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36-562: The most important work of the Latin pseudo-Geber corpus is the Summa perfectionis magisterii ("The Height of the Perfection of Mastery"), which was likely written slightly before 1310. Its actual author has been tentatively identified as Paul of Taranto . The work was influential in the domain of alchemy and metallurgy in late medieval Europe. The work contains experimental demonstrations of

72-516: A physician, was professor of chemistry, physics and natural history at the local lyceum. After attending the gymnasium of his native town, he studied at Marburg and Heidelberg , and then, attracted by the fame of Liebig , went in 1839 to Gießen , where he became a privatdozent in 1841, and professor of chemistry twelve years later. In 1864 he was called to Heidelberg in the same capacity, and he remained there until his death. Kopp devoted himself especially to physico-chemical inquiries, and in

108-478: A tentative identification which is often accepted as likely. The estimated date for the first four books is 1310, and they could not date from much before that because no reference to the Summa Perfectionis is found anywhere in the world before or during the 13th century. For example, there is no mention in the 13th century writings of Albertus Magnus and Roger Bacon . The degree of dependence of

144-516: A work in two volumes on Alchemy in Ancient and Modern Times . Kopp, in studying heat capacities, found "that the molecular heat capacity of a solid compound is the sum of the atomic heat capacities of the elements composing it; the elements having atomic heat capacities lower than those required by the law of Dulong and Petit retain these lower values in their compounds." In addition, Kopp wrote (1863) on theoretical and physical chemistry for

180-543: Is Geber or Geber Arabs (Geber the Arab), and it is stated in some copies that the translator is Rodogerus Hispalensis (Roger of Hispania). The works attributed to Geber include: Being the clearest expression of alchemical theory and laboratory directions available until then—in a field where mysticism, secrecy, and obscurity were the usual rule—pseudo-Geber's books were widely read and influential among European alchemists. The Summa Perfectionis in particular

216-450: Is a classic example: The system starts with liquid water, and when enough heat has been added to the water, the water boils into the gaseous phase. While there has been a phase change , the water molecule, H 2 O hasn’t broken apart and is still present at the end of the reaction, so this is analogous to an extrinsic change. Electrolysis of water is a chemical change – electricity is used to break water into hydrogen and oxygen gas. Since

252-418: Is also reflected in the act of writing. “[T]he hand does not write by the motion alone of nature, but as ruled by intellect through art.” Artists are able to control nature and use it as a tool or instrument. This concept of intellect over nature is derived from the pseudo-Aristotelian Liber de Causis . Two categories of arts Paul then identifies two categories of arts: “Purely artificial” art alters

288-558: Is common practice among historians of alchemy to refer to the earlier body of Islamic alchemy texts as the Corpus Jabirianum or Jabirian Corpus, and to the later, 13th to 14th century Latin corpus as pseudo-Geber or Latin pseudo-Geber, a term introduced by Marcellin Berthelot . The "pseudo-Geber problem" is the question of a possible relation between the two corpora. This question has long been controversially discussed. It

324-415: Is how a smaller number can exist in a larger number. For example, the quantity “3” resides in the quantity “4”; 4 can be viewed as the combination of 3 and 1. A less abstract example is a live tree and a dead one. The difference between them is simply the essence of life or its vegetative soul. The dead tree still contains the substantial form of the wood, so clearly that form must have been there even when

360-463: Is now mostly thought that at least parts of the Latin pseudo-Geber works are based on earlier Islamic authors such as Abu Bakr al-Razi (c. 865–925). The following set of books is called the "pseudo-Geber Corpus" (or the "Latin Geber Corpus"). The works were first edited in the 16th century, but had been in circulation in manuscript form for roughly 200 years beforehand. The stated author

396-399: Is something that acts on matter that gives it characteristics (e.g. color , hardness , and heaviness ). Substantial form is a fundamental type of “form.” As an example to demonstrate: Substance is simply the object itself, including characteristics that define the object, whereas accidents simply qualify it, but are not necessary for its existence. For example, a bird could be considered

