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30-632: The use of the title protector in the sense of a 'bodyguard of a Great Man' long preceded the appointment of Volusianus. In addition, the title was not only bestowed by Emperors. However, it does seem to be the case that Gallienus was the originator of the Protectores Augusti Nostri . It seems that, when it was first bestowed, it was a title of honour and not a functional one carrying authority. It seems to have been granted to officers who had distinguished themselves serving directly under Gallienus in his wars against barbarian invaders of

60-541: A prerequisite of admission to the body. These were men noticed by the Emperor and likely received accelerated promotion in his service. The purpose of the protectores at this time seems to have been two-fold: (i) to encourage a personal loyalty to the Augusti (particularly Gallienus: there is no reason to suppose that Valerian had any real interest in this innovation) among the most energetic and charismatic officers of

90-413: Is known it was never bestowed on any officer of senatorial rank – senators were effectively excluded from service in the army soon after the first protectores appeared. Toward the end of Gallienus's reign centurions too were given this title. By this time it was used exclusively to distinguish officers who had served in units associated with Gallienus's imperial field army, the comitatus Collectively,

120-549: The Crisis of the Third Century , and the barbarian colonies, at least in the short term, helped to restore frontier defense and the practice of agriculture. The army discipline which Aurelian had repaired was cultivated and extended under Probus, who was however more shy in the practice of cruelty. One of his principles was never to allow the soldiers to be idle, and to employ them in time of peace on useful works, such as

150-525: The Historia Augusta gives him Valerius and Malalas Aelius. Probus entered the army around 25 upon reaching adulthood. He rose rapidly through the ranks, repeatedly earning high military decorations. Appointed at a very young age as a military tribune by the emperor Valerian , in recognition of his latent ability, he justified the choice by a distinguished victory over the Sarmatians on

180-827: The Illyrian frontier. During the chaotic years of the reign of Valerian, Illyria was the only province, generaled by such officers as Claudius , Aurelian and Probus, where the barbarians were kept at bay, while Gaul was overrun by the Franks , Rhaetia by the Alemans , Thrace and the Mediterranean by the Goths , and the east by Shapur I . Probus became amongst the highest placed lieutenants of Aurelian, reconquering Egypt from Zenobia in 273 A.D. Emperor Tacitus , upon his accession in 275, appointed Probus supreme chief of

210-588: The Nile , where the production of grain for the Empire was centered. In 280–281, Probus put down three usurpers, Julius Saturninus , Proculus and Bonosus . The extent of these revolts is not clear, but there are clues that they were not just local problems (an inscription with the name of Probus erased has been found as far as Spain). Following this, Probus then put down a revolt by an unnamed rebel in Britain with

240-585: The Praetorian Guard Marcus Aurelius Carus had been proclaimed, more or less unwillingly, emperor by his troops. Probus sent some troops against the new usurper, but when those troops changed sides and supported Carus, Probus' remaining soldiers assassinated him at Sirmium (September/October 282). According to other sources, however, Probus was killed by disgruntled soldiers, who rebelled against his orders to be employed for civic purposes, like draining marshes. Allegedly,

270-544: The Praetorian Prefect Aper whose power-base was the Praetorian Guard . However, membership of the corps still seems to have continued to be reserved for young soldiers marked out for rapid promotion. Constantine I was probably a member at the court of Galerius and Ammianus Marcellinus got his first step on the ladder of promotion in this capacity. Thus by that time it had acquired some of

300-626: The Balkan and German provinces and Italy and would-be usurpers in those regions such as Ingenuus . The officers who were granted the title were therefore effectively marked out for accelerated promotion under his patronage. It would soon prove useful as another means of distinction within a new, more equestrian, military structure. The first recipients were Tribunes of the Praetorian Cohorts – such as Volusianus – and equestrian commanders of legions such as Publius Aelius Aelianus . So far as

