĩ ˈnɜ̃w] . A coda rhotic in
870-674: A process called t-glottalization . The German ending -en is commonly realized as an assimilated syllabic nasal . Preceding voiceless stops are then glottally released : Latten [ˈlat͡ʔn̩] ('laths'), Nacken [ˈnak͡ʔŋ̍] ('nape of the neck'). When such a stop is additionally preceded by a homorganic sonorant , it tends to be debuccalized entirely and create the clusters [mʔm̩, lʔn̩, nʔn̩, ŋʔŋ̍] . For example, Lumpen [ˈlʊmʔm̩] ('rag'), Banken [ˈbaŋʔŋ̍] ('banks'). Voiced stops are not usually debuccalized. However, many Upper German and East Central German dialects merge voiced and unvoiced stops at least word-internally, and
957-411: A rather long inventory of allophones: [ r ɻ̝̊ ç x ɣ χ ʁ ʀ ħ h ɦ ] . Only [ ɣ ] is uncommon. Few dialects, such as sulista and fluminense , give preference to voiced allophones; elsewhere, they are common only as coda, before voiced consonants. In such dialects, especially among people speaking an educated variety of Portuguese, it is usual for the rhotic coda in
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#17327754513981044-531: A retrospective view from a much later Hindu perspective. An early and influential work in the area that set the trend for Hindu interpretations of archaeological evidence from the Harrapan sites was that of John Marshall , who in 1931 identified the following as prominent features of the Indus religion: a Great Male God and a Mother Goddess; deification or veneration of animals and plants; symbolic representation of
1131-506: A subject of debate among scholars. While Radhakrishnan , Oldenberg and Neumann were convinced of Upanishadic influence on the Buddhist canon, Eliot and Thomas highlighted the points where Buddhism was opposed to Upanishads. Buddhism may have been influenced by some Upanishadic ideas, it however discarded their orthodox tendencies. In Buddhist texts Buddha is presented as rejecting avenues of salvation as "pernicious views". Jainism
1218-644: A unitary view of the universe with 'God' (Brahman) seen as immanent and transcendent in the forms of Ishvara and Brahman . This post-Vedic systems of thought, along with the Upanishads and later texts like the epics (the Ramayana and the Mahabharata ), is a major component of modern Hinduism. The ritualistic traditions of Vedic religion are preserved in the conservative Śrauta tradition. Since Vedic times, "people from many strata of society throughout
1305-494: Is [äi̯lo] . A number of Spanish dialects debuccalize /s/ to [h] or [ ɦ ] at the end of a syllable or intervocalically in certain instances. In many varieties of Galician , as well as in Galician-influenced Spanish , the phoneme /ɡ/ may debuccalize ( gheada ) to [ ħ ] in most or all instances; [ x ] and [ h ] are also possible realizations. There
1392-419: Is [ɦälä] , and /ʃägoɾ/ "sea" is [ɦä(g)oɾ] . The tenuis and aspirated forms of the labial stop /p/, /pʰ/ and velar stop /k/, /kʰ/ can get lenited to /ɸ/ and /x/ respectively, but also be further debuccalized to [h] or [ɦ] , e.g. /pägol/ "mad" is [ɦägol] and /pʰokiɾ/ ~ /ɸokiɾ/ "beggar, faqir" is [ɸoɦiɾ] . In some cases, even the glottal fricative is dropped, e.g. /äʃilo/ "(he / she / it) came"
1479-431: Is a sound change or alternation in which an oral consonant loses its original place of articulation and moves it to the glottis ( [ h ] , [ ɦ ] , or [ ʔ ] ). The pronunciation of a consonant as [h] is sometimes called aspiration, but in phonetics , aspiration is the burst of air accompanying a stop . The word comes from Latin bucca , meaning "cheek" or "mouth". Debuccalization
1566-535: Is a contradiction in terms since Vedic religion is very different from what we generally call Hindu religion – at least as much as Old Hebrew religion is from medieval and modern Christian religion. However, Vedic religion is treatable as a predecessor of Hinduism." The rishis , the composers of the hymns of the Rigveda , were considered inspired poets and seers. The mode of worship was the performance of Yajna , sacrifices which involved sacrifice and sublimation of
1653-412: Is also an inverse hypercorrection process of older or less educated Galician speakers replacing the phoneme / x / of the Spanish language with [ɡ] , which is called gueada . Portuguese is much less affected by debuccalization, but it is especially notable in its Brazilian variety . Throughout Brazil, the phoneme /ʁ/ (historically an alveolar trill /r/ that moved to an uvular position) has
