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76-473: Although the current Sámi languages are spoken much further to the north and west, Proto-Sámi was likely spoken in the area of modern-day Southwestern Finland around the first few centuries CE. Local (in Sápmi ) ancestors of the modern Sámi people likely still spoke non-Uralic, "Paleoeuropean" languages at this point (see Pre-Finno-Ugric substrate ). This situation can be traced in placenames as well as through

152-434: A trochaic pattern of alternating secondarily-stressed and unstressed syllables. Odd-numbered syllables (counting from the start) were stressed, while even-numbered syllables were unstressed. The last syllable of a word was never stressed. Thus, a word could end in either a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable (if the last syllable was even-numbered) or a stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables (if

228-576: A "saltatory" pattern, as the Neolithic advanced from one patch of fertile alluvial soil to another, bypassing mountainous areas. Analysis of radiocarbon dates show clearly that Mesolithic and Neolithic populations lived side by side for as much as a millennium in many parts of Europe, especially in the Iberian peninsula and along the Atlantic coast. Investigation of the Neolithic skeletons found in

304-653: A Uralic language less than 2,500 years ago. Some traces of indigenous languages of the Baltic area have been suspected in the Finnic languages as well, but these are much more modest. There are early loanwords from unidentified non-IE languages in other Uralic languages of Europe as well. Guus Kroonen brought up the so-called "Agricultural Substrate Hypothesis", based on the comparison of presumable Pre-Germanic and Pre-Greek substrate lexicon (especially agricultural terms without clear IE etymologies). Kroonen links that substrate to

380-439: A category used to group together nouns and adjectives based on shared properties. The motivation for nominal grouping is that in many languages nouns and adjectives share a number of morphological and syntactic properties. The systems used in such languages to show agreement can be classified broadly as gender systems, noun class systems or case marking , classifier systems, and mixed systems. Typically an affix related to

456-590: A combination of several root words, each word retained the stress pattern that it had in isolation, so that that stress remained lexically significant (i.e. could theoretically distinguish compounds from non-compounds). The first syllable of the first part of a compound had the strongest stress, with progressively weaker secondary stress for the first syllables of the remaining parts. Nominals , i.e. nouns , adjectives , numerals and pronouns were systematically inflected for two numbers and ten cases . The personal pronouns and possessive suffixes also distinguished

532-423: A few exceptions in the plural. Gender is reflected on both the noun and the adjective or pronoun. Gendered nominals are clearly reflected in anaphors and relative pronouns because even if there is no explicit inflection upon the nouns they inherit animacy, gender and number from their antecedent . Affixes identifying one gender Affixes linked with two genders Russian has two numbers: singular and plural. Number

608-402: A lack of pre-stopping of geminate nasals, a lack of *ś -vocalization, and a reflex /e/ of *ë in certain positions. These likely indicate an earlier Eastern Sámi substratum . In the history of Proto-Sámi, some sound changes were triggered or prevented by the nature of the vowel in the next syllable. Such changes continued to occur in the modern Sámi languages, but differently in each. Due to

684-616: A linear relationship between the age of an Early Neolithic site and its distance from the conventional source in the Near East ( Jericho ), thus demonstrating that the Neolithic spread at an average speed of about 1 km/yr. More recent studies confirm these results and yield a speed of 0.6–1.3 km/yr at a 95% confidence level. Regardless of specific chronology, many European Neolithic groups share basic characteristics, such as living in small-scale, family-based communities, subsisting on domesticated plants and animals supplemented with

760-415: A mobile stress accent, and reduction of unstressed vowels. Some Neolithic cultures listed above are known for constructing megaliths . These occur primarily on the Atlantic coast of Europe, but there are also megaliths on western Mediterranean islands. [REDACTED] Media related to Neolithic Europe at Wikimedia Commons Nominal (linguistics) In linguistics , the term nominal refers to

836-679: A number of mainland sites in Thessaly . Neolithic groups appear soon afterwards in the rest of Southeast Europe and south-central Europe. The Neolithic cultures of Southeast Europe (including the Aegean ) show some continuity with groups in southwest Asia and Anatolia (e.g., Çatalhöyük ). In 2018, an 8,000-year-old ceramic figurine portraying the head of the "Mother Goddess", was found near Uzunovo, Vidin Province in Bulgaria, which pushes back