330-501: The Emperor. Ingenuus died after the battle by drowning himself in a nearby river to avoid capture. Probus (emperor) Marcus Aurelius Probus ( / ˈ p r oʊ b ə s / ; 230–235 – September 282) was Roman emperor from 276 to 282. Probus was an active and successful general as well as a conscientious administrator, and in his reign of six years he secured prosperity for the inner provinces while withstanding repeated invasions of barbarian tribes on almost every sector of

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360-700: The Goths came to respect his ability and implored a treaty with the empire. In 278, Probus campaigned successfully in Gaul against the Alemanni and Longiones ; both tribes had advanced through the Neckar valley and across the Rhine into Roman territory. Meanwhile, his generals defeated the Franks and these operations were directed to clearing Gaul of Germanic invaders (Franks and Burgundians ), allowing Probus to adopt

390-511: The Imperial Field Army and thus combat the spirit of military dissent that was tearing the Empire apart at this time; (ii) to promote ambition among the officer cadres of provincial garrisons, which would serve the same purpose. After the death of Gallienus the protectores seem to have evolved into a military unit. The future Emperor Diocletian made his successful bid for emperor in 284 AD as commander of this body, challenging

420-542: The Rhine and Danube rivers, protecting the Agri Decumates , and exacted from the vanquished a tribute of manpower to resettle depopulated provinces within the empire and provide for adequate defense of the frontiers. Despite his widespread popularity, Probus was killed in a mutiny of the soldiers while in the middle of preparations for the Persian war, which would be carried out under his successor Carus . Probus

450-653: The Senate's confirmation of his title, the latter's successor Diocletian (Imp. 284–305) took active measures to undermine its authority, and established the autocratic nature and divine derivation of the Imperial power. Never again, after Diocletian's reforms, would the Roman Senate play an active role in the management of the empire. On the military sphere, Probus' victories continued the succession of martial Illyrian emperors begun by Claudius Gothicus , which restored

480-456: The ancient fortifications erected by Hadrian in the vulnerable space between the Rhine and Danube , in the territory of Swabia . More significantly, Probus, by forcing from the vanquished tribes a tribute of manpower, established the precedent of settling barbarians within the empire as auxiliaries on a large scale. The provinces were depopulated by war, disease and the chaotic administration, heavy taxation, and extensive army recruitment, during

510-523: The assistance of a certain Victorinus, who was later made consul in 282. During the winter of 281, the emperor was in Rome, where he celebrated a triumph . Probus was eager to start his eastern campaign, delayed by the revolts in the west. He left Rome in 282, travelling first towards Sirmium, his birth city. Different accounts of Probus's death exist. According to Joannes Zonaras , the commander of

540-901: The characteristics of an Imperial staff college. Southern, Pat (2001). The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine . London: Routledge. Ingenuus Year of the Six Emperors   (238) Reign of Gordian III   (238–244) Reign of Philip the Arab   (244–249) Reign of Decius   (249–251) Reign of Trebonianus Gallus   (251–253) Reign of Aemilianus   (253) Reign of Valerian and Gallienus   (253–260) Reign of Gallienus   (260–268) Reign of Claudius Gothicus   (268–270) Reign of Aurelian   (270–275) Reign of Tacitus   (275-276) Reign of Probus   (276-282) Reign of Carus   (282-283) Reign of Carinus   (283-285) Ingenuus

570-551: The east, granting him extraordinary powers in order to secure a dangerous frontier. Though the details are not specified, he is said to have fought with success on almost every frontier of the empire, before his election as emperor by the troops upon Tacitus' death in 276, in his camp in Asia Minor . Florian , the half-brother of Tacitus, also proclaimed himself emperor, and took control of Tacitus' army in Asia Minor, but

600-421: The first protectores might be more properly defined as a collegio (i.e., a guild) rather than a military unit serving a specific military purpose. There is contemporary reference to a Princeps Protectorum , but it is likely that this officer's functions were not related to direct command in battle, but were instead ceremonial. Holding commissioned rank in a unit attached to the comitatus seems to have been