1740-722: Is also common in the Sangiric branch. In Sangir and Bantik , all final voiceless stops were reduced into ʔ ( *manuk → manu' "bird"). Also in Ratahan , final *t became ʔ ( *takut → taku' "to fear"). In Talaud , all instances of Proto-Sangiric *k were debuccalized into ʔ except when following *ŋ ( *kiki → i'i "to bite", but *beŋkol → bengkola "bent"). Other newer instances of k resulted from *R when geminated or being word-final ( ʐ elsewhere), e.g. *bəRu → bakku "new", *bibiR → biwikka "lip", *bəŋaR → bangngaka "molar". Many Polynesian languages lost
1827-690: Is either realized as [k] or [ʔ] . Debuccalization is very common in parts of Sulawesi . Especially in the South Sulawesi branch , most languages have turned word-final *t and *k into a glottal stop. In every Gorontalic language except Buol and Kaidipang , *k was replaced by a glottal stop, and lost altogether in word-initial position: *kayu → Gorontalo ayu ' wood ' , *konuku → onu'u ' fingernail ' . However, if it followed *ŋ , then *k voiced into g in Gorontalo ( *koŋkomo → onggomo ' handful ' ). Debuccalization
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#17327754513981914-590: Is evident, many of these features are already present in the oldest known Indo-Aryan language , the language of the Rigveda (c. 1500 BCE), which also includes over a dozen words borrowed from Dravidian. This represents an early religious and cultural fusion or synthesis between ancient Dravidians and Indo-Aryans, which became more evident over time with sacred iconography, traditions, philosophy, flora, and fauna that went on to influence Hinduism, Buddhism, Charvaka, Sramana, and Jainism. Throughout Tamilakam ,
2001-414: Is known as the Vedic period , which lasted from roughly 1750 to 500 BCE. The Vedic Period is most significant for the composition of the four Vedas, Brahmanas and the older Upanishads (both presented as discussions on the rituals, mantras and concepts found in the four Vedas), which today are some of the most important canonical texts of Hinduism, and are the codification of much of what developed into
2088-601: Is realized as [h] . In the Batak branch, all southern languages (but not the northern ones including Karo ), have debuccalized *k into h , except when word-final or followed *ŋ . Both Angkola and Mandailing have restored k within the sequence hVhV (Angkola kehe , Mandailing ke , but Toba hehe ), or when following a consonant in Mandailing ( ala "scorpion" → par kalah an ). Mandailing, however has also further deleted *h ( *kalak → alak "person"), except in
2175-577: Is the Avestan language term (corresponding to Vedic language ṛta ) for a concept of cardinal importance to Zoroastrian theology and doctrine. The term "dharma" was already used in Brahmanical thought, where it was conceived as an aspect of Rta. Major philosophers of this era were Rishis Narayana, Kanva, Rishaba , Vamadeva , and Angiras . During the Middle Vedic period, the mantras of
2262-453: Is the reconstructed proto-language of the Iranian languages branch of Indo-European language family and thus the ancestor of the Iranian languages such as Persian , Pashto , Sogdian , Zazaki , Ossetian , Mazandarani , Kurdish , Talysh and others. Its speakers, the hypothetical Proto-Iranians , are assumed to have lived in the 2nd millennium BC and are usually connected with
2349-538: Is the ultimate foundation of everything; it is "the supreme", although this is not to be understood in a static sense. [...] It is the expression of the primordial dynamism that is inherent in everything...." The term rta is inherited from the Proto-Indo-Iranian religion , the religion of the Indo-Iranian peoples prior to the earliest Vedic (Indo-Aryan) and Zoroastrian (Iranian) scriptures. " Asha "
2436-628: Is used but as an allophone of / l / (rhotic consonants are most often deleted), a mar-mal merger, instead of the much more common and less-stigmatized mau-mal merger characteristic of all Brazilian urban centers except for those bordering Mercosur countries, where coda [ ɫ ] was preserved, and the entire North and Northeast regions. Its origin is the replacement of indigenous languages and línguas gerais by Portuguese, which created [ ɹ ] , [ ɻ ] and r-colored vowel as allophones of both /ɾ/ (now mostly /ʁ/ ) and /l/ (now mostly [ u̯ ~ ʊ̯ ] ) phonemes in