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912-524: A place of great linguistic diversity, with many language families with no recoverable linguistic links to each other, much like western North America prior to European colonisation. Discussion of hypothetical languages spoken in the European Neolithic is divided into two topics, Indo-European languages and "Pre-Indo-European" languages. Early Indo-European languages are usually assumed to have reached Danubian (and maybe Central) Europe in

988-505: A pre-Sámi ancestry is assured, or whose distribution across the Sámi languages reaches at least from Lule Sámi to Skolt Sámi. Later work has increased the number of reconstructed words to 3421. Within this sample, loanwords from the Finnic and North Germanic languages already constitute major subsets of the language with 24% of the 3421 root words coming from North Germanic. One oddity is that

1064-555: A syntactic level because nouns and adjectives take the same complements at the head level. Likewise, verbs and prepositions take the same kinds of complements at the head level. This parallel distribution is predicted by the feature distribution of lexical items. In Russian , the nominal category contains nouns , pronouns , adjectives and numerals. These categories share features of case, gender, and number each of which are inflected with different suffixes . Nominals are seen as secondary inflection of agreement. Understanding

1140-543: A system consisting of *i *e *ä *a *o *u in the first syllable in Pre-Sámi, and probably at least long *ī *ē *ū . In unstressed syllables, only *i *a *o were distinguished. The source of *o is unclear, although it is frequently also found in Finnic. The table below shows the main correspondences: The processes that added up to this shift can be outlined as follows: At this point, the vowel system consisted of only two short vowels *ɪ *ʊ in initial syllables, alongside

1216-534: Is called the Neolithic Expansion . The duration of the Neolithic varies from place to place, its end marked by the introduction of bronze tools: in southeast Europe it is approximately 4,000 years (i.e. 7000 BC–3000 BC) while in parts of Northwest Europe it is just under 3,000 years ( c.  4500 BC –1700 BC). In parts of Europe, notably the Balkans, the period after c.  5000 BC

1292-405: Is inherent to the noun so it is reflected by inflection on the noun and the agreeing nominals such as attributive adjectives, predicates and relative pronouns. There is only alteration of singular and plural between semantic classes 2–5 because class 1 does not distinguish between one or more than one. Adjectives Adjectives agree with gender, case and number markings and consequently agree with

1368-563: Is known as the Chalcolithic (Copper Age) due to the invention of copper smelting and the prevalence of copper tools, weapons and other artifacts. The spread of the Neolithic from the Pre-Pottery Neolithic in the Near East to Europe was first studied quantitatively in the 1970s, when a sufficient number of C age determinations for early Neolithic sites had become available. Ammerman and Cavalli-Sforza discovered

1444-442: Is likely that this part of the case system was still partially in development during the late Proto-Sámi period, and developed in subtly different ways in the various descendants. In most Sámi languages, the case system has been simplified: The following non-finite forms were also present: The vocabulary reconstructible for Proto-Sámi has been catalogued by Lehtiranta (1989), who records approximately 1500 word roots for which either

1520-498: Is mostly faithfully retained from Proto-Uralic, and is considerably smaller than what is typically found in modern Sámi languages. There were 16 contrastive consonants, most of which could however occur both short and geminate : Stop and affricate consonants were split in three main allophones with respect to phonation : The spirant *δ also had two allophones, voiceless [θ] occurring word-initially and syllable-finally, and voiced [ð] elsewhere. A detailed system of allophony

1596-608: Is possible Western Sámi entered Scandinavia across Kvarken rather than via land. Concurrently, Finnic languages that would eventually end up becoming modern-day Finnish and Karelian were being adopted in the southern end of the Proto-Sámi area, likely in connection with the introduction of agriculture, a process that continued until the 19th century, leading to the extirpation of original Sámi languages in Karelia and all but northernmost Finland. The Proto-Sámi consonant inventory

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1672-410: Is possible that these are archaisms , and shortening and lowering occurred only after the initial division of Proto-Sámi into dialects. The effects of the vowel shift can be illustrated by the following comparison between Northern Sámi, and Finnish , known for retaining vowel values very close to Proto-Uralic. All word pairs correspond to each other regularly: The main division among the Sámi languages