630-552: The frontier. After repelling the foreign enemies of the empire, Probus was forced to handle several internal revolts but demonstrated leniency and moderation to the vanquished wherever possible. Despite the military basis of his power, he presented himself as a constitutional monarch who respected the authority of the Roman Senate . Upon defeating the Germans, Probus re-erected the fortifications of emperor Hadrian between

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660-746: The planting of vineyards in Gaul, Pannonia and other districts, in order to restart the economy in these devastated lands. In 279–280, Probus was, according to Zosimus , in Raetia , Illyricum and Lycia , where he fought the Vandals . In the same years, Probus' generals defeated the Blemmyes in Egypt . Either then, or during his previous command in Egypt, he ordered the reconstruction of bridges and canals along

690-509: The soldiers were provoked when they overheard him lamenting the necessity of a standing army. Carus was proclaimed emperor after Probus' death and avenged the murder of his predecessor. According to the favorable treatment of Gibbon (whose account is largely derived from the Augustan History ), Probus was the last of the benevolent constitutional emperors of Rome. While his successor Carus (Imp. 282–284) simply disdained to seek

720-565: The titles of Gothicus Maximus and Germanicus Maximus . Reportedly, 400,000 barbarians were killed during Probus' campaign, and the entire nation of the Lugii were extirpated. After the defeat of the Germanic invaders in Gaul, Probus crossed the Rhine to campaign successfully against the barbarians in their homeland, forcing them to pay homage. In the aftermath of the campaign, Probus repaired

750-549: The young son of Emperor Gallienus , but after the boy's death in 258, his position became perilous. A well-liked and admired commander, Ingenuus found an opportunity to become the Roman Emperor when Valerian was captured and killed by Shapur I of the Sassanid Empire . Throwing off their allegiance to Valerian's son, the legions of Moesia proclaimed Ingenuus Roman Emperor at Sirmium in 260. Gallienus

780-568: Was a Roman military commander, the imperial legate in Pannonia , who became a usurper to the throne of the emperor Gallienus when he led a brief and unsuccessful revolt in the year 260. Appointed by Gallienus himself, Ingenuus served him well by repulsing a Sarmatian invasion and securing the Pannonian border, at least temporarily. Ingenuus had also been charged with the military education of Caesar Cornelius Licinius Valerianus ,

810-535: Was born between 230 and 235 (exact date of birth unknown) in Sirmium (modern day Sremska Mitrovica , Serbia ), Pannonia Inferior , the son of Dalmatius. According to the Alexandrian Chronicle, he was born sometime in the year 232. The Historia Augusta gives his father's name as Maximus and claims that his mother was of higher status than his father, that he had a sister named Claudia, that he

840-456: Was in Germania on the Rhine frontier, so he acted quickly by recalling troops from Gaul and after a rapid march he met Ingenuus on the battlefield at Mursa . The troops of Ingenuus were defeated, as Gallienus' general, Aureolus , used to great effect the advantage given by the mobility of an improved cavalry component of the army, which was the remarkable military innovation wanted by

870-413: Was killed by his own soldiers after an indecisive campaign against Probus in the mountains of Cilicia . In contrast to Florian, who ignored the wishes of the Senate, Probus referred his claim to Rome in a respectful dispatch. The Senate enthusiastically ratified his pretensions. Probus next travelled west, defeating the Goths along the lower Danube in 277, and acquiring the title of Gothicus . However,

900-473: Was related to emperor Claudius Gothicus , his personal wealth was modest and his nearest kin unimportant. Probus had a brother named Dometius of Byzantium who was the Bishop of Byzantium from about 272 until his death in 284. Besides his best known nomina Aurelius which can be found on most inscriptions, papyri and coinage, as well as Equitius attested on his coins from Ticinum and Pseudo- Aurelius Victor ,

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