2523-619: Is used for the modern languages: Ossetian has often been classified as a "Northeast Iranian" language, while "Northwest Iranian" usually refers to languages to the northwest of Persian, such as Zaza or the Caspian languages . The term Old Iranian refers to the stage in Iranian history represented by the earliest written languages: Avestan and Old Persian . These two languages are usually considered to belong to different main branches of Iranian, and many of their similarities are found also in
2610-434: Is usually seen as a subtype of lenition , which is often defined as a sound change involving the weakening of a consonant by progressive shifts in pronunciation. As with other forms of lenition, debuccalization may be synchronic or diachronic (i.e. it may involve alternations within a language depending on context or sound changes across time). Debuccalization processes occur in many different types of environments such as
2697-626: The Vedas , as well as the Agamas of Dravidian origin. The period of the composition, redaction, and commentary of these texts is known as the Vedic period , which lasted from roughly 1750 to 500 BCE. The philosophical portions of the Vedas were summarized in Upanishads , which are commonly referred to as Vedānta , variously interpreted to mean either the "last chapters, parts of the Veda" or "the object,
Proto-Iranian language - Misplaced Pages Continue
2784-644: The Andronovo archaeological horizon (see Indo-Iranians ). Proto-Iranian was a satem language descended from the Proto-Indo-Iranian language , which in turn, came from the Proto-Indo-European language . It was likely removed less than a millennium from the Avestan language, and less than two millennia from Proto-Indo-European. Skjærvø postulates that there were at least four dialects that initially developed out of Proto-Iranian, two of which are attested by texts: Note that different terminology
2871-533: The Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro is widely thought to have been so used, as a place for ritual purification. The funerary practices of the Harappan civilisation is marked by its diversity with evidence of supine burial; fractional burial in which the body is reduced to skeletal remains by exposure to the elements before final interment; and even cremation. The documented history of Indian religions begins with
2958-606: The Indus River Valley buried their dead in a manner suggestive of spiritual practices that incorporated notions of an afterlife and belief in magic. Other South Asian Stone Age sites, such as the Bhimbetka rock shelters in central Madhya Pradesh and the Kupgal petroglyphs of eastern Karnataka, contain rock art portraying religious rites and evidence of possible ritualised music. The religion and belief system of
3045-667: The Saka languages (Khotanese and Tumshuqese, but not Wakhi which retains the fricatives); and to have merged with the voiceless aspirated stops in Balochi . In the case of Saka, secondary influence from Gāndhārī Prakrit is likely. The Proto-Indo-European palatovelars *ḱ, *ǵ (and *ǵʰ) were fronted to affricates *ć, *dź in Proto-Indo-Iranian (the affricate stage being preserved in the Nuristani languages ). The development in
3132-598: The Vedas ). The older Upanishads launched attacks of increasing intensity on the ritual. Anyone who worships a divinity other than the Self is called a domestic animal of the gods in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. The Mundaka launches the most scathing attack on the ritual by comparing those who value sacrifice with an unsafe boat that is endlessly overtaken by old age and death. Scholars believe that Parsva ,
3219-458: The historical Vedic religion , the religious practices of the early Indo-Aryans , which were collected and later redacted into the Samhitas (usually known as the Vedas ), four canonical collections of hymns or mantras composed in archaic Sanskrit . These texts are the central shruti (revealed) texts of Hinduism . The period of the composition, redaction, and commentary of these texts
3306-520: The religions that originated in the Indian subcontinent . These religions, which include Buddhism , Hinduism , Jainism , and Sikhism , are also classified as Eastern religions . Although Indian religions are connected through the history of India , they constitute a wide range of religious communities, and are not confined to the Indian subcontinent. Evidence attesting to prehistoric religion in