1748-423: Is reconstructible, known as consonant gradation . Gradation applied to all intervocalic single consonants as well as all consonant clusters. This is unlike gradation in the related Proto-Finnic and its descendants , where it applied only to a subset. The conditioning factor was the same, however: the weak grade occurred if the following syllable was closed , the strong grade if it was open . This difference

1824-418: Is the best candidate for a descendant of such a language, but since Basque is a language isolate , there is no comparative evidence to build upon. Theo Vennemann nevertheless postulates a " Vasconic " family, which he supposes had co-existed with an "Atlantic" or "Semitidic" (i. e., para- Semitic ) group. Another candidate is a Tyrrhenian family which would have given rise to Etruscan and Raetic in

1900-753: Is the split between eastern and western Sámi. Changes that appear across the Eastern-Western divide are: Innovations common to the Western Sámi languages: The Southern West Sámi languages consist of Southern Sámi and Ume Sámi , and have a number of further innovations: The Northern West Sámi languages consist of Pite Sámi , Lule Sámi and Northern Sámi. They have one important common innovation: Pite Sámi and Lule Sámi form their own smaller subgroup of shared innovations, which might be termed Northwestern West Sámi: Northern Sámi by itself has its own unique changes: The Eastern Sámi languages have

1976-589: The Chalcolithic or early Bronze Age , e.g. with the Corded Ware or Beaker cultures (see also Kurgan hypothesis for related discussions). The Anatolian hypothesis postulates arrival of Indo-European languages with the early Neolithic. Old European hydronymy is taken by Hans Krahe to be the oldest reflection of the early presence of Indo-European in Europe. Theories of "Pre-Indo-European" languages in Europe are built on scant evidence. The Basque language

2052-497: The Pontic–Caspian steppe . These invasions led to EEF paternal DNA lineages in Europe being almost entirely replaced with WSH paternal DNA (mainly R1b and R1a ). EEF mtDNA however remained frequent, suggesting admixture between WSH males and EEF females. There is no direct evidence of the languages spoken in the Neolithic. Some proponents of paleolinguistics attempt to extend the methods of historical linguistics to

2128-581: The Talheim Death Pit suggests that prehistoric men from neighboring tribes were prepared to fight and kill each other in order to capture and secure women . The mass grave at Talheim in southern Germany is one of the earliest known sites in the archaeological record that shows evidence of organised violence in Early Neolithic Europe, among various Linear Pottery culture tribes. The archaeological site of Herxheim contained

2204-526: The city-states of Sumer in the Fertile Crescent , and these Eastern European settlements predate the Sumerian cities by more than half of a millennium. With some exceptions, population levels rose rapidly at the beginning of the Neolithic until they reached the carrying capacity . This was followed by a population crash of "enormous magnitude" after 5000 BC, with levels remaining low during

2280-399: The dual number. The cases included the core cases nominative , accusative and genitive ; the local cases inessive , elative , illative ; as well as essive , partitive , comitative and abessive . The case system shows some parallel developments with the Finnic languages. Like Finnic, the original Uralic locative *-na was repurposed as an essive, the ablative case *-ta became

2356-540: The wild dog. The earliest study of noun classes was conducted in 1659 on Bantu languages , and this study has to this day undergone only very minor modifications. These alterations began with Wilhelm Bleek 's Ancient Bantu which led to Proto-Bantu . The following example is from the Bantu language Ganda . For nominal classes in Bantu, see below . mú-límí 1 -farmer mú-néné 1 -fat   mú-límí mú-néné 1-farmer 1-fat Although much of

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2432-583: The 2010s have identified the genetic contribution of Neolithic farmers to modern European populations, providing quantitative results relevant to the long-standing "replacement model" vs. "demic diffusion" dispute in archaeology. The earlier population of Europe were the Mesolithic hunter-gatherers, called the " Western Hunter-Gatherers " (WHG). Along with the Scandinavian Hunter-Gatherers (SHG) and Eastern Hunter-Gatherers (EHG),

2508-643: The 5th to 4th millennia BC (rather than a single admixture event on initial contact). Admixture rates varied geographically; in the late Neolithic, WHG ancestry in farmers in Hungary was at around 10%, in Germany around 25% and in Iberia as high as 50%. During late Neolithic and early Bronze Age , the EEF-derived cultures of Europe were overwhelmed by successive invasions of Western Steppe Herders (WSHs) from