3393-520: The syllable rhyme to be an alveolar tap, as in European Portuguese and many registers of Spanish, or to be realized as [ χ ] or [ x ] . In the rest of the country, it is generally realized as [ h ] , even by speakers who either do not normally use that allophone or delete it entirely, as is common in the vernacular. However, in some mineiro - and mineiro -influenced fluminense rural registers, [h]
3480-594: The "ancient, classical, mediaeval and modern periods" periodisation. An elaborate periodisation may be as follows: The earliest religion followed by the peoples of the Indian subcontinent, including those of the Indus Valley and Ganges Valley , was likely local animism that did not have missionaries . Evidence attesting to prehistoric religion in the Indian subcontinent derives from scattered Mesolithic rock paintings such as at Bhimbetka , depicting dances and rituals. Neolithic agriculturalists inhabiting
3567-557: The 23rd Jain tirthankara lived during this period in the 9th century BCE. Jainism and Buddhism belong to the śramaṇa traditions. These religions rose into prominence in 700–500 BCE in the Magadha kingdom., reflecting "the cosmology and anthropology of a much older, pre-Aryan upper class of northeastern India", and were responsible for the related concepts of saṃsāra (the cycle of birth and death) and moksha (liberation from that cycle). The shramana movements challenged
Proto-Iranian language - Misplaced Pages Continue
3654-645: The 23rd Tirthankara, was a historical figure. The Vedas are believed to have documented a few Tirthankaras and an ascetic order similar to the shramana movement. Buddhism was historically founded by Siddhartha Gautama , a Kshatriya prince-turned-ascetic, and was spread beyond India through missionaries. It later experienced a decline in India, but survived in Nepal and Sri Lanka , and remains more widespread in Southeast and East Asia . Gautama Buddha , who
3741-536: The 2nd century BCE due to his significant patronage of the religion. His reign is considered a period of growth and influence for the religion, although Jainism had flourished for centuries before and continued to develop in prominence after his time. The early Dravidian religion constituted of non- Vedic form of Hinduism in that they were either historically or are at present Āgamic . The Agamas are non- vedic in origin and have been dated either as post-vedic texts. or as pre-vedic oral compositions. The Agamas are
3828-412: The 4th century BC on show occasional debuccalization of /f/ to /h/ (e.g. hileo : Latin filius ). Whether the shift is displayed in the inscriptions is highly irregular, with some forms even showing an ostensibly opposite shift of written f in place of an expected h (e.g. fe : Latin hic ), possibly by means of hypercorrection . In several Malay dialects in the peninsular, final -s
3915-839: The Brazilian dialects in the Centro-Sul area is hardly ever glottal, and the debuccalized /s/ is unlikely to be confused with it. In the Moldavian dialect of Romanian , / f / is debuccalized to [h] and so, for example, să fie becomes să hie . The same occurred in Old Spanish , Old Gascon , and Old Japanese and still occurs in Sylheti . In Scottish and Irish Gaelic , s and t changed by lenition to [h] , spelled sh and th . Inscription in Faliscan from
4002-515: The Indian subcontinent derives from scattered Mesolithic rock paintings. The Harappan people of the Indus Valley civilisation , which lasted from 3300 to 1300 BCE (mature period 2600–1900 BCE), had an early urbanized culture which predates the Vedic religion. The documented history of Indian religions begins with the historical Vedic religion , the religious practices of the early Indo-Aryan peoples , which were collected and later redacted into
4089-473: The Indus Valley lacks any monumental palaces, even though excavated cities indicate that the society possessed the requisite engineering knowledge. This may suggest that religious ceremonies, if any, may have been largely confined to individual homes, small temples, or the open air. Several sites have been proposed by Marshall and later scholars as possibly devoted to religious purpose, but at present only
4176-454: The Indus Valley people has received considerable attention, especially from the view of identifying precursors to deities and religious practices of Indian religions that later developed in the area. However, due to the sparsity of evidence, which is open to varying interpretations, and the fact that the Indus script remains undeciphered, the conclusions are partly speculative and largely based on
4263-769: The Old Iranian period shows divergences: Avestan, as also most newer Iranian languages, show /s/ and /z/, while Old Persian shows /θ/ and /d/. (Word-initially, the former develops also into /s/ by Middle Persian .) — The change *c > *s must be also newer than the development *s > *h, since this new *s was not affected by the previous change. The consonant cluster *ts (as in Proto-Indo-Iranian *matsya- "fish") has merged to *c , since both were identical in Iranian. This change also clearly fails to apply to all Iranian languages. Old Persian with its descendants shows /s/, possibly likewise Kurdish and Balochi. The Saka languages show /š/. All other Iranian languages have /sp/, or
4350-472: The Vedic and Upanishadic concepts of soul (Atman) and the ultimate reality (Brahman). In 6th century BCE, the Shramnic movement matured into Jainism and Buddhism and was responsible for the schism of Indian religions into two main philosophical branches of astika, which venerates Veda (e.g., six orthodox schools of Hinduism) and nastika (e.g., Buddhism, Jainism, Charvaka, etc.). However, both branches shared
4437-630: The Vedic religion and Hindu religions". The late Vedic period (9th to 6th centuries BCE) marks the beginning of the Upanisadic or Vedantic period. This period heralded the beginning of much of what became classical Hinduism, with the composition of the Upanishads , later the Sanskrit epics , still later followed by the Puranas . Upanishads form the speculative-philosophical basis of classical Hinduism and are known as Vedanta (conclusion of
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#17327754513984524-473: The West Coast, a non word-final /θ/ th shifted to [h] , a process called th-debuccalization . For example, /θɪn/ is realized as [hɪn] . Pre-pausally, /t/ may be debuccalized to [h], eg. it , lot , that , what pronounced [ɪh, lɒh, d̪ah, wɒh] . In Proto-Greek , /s/ shifted to [h] initially and between sonorants ( vowels , liquids , and nasals ). Intervocalic /h/ had been lost by
4611-461: The Yajurveda and the older Brahmana texts were composed. The Brahmans became powerful intermediairies. Historical roots of Jainism in India is traced back to 9th-century BC with the rise of Parshvanatha and his non-violent philosophy. The Vedic religion evolved into Hinduism and Vedanta , a religious path considering itself the 'essence' of the Vedas, interpreting the Vedic pantheon as
4698-559: The Yoruba language, such as Ikale . Many of these shifts came from Proto-Yoruboid language (or its descendant language, Proto-Edekiri), and descendant languages shifted from /s/ to /h/ . In other cases shifts from /f/ to /h/ also occur from Proto-Yoruboid to Standard Yoruba . Many other alternatives shift from /s/ to /r/ , but it is unclear if that process is associated with the debuccalization occurring. Debuccalization also occurs in other Volta-Niger languages , including Igbo ,
4785-400: The coda since Native Brazilians could not easily pronounce them ( caipira dialect ). The later Portuguese influence from other regions made those allophones become rarer in some areas, but the mar-mal merger remained in a few isolated villages and towns. Finally, many fluminense registers, especially those of the poor and of the youth, most northern and northeastern dialects, and, to
4872-498: The core beliefs of Hinduism. Some modern Hindu scholars use the "Vedic religion" synonymously with "Hinduism". According to Sundararajan, Hinduism is also known as the Vedic religion. Other authors state that the Vedas contain "the fundamental truths about Hindu Dharma" which is called "the modern version of the ancient Vedic Dharma" The Arya Samaj is recognize the Vedic religion as true Hinduism. Nevertheless, according to Jamison and Witzel ... to call this period Vedic Hinduism
4959-592: The evidence for Marshall's hypothesis to be "terribly robust". Some of the baetyls interpreted by Marshall to be sacred phallic representations are now thought to have been used as pestles or game counters instead, while the ring stones that were thought to symbolise yoni were determined to be architectural features used to stand pillars, although the possibility of their religious symbolism cannot be eliminated. Many Indus Valley seals show animals, with some depicting them being carried in processions, while others show chimeric creations . One seal from Mohen-jodaro shows