2584-700: The Iron Age, and possibly also Aegean languages such as Minoan or Pelasgian in the Bronze Age. In the north, a similar scenario to Indo-European is thought to have occurred with Uralic languages expanding in from the east. In particular, while the Sami languages of the indigenous Sami people belong in the Uralic family, they show considerable substrate influence, thought to represent one or more extinct original languages. The Sami are estimated to have adopted

2660-403: The Neolithic period, with a gradually increasing ratio of WHG ancestry of farming populations over time. This suggests that after the initial expansion of early farmers, there were no further long-range migrations substantial enough to homogenize the farming population, and that farming and hunter-gatherer populations existed side by side for many centuries, with ongoing gradual admixture throughout

2736-938: The Neolithic revolution to 7th millennium BC. Current evidence suggests that Neolithic material culture was introduced to Europe via western Anatolia, and that similarities in cultures of North Africa and the Pontic steppes are due to diffusion out of Europe. All Neolithic sites in Europe contain ceramics , and contain the plants and animals domesticated in Southwest Asia: einkorn , emmer , barley , lentils , pigs , goats , sheep , and cattle . Genetic data suggest that no independent domestication of animals took place in Neolithic Europe, and that all domesticated animals were originally domesticated in Southwest Asia. The only domesticate not from Southwest Asia

2812-590: The Pontic-Caspian steppe during the succeeding Bronze Age . Archeologists trace the emergence of food-producing societies in the Levantine region of southwest Asia to the close of the last glacial period around 12,000 BC, and these developed into a number of regionally distinctive cultures by the eighth millennium BC. Remains of food-producing societies in the Aegean have been carbon-dated to c.  6500 BCE at Knossos , Franchthi Cave , and

2888-533: The Proto-Germanic lexicon. According to Aljoša Šorgo, there are at least 36 Proto-Germanic lexical items very likely originating from the "agricultural" substrate language (or a group of closely related languages). It is proposed by Šorgo that the Agricultural substrate was characterized by a four-vowel system of */æ/ */ɑ/ */i/ */u/, the presence of pre-nasalized stops, the absence of a semi-vowel */j/,

2964-525: The Stone Age, but this has little academic support. Criticising scenarios which envision for the Neolithic only a small number of language families spread over huge areas of Europe (as in modern times), Donald Ringe has argued on general principles of language geography (as concerns "tribal", pre-state societies), and the scant remains of (apparently indigenous) non-Indo-European languages attested in ancient inscriptions, that Neolithic Europe must have been

3040-661: The WHGs constituted one of the three main genetic groups in the postglacial period of early Holocene Europe. Later, the Neolithic farmers expanded from the Aegean and Near East; in various studies, they are described as the Early European Farmers (EEF); Aegean Neolithic Farmers (ANF), First European Farmers (FEF), or also as the Early Neolithic Farmers (ENF). A seminal 2014 study first identified

3116-465: The analysis of loanwords from Germanic, Baltic and Finnic. Evidence also can be found for the existence of language varieties closely related to but likely distinct from Sámi proper having been spoken further east, with a limit around Lake Beloye . Separation of the main branches (West Sámi and East Sámi) is also likely to have occurred in southern Finland, with these later independently spreading north into Sápmi. The exact routes of this are not clear: it

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3192-656: The associated population of Early European Farmers in Europe , c.  7000 BC (the approximate time of the first farming societies in Greece ) until c.  2000 –1700 BC (the beginning of Bronze Age Europe with the Nordic Bronze Age ). The Neolithic overlaps the Mesolithic and Bronze Age periods in Europe as cultural changes moved from the southeast to northwest at about 1 km/year – this

3268-444: The class of the noun can be seen overtly. Within the study of European languages, recognition of the nominal grouping is reflected in traditional grammar studies based on Latin , which has a highly productive marking system. Nominals can be seen in the shared morphemes that attach to the ends of nouns and adjectives and agree in case and gender. In the example below, 'son' and 'good' agree in nominative case because they are