5046-500: The figure as a deity, its association with the water buffalo, and its posture as one of ritual discipline, regarding it as a proto-Shiva would be going too far. Despite the criticisms of Marshall's association of the seal with a proto-Shiva icon, it has been interpreted as the Tirthankara Rishabha by Jains and Vilas Sangave or an early Buddha by Buddhists. Historians like Heinrich Zimmer , Thomas McEvilley are of
5133-490: The fire was believed to reach God. Central concepts in the Vedas are Satya and Rta . Satya is derived from Sat , the present participle of the verbal root as , "to be, to exist, to live". Sat means "that which really exists [...] the really existent truth; the Good", and Sat-ya means "is-ness". Rta , "that which is properly joined; order, rule; truth", is the principle of natural order which regulates and coordinates
5220-549: The following: /q/ is debuccalized to /ʔ/ in several Arabic varieties , such as northern Egyptian , Lebanese , western Syrian , and urban Palestinian dialects, partially also in Jordanian Arabic (especially by female speakers). The Maltese language , which was originally an Arabic dialect, also shows this feature. Most English-speakers in England and many speakers of American English debuccalize /t/ to
5307-518: The havana sámagri (herbal preparations) in the fire, accompanied by the singing of Samans and 'mumbling' of Yajus , the sacrificial mantras. The sublime meaning of the word yajna is derived from the Sanskrit verb yaj, which has a three-fold meaning of worship of deities (devapujana), unity (saògatikaraña), and charity (dána). An essential element was the sacrificial fire – the divine Agni – into which oblations were poured, as everything offered into
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#17327754513985394-615: The highest purpose of the Veda". The early Upanishads all predate the Common Era, five of the eleven principal Upanishads were composed in all likelihood before 6th century BCE, and contain the earliest mentions of yoga and moksha . The śramaṇa period between 800 and 200 BCE marks a "turning point between the Vedic Hinduism and Puranic Hinduism". The Shramana movement, an ancient Indian religious movement parallel to but separate from Vedic tradition, often defied many of
5481-529: The history of India, namely the Hindu, Muslim, and British periods. This periodisation has been criticised, for the misconceptions it has given rise to. Another periodisation is the division into "ancient, classical, medieval, and modern periods", although this periodization has also received criticism. Romila Thapar notes that the division of Hindu-Muslim-British periods of Indian history gives too much weight to "ruling dynasties and foreign invasions", neglecting
5568-544: The legendary marriage of Shiva to Queen Mīnātchi who ruled Madurai or Wanji-ko , a god who later merged into Indra . Tolkappiyar refers to the Three Crowned Kings as the "Three Glorified by Heaven". In the Dravidian-speaking South, the concept of divine kingship led to the assumption of major roles by state and temple. Debuccalization Debuccalization or deoralization
5655-506: The loaning of words from smaller western Iranian languages into Persian. Exactly, this debuccalization occurred when not preceded *k , *n , *p , *t or followed *t (which otherwise retained as *s ). This change occurs in all Iranian languages. The Proto-Indo-Iranian aspirated stops *pʰ, *tʰ and *kʰ were spirantized into *f, *θ and *x in most Iranian languages. However, they appear to be retained in Parachi , varieties of Kurdish, and
5742-541: The merged consonants may be debuccalized. For example, in Bavarian , both Anten ('ducks') and Anden ('Andes') are pronounced [ˈɑnʔn̩] . Speakers are often unaware of that. However, Standard German spoken in Luxembourg often lacks syllabic sonorants under the influence of Luxembourgish , so that -en is pronounced [ən] or [əŋ] , rather than [n̩] or [ŋ̍] . In both languages, syllable-final -k
5829-501: The objective. Both Jainism and Buddhism spread throughout India during the period of the Magadha empire. Buddhism flourished during the reign of Ashoka of the Maurya Empire , who patronised Buddhist teachings and unified the Indian subcontinent in the 3rd century BCE. He sent missionaries abroad, allowing Buddhism to spread across Asia. Jainism began its golden period during the reign of Emperor Kharavela of Kalinga in