3344-682: The closed-mid vowel only occurred before following *ɪ , the open-mid vowel only before following *ā , *ō . Further changes then shifted the sound values of the unstressed syllables that had conditioned the above shift: Lastly, a number of unconditional shifts adjusted the sound values of the vowel phonemes. To what extent the two last changes should be dated to Proto-Sámi proper is unclear. Although all Sámi languages show these changes in at least some words, in Southern Sámi and Ume Sámi earlier *ī , *ɪ , *ʊ , *ū are regularly reflected as ij , i , u , uv in stressed open syllables . It

3420-724: The collection of wild plant foods and with hunting, and producing hand-made pottery, that is, pottery made without the potter's wheel . Polished stone axes lie at the heart of the neolithic (new stone) culture, enabling forest clearance for agriculture and production of wood for dwellings, as well as fuel. There are also many differences, with some Neolithic communities in southeastern Europe living in heavily fortified settlements of 3,000–4,000 people (e.g., Sesklo in Greece) whereas Neolithic groups in Britain were small (possibly 50–100 people) and highly mobile cattle-herders. The details of

3496-406: The consonant(s): s  : s̯ , č  : č̯ , tt  : t̯t̯ , lk  : l̯k̯ . After the phonematization of gradation due to loss of word-final sounds, Sámi varieties could be left with as many as four different contrastive degrees of consonant length. This has only been attested in some dialects of Ume Sámi . Most other Sámi varieties phonemically merged the weak grade of geminates with

3572-473: The contribution of three main components to modern European lineages (the third being " Ancient North Eurasians ", associated with the later Indo-European expansion ). The EEF component was identified based on the genome of a woman buried c. 7,000 years ago in a Linear Pottery culture grave in Stuttgart , Germany. This 2014 study found evidence for genetic mixing between WHG and EEF throughout Europe, with

3648-524: The different noun classes and how they relate to gender and number is important because the agreement of adjectives will change depending on the type of noun. Example of nominal predicate: Although there is not complete agreement about the categorization of noun classes in Russian, a common view breaks the noun classes up into five categories or classes, each of which gets different affixes depending on gender, case and number. Declensional class refers to

3724-532: The earlier population of the Western Hunter-Gatherers . Instead, there was a substantial population replacement. The diffusion of these farmers across Europe, from the Aegean to Britain, took about 2,500 years (6500–4000 BC). The Baltic region was penetrated a bit later, c.  3500 BCE , and there was also a delay in settling the Pannonian plain . In general, colonization shows

3800-414: The early Finnic sound *š with Sámi *ś . Likely contemporary to these were the oldest loanwords adapted from extinct Paleo-European substrate languages during the northwestward expansion of Pre-Sámi. Prime suspects for words of this origin include replacements of Uralic core vocabulary, or words that display consonant clusters that cannot derive from either PU or any known Indo-European source. A number of

3876-402: The feature "plus verb" and "minus noun" would be verbs . Following from this, when a word has both characteristics of nouns and verbs we get adjectives. When a word lacks either feature, one logically gets prepositions. The following tree demonstrates that the category [+N] groups together nouns and adjectives. This suggests English illustrates characteristics of nominals at

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3952-452: The following innovations: The Mainland East Sámi languages, Inari Sámi , Skolt Sámi and Akkala Sámi , share further innovations: Skolt and Akkala Sámi moreover share: Peninsular East (Kola) Sámi, consisting of Kildin Sámi and Ter Sámi , share: Reflexes in parentheses are retentions found in certain subdialects. In particular, in the coastal dialects of North Sámi (known as Sea Sámi), several archaisms have been attested, including

4028-479: The form of distinct inflectional classes, with words with a stressed second-last syllable following the so-called "even" or "two-syllable" inflection, and words with an unstressed second-last syllable following the "odd" or "three-syllable" inflection. Weakening and simplification of non-final consonants after unstressed syllables contributed further to the alternation, leading to differences that are sometimes quite striking. For example: In compounds, which consisted of

4104-410: The form rather than semantics. Nouns and adjectives inflect for case and gender. In Russian, nominals occur when: Cases Gender and class Russian has three grammatical genders: masculine, feminine and neuter. Gender and class are closely related in that the noun class will reflect the gender marking a nominal will get. Reflecting gender in Russian is usually restricted to the singular with