5916-559: The operation of the universe and everything within it. "Satya (truth as being) and rita (truth as law) are the primary principles of Reality and its manifestation is the background of the canons of dharma, or a life of righteousness." "Satya is the principle of integration rooted in the Absolute, rita is its application and function as the rule and order operating in the universe." Conformity with Ṛta would enable progress whereas its violation would lead to punishment. Panikkar remarks: Ṛta
6003-506: The opinion that there exists some link between first Jain Tirthankara Rishabha and Indus Valley civilisation. Marshall hypothesized the existence of a cult of Mother Goddess worship based upon excavation of several female figurines, and thought that this was a precursor of the Hindu sect of Shaktism . However the function of the female figurines in the life of Indus Valley people remains unclear, and Possehl does not regard
6090-554: The original glottal stop *ʔ of their ancestor Proto-Polynesian , but then debuccalized other consonants into a glottal stop /ʔ/ . This applied to different consonants depending on the language , for example: Older /ɡ/ was spirantized and later debuccalized in languages such as Belarusian , the Czech–Slovak languages , Ukrainian , and Upper Sorbian , e.g. Serbian bog , Russian box , Czech bůh , Ukrainian bih . In some varieties of Scots and Scottish English , particularly on
6177-406: The orthodoxy of the rituals. The shramanas were wandering ascetics distinct from Vedism. Mahavira, proponent of Jainism, and Buddha (c. 563-483), founder of Buddhism were the most prominent icons of this movement. Shramana gave rise to the concept of the cycle of birth and death, the concept of samsara , and the concept of liberation. The influence of Upanishads on Buddhism has been
6264-465: The other Indo-European languages indicate original *l, still show /l/ in several Iranian languages, including New Persian, Kurdish and Zazaki . These include e.g. Persian lab 'lip', līz- 'to lick', gulū 'throat' (compare e.g. Latin gula ); Zazaki lü 'fox' (compare e.g. Latin vulpēs ). This preservation is however not systematic, and likely has been mostly diminished through interdialectal loaning of r -forms, and in some cases extended by
6351-522: The other Iranian languages. Regardless, there are many arguments that many of these Old Iranian features may not have occurred yet in Proto-Iranian, and they may have instead spread across an Old Iranian dialect continuum already separated in dialects (see Wave theory ). Additionally, most Iranian languages cannot be derived from either attested Old Iranian language: numerous unwritten Old Iranian dialects must have existed, whose descendants surface in
6438-443: The phallus ( linga ) and vulva ( yoni ); and, use of baths and water in religious practice. Marshall's interpretations have been much debated, and sometimes disputed over the following decades. One Indus valley seal shows a seated figure with a horned headdress, surrounded by animals. Marshall identified the figure as an early form of the Hindu god Shiva (or Rudra ), who is associated with asceticism, yoga , and linga; regarded as
6525-451: The related concepts of yoga, saṃsāra (the cycle of birth and death) and moksha (liberation from that cycle). The Puranic Period (200 BCE – 500 CE) and Early Medieval period (500–1100 CE) gave rise to new configurations of Hinduism, especially bhakti and Shaivism , Shaktism , Vaishnavism , Smarta , and smaller groups like the conservative Shrauta . The early Islamic period (1100–1500 CE) also gave rise to new movements. Sikhism
6612-692: The royal lineage of Ayodhya. Buddhism emphasises enlightenment (nibbana, nirvana) and liberation from the rounds of rebirth. This objective is pursued through two schools, Theravada, the Way of the Elders (practiced in Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, SE Asia, etc.) and Mahayana, the Greater Way (practiced in Tibet, China, Japan, etc.). There may be some differences in the practice between the two schools in reaching
6699-590: The sequence -aha- ( dahan "mushroom", not *dan ). Polynesian languages commonly reflect debuccalization not only into a glottal stop /ʔ/ , but also into a glottal fricative /h/ . The exact distribution depends on the language : Debuccalization occurs extensively within the dialectal continuum of Yoruboid languages, particularly among the Olukumi language , Igala language , the Northeast Yoruba dialect known as Owe , and Southeastern dialects of
6786-644: The social-economic history which often showed a strong continuity. The division in Ancient-Medieval-Modern overlooks the fact that the Muslim conquests took place between the eight and the fourteenth centuries, while the south was never completely conquered. According to Thapar, a periodisation could also be based on "significant social and economic changes", which are not strictly related to a change of ruling powers. Smart and Michaels seem to follow Mill's periodisation, while Flood and Muesse follow
6873-401: The subcontinent tended to adapt their religious and social life to Brahmanic norms", a process sometimes called Sanskritization . It is reflected in the tendency to identify local deities with the gods of the Sanskrit texts. During the time of the shramanic reform movements "many elements of the Vedic religion were lost". According to Michaels, "it is justified to see a turning point between
6960-529: The ten anthologies Pattuppāṭṭu , the eight anthologies Eṭṭuttokai also sheds light on early religion of ancient Dravidians. Seyon was glorified as the red god seated on the blue peacock, who is ever young and resplendent, as the favored god of the Tamils. Sivan was also seen as the supreme God. Early iconography of Seyyon and Sivan and their association with native flora and fauna goes back to Indus Valley Civilization. The Sangam landscape
7047-658: The time of Ancient Greek , and vowels in hiatus were contracted in the Attic dialect. Before a liquid or nasal, an /h/ was assimilated to the preceding vowel in Attic-Ionic and Doric and to the following nasal in Aeolic . The process is also described as the loss of /h/ and the subsequent lengthening of a vowel or consonant, which kept the syllable the same length ( compensatory lengthening ). In Sanskrit , /s/ becomes [h] (written ḥ in transliteration) before
7134-582: The written record only later. The Proto-Indo-European laryngeal consonants are likely to have been retained quite late in the Indo-Iranian languages in at least some positions. However, the syllabic laryngeal ( *H̥ ) was deleted in non-initial syllables. This change is found widely across the Iranian languages, indeed Indo-Iranian as a whole: it appears also in Vedic Sanskrit . Avestan has no **/l/ phoneme at all. Regardless many words, for which
7221-467: Was called an "awakened one" ( Buddha ), was born into the Shakya clan living at Kapilavastu and Lumbini in what is now southern Nepal. The Buddha was born at Lumbini, as emperor Ashoka 's Lumbini pillar records, just before the kingdom of Magadha (which traditionally is said to have lasted from c. 546–324 BCE) rose to power. The Shakyas claimed Angirasa and Gautama Maharishi lineage, via descent from
7308-704: Was classified into five categories, thinais , based on the mood, the season and the land. Tolkappiyam, mentions that each of these thinai had an associated deity such Seyyon in Kurinji -the hills, Thirumaal in Mullai -the forests, and Kotravai in Marutham -the plains, and Wanji-ko in the Neithal -the coasts and the seas. Other gods mentioned were Mayyon and Vaali who were all assimilated into Hinduism over time. Dravidian linguistic influence on early Vedic religion
7395-527: Was established by a lineage of 24 enlightened beings culminating with Parshvanatha (9th century BCE) and Mahavira (6th century BCE). The 24th Tirthankara of Jainism, Mahavira, stressed five vows, including ahimsa (non-violence), satya (truthfulness), asteya (non-stealing), and aparigraha (non-attachment). As per Jain tradition, the teachings of the Tirthankaras predates all known time. The scholars believe Parshva , accorded status as
7482-582: Was founded in the 15th century on the teachings of Guru Nanak and the nine successive Sikh Gurus in Northern India . The vast majority of its adherents originate in the Punjab region . During the period of British rule in India , a reinterpretation and synthesis of Hinduism arose, which aided the Indian independence movement . Scottish historian James Mill , in his seminal work The History of British India (1817), distinguished three phases in
7569-496: Was not a protector of wild animals. Herbert Sullivan and Alf Hiltebeitel also rejected Marshall's conclusions, with the former claiming that the figure was female, while the latter associated the figure with Mahisha , the Buffalo God and the surrounding animals with vahanas (vehicles) of deities for the four cardinal directions. Writing in 2002, Gregory L. Possehl concluded that while it would be appropriate to recognise
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