4180-488: The full complement of long vowels *ī *ē *ǟ *ā *ō *ū . In non-initial syllables, the vowels were *ɪ *ā *ō . After this, several metaphonic changes then occurred that rearranged the distribution of long vowels in stressed syllables. Sammallahti (1998 :182–183) suggests the following four phases: The inventory of long vowels in stressed syllables now featured seven members: *ī *ē *ɛ̄ *ā *ɔ̄ *ō *ū . However, in native vocabulary *ē *ɛ̄ remained in complementary distribution:

4256-524: The gradual spread of agriculture in Neolithic Europe from Anatolia and the Balkans, and associates the Pre-Germanic agricultural substrate language with the Linear Pottery culture . The prefix *a- and the suffix *-it- are the most apparent linguistic markers by which a small group of "Agricultural" substrate words - i.e. *arwīt ("pea") or *gait ("goat") - can be isolated from the rest of

4332-680: The largest contribution of EEF in Mediterranean Europe (especially in Sardinia, Sicily, Malta and among Ashkenazi Jews), and the largest contribution of WHG in Northern Europe and among Basque people. Nevertheless, DNA studies show that when the Neolithic farmers arrived in Britain, these two groups did not seem to mix much. Instead, there was a substantial population replacement. Since 2014, further studies have refined

4408-445: The last syllable was odd-numbered). This gave the following pattern, which could be extended indefinitely (P = primary stress, S = secondary stress, _ = no stress): Because the four diphthongs could only occur in stressed syllables, and consonant gradation only occurred after a stressed syllable, this stress pattern led to alternations between vowels in different forms of the same word. These alternations survive in many Sámi languages in

4484-504: The later type can be found in the Finnic languages as well. Examples: Later consonant changes mostly involved the genesis of the consonant gradation system, but also the simplification of various consonant clusters, chiefly in loanwords. A fairly late but major development within Sámi was a complete upheaval of the vowel system, which has been compared in scope to the Great Vowel Shift of English. The previous changes left

4560-898: The next 1,500 years. The oldest golden artifacts in the world (4600 BC - 4200 BC) are found in the Varna Necropolis , Bulgaria - grave offerings on exposition in Varna Archaeological Museum Populations began to rise after 3500 BC, with further dips and rises occurring between 3000 and 2500 BC but varying in date between regions. Around this time is the Neolithic decline , when populations collapsed across most of Europe, possibly caused by climatic conditions, plague, or mass migration. A study of twelve European regions found most experienced boom and bust patterns and suggested an "endogenous, not climatic cause". Recent archaeological evidence suggests

4636-460: The noun appears attached to the other parts of speech within a sentence to create agreement. Such morphological agreement usually occurs in parts within the noun phrase , such as determiners and adjectives. Languages with overt nominal agreement vary in how and to what extent agreement is required. The history of research on nominals dates back to European studies on Latin and Bantu in which agreement between nouns and adjectives according to

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4712-401: The noun class. Short form basic inflectional pattern Nominals are a common feature of Indigenous Australian languages , many of which do not categorically differentiate nouns from adjectives. Some features of nominals in some Australian languages include: An example paradigm is given below, adapted from . One can see that each of the nominal morphemes in each class attaches to both

4788-660: The origin, chronology, social organization, subsistence practices and ideology of the peoples of Neolithic Europe are obtained from archaeology , and not historical records, since these people left none. Since the 1970s, population genetics has provided independent data on the population history of Neolithic Europe, including migration events and genetic relationships with peoples in South Asia . A further independent tool, linguistics , has contributed hypothetical reconstructions of early European languages and family trees with estimates of dating of splits, in particular theories on

4864-407: The partitive, and new locative cases were formed from these by infixing *-s- . Sámi lacks any equivalent to the Finnic "external" cases beginning with *-l- , however. Moreover, the earliest stages of Sámic appear to have used these cases only in the singular, as several of the singular cases do not have a formational counterpart in the plural: Given the discrepancies in the plural locative cases, it

4940-487: The picture of interbreeding between EEF and WHG. In a 2017 analysis of 180 ancient DNA datasets of the Chalcolithic and Neolithic periods from Hungary, Germany and Spain, evidence was found of a prolonged period of interbreeding. Admixture took place regionally, from local hunter-gatherer populations, so that populations from the three regions (Germany, Iberia and Hungary) were genetically distinguishable at all stages of

5016-510: The plurality of words, 35 percent are of uncertain origin, likely from a theorized group of languages called Proto-Laplandic . Words describing natural elements such as reindeer or snow tend to be from of unknown origin but those for more modern things such as tools contain larger Germanic influence. This approximate point of Pre-Sámi marks the introduction of the oldest Western Indo-European loanwords from Baltic and Germanic. Loans were also acquired from its southern relative Finnic, substituting

5092-498: The possibility of plague causing this population collapse, as mass graves dating from c.  2900 BCE were discovered containing fragments of Yersinia pestis genetic material consistent with pneumonic plague . The Chalcolithic Age in Europe started from about 3500 BC, followed soon after by the European Bronze Age . This also became a period of increased megalithic construction. From 3500 BC, copper

5168-461: The relationship between speakers of Indo-European languages and Neolithic peoples. Some archaeologists believe that the expansion of Neolithic peoples from southwest Asia into Europe, marking the eclipse of Mesolithic culture, coincided with the introduction of Indo-European speakers, whereas other archaeologists and many linguists believe the Indo-European languages were introduced from

5244-459: The research on nominals focuses on their morphological and semantic properties, syntactically nominals can be considered a "super category" which subsumes noun heads and adjective heads. This explains why languages that take overt agreement features have agreement in adjectives and nouns . In Chomsky's 1970 [±V, ±N] analysis, words with the feature "plus noun " that are not verbs "minus verb ", are predicted to be nouns , while words with

5320-516: The scattered remains of more than 1000 individuals from different, in some cases faraway regions, who died around 5000 BC. Whether they were war captives or human sacrifices is unclear, but the evidence indicates that their corpses were spit-roasted whole and then consumed. In terms of overall size, some settlements of the Cucuteni–Trypillia culture , such as Talianki (with a population of around 15,000) in western Ukraine, were as large as

5396-407: The similarity with Germanic umlaut , these phenomena are termed "umlaut" as well. The following gives a comparative overview of each possible Proto-Sámi vowel in the first syllable, with the outcomes that are found in each language for each second-syllable vowel. Neolithic Europe#Language The European Neolithic is the period from the arrival of Neolithic (New Stone Age) technology and

5472-438: The strong grade of single consonants, leaving only three lengths. In some Sámi languages, other sound developments have left only two or three degrees occurring elsewhere. An asymmetric system of four short and five long vowel segments can be reconstructed. Stress was not phonemic in Proto-Sámi. The first syllable of a word invariably received primary stress. Non-initial syllables of a word received secondary stress, according to

5548-538: The subject of the sentence and at the same time they agree in gender because the ending is masculine. Likewise, 'the dog' and 'wild' share the same morphemes that show they agree in accusative case and masculine gender. In Latin agreement goes beyond nouns and adjectives . fīlius [The] son bonus good amat [he] loves canem [the] dog. ACC ferocem . wild. ACC fīlius bonus amat canem ferocem . {[The] son} good {[he] loves} {[the] dog.ACC} wild.ACC The good son loves

5624-716: Was broomcorn millet , domesticated in East Asia. The earliest evidence of cheese -making dates to 5500 BC in Kuyavia , Poland . Archaeologists agreed for some time that the culture of the early Neolithic is relatively homogeneous, compared to the late Mesolithic. DNA studies tend to confirm this, indicating that agriculture was brought to Western Europe by the Aegean populations, that are known as 'the Aegean Neolithic farmers'. When these farmers arrived in Britain, DNA studies show that they did not seem to mix much with

5700-544: Was being used in the Balkans and eastern and central Europe. Also, the domestication of the horse took place during that time, resulting in the increased mobility of cultures. Nearing the close of the Neolithic, c.  2500 BC , large numbers of Eurasian steppe peoples migrated in Southeast and Central from eastern Europe, from the Pontic–Caspian steppe north of the Black Sea . Genetic studies since

5776-408: Was originally probably realized as length : Gradation only applied after a stressed syllable; after an unstressed syllable all medial consonants appeared in the weak grade. In sources on Proto-Sámi reconstruction, gradation is often assumed but not indicated graphically. In this article, when it is relevant and necessary to show the distinction, the weak grade is denoted with an inverted breve below

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