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432-450: The corpuscular nature of matter that were still being used by seventeenth-century chemists such as Daniel Sennert , who in turn influenced Robert Boyle . The work is among the first to describe nitric acid , aqua regia , and aqua fortis . The existence of Jabir ibn Hayyan as a historical figure is itself in question, and most of the numerous Arabic works attributed to him are, themselves, pseudepigrapha dating to c. 850–950. It

468-407: The extrinsic form or “form of art” and “perfective art” alters the “intrinsic” form (or form of nature). Purely artificial art only changes nature superficially, whereas perfective art changes the essence of nature. Paul clarifies this distinction through the use of primary and secondary qualities. The primary qualities are the four Aristotelian qualities , hot, cold, wet, and dry, which reside in

504-593: The four elements (earth, water, air, and fire). Secondary qualities include white, black, sweet, bitter, hard, soft, sharp, and dull. Perfective art alters the primary qualities, while purely artificial art only results in changes among the secondary qualities; essential changes result from changes in primary qualities, while accidental changes are a result of changes in secondary qualities. A painter and sculpture, then, only practice artificial art since they change shapes and colors of material. Physicians are considered to practice perfective art since they attempt to control

540-549: The Geber corpus may have been written by authors that post-date the author of the Summa Perfectionis , as most of the other books in the corpus are largely recapitulations of the Summa Perfectionis . Crosland (1962) refers to Geber as "a Latin author" while still emphasizing the identity of the author being "still in dispute". William R. Newman has argued that the author of the Summa perfectionis may have been Paul of Taranto ,

576-413: The ability to manipulate nature as they see fit. Sculptures and painters, for example, use nature (marble for statue , paint etc) to create various forms of art. They take natural materials and manipulate them in such a way (chiseling a statue, combining colors/drawing shapes, patterns, and figures) to create artistic works. They are able to in a controllable manner alter and improve nature. This thought

612-630: The author must have been able to read Arabic and most likely worked in Moorish Spain . With Brown (1920), Karpenko and Norris (2002) still assert that the first documented occurrence of aqua regia is in pseudo-Geber's De inventione veritatis . By contrast, Ahmad Y. Al-Hassan (2005) claimed that Islamic texts dated to before the 13th century, including the works of Jabir and Abu Bakr al-Razi, did in fact contain detailed descriptions of substances such as nitric acid, aqua regia , vitriol, and various nitrates, and Al-Hassan in 2009 argued that

648-446: The best known of his works is his Theorica et practica , which defends alchemical principles by describing the theoretical and practical reasoning behind it. It has also been argued that Paul is the author of the much more widely known alchemical text Summa perfectionis , generally attributed to the spurious Jabir, or Pseudo-Geber . When examining Paul’s work, it is important to make the distinction from modern definitions of words to

684-442: The charge that transmutation of metals was impossible. The practical directions for laboratory procedures were so clear that it is obvious the author was familiar with many chemical operations. It contains early recipes for producing mineral acids . It was not equaled in chemistry until the 16th century writings of chemist Vannoccio Biringuccio , mineralogist Georgius Agricola and assayer Lazarus Ercker . The next three books on

720-499: The corpus from actual Islamic sources is somewhat disputed: Brown (1920) asserted that the pseudo-Geber Corpus contained "new and original facts" not known from Islamic alchemy, specifically mention of nitric acid , aqua regia , oil of vitriol and silver nitrate . Already in the 1920s, Eric John Holmyard criticized the claim of pseudo-Geber being "new and original" compared to medieval Islamic alchemy, arguing for direct derivation from Islamic authors. Holmyard later argued that

756-432: The definitions used by medieval philosophers and scientists. Substance – Paul does not use “substance” as the modern definition of “material” or “ matter .” Instead, substance describes something that is primary and can exist on its own. Accident – Paul doesn’t use this term as an unexpected/unplanned event. Instead, it is simply an attribute, or adjective, and cannot exist on its own. Form/Substantial Form – Form

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792-412: The four humors, which by their definition are characterized by the primary qualities. Farmers too, practice perfective art since they work with the transmutation power inherent in seeds. An analogous modern example of extrinsic versus intrinsic changes is the difference between a physical and chemical reaction . In a physical reaction, there is no change in the molecules in the system. Boiling water

828-550: The history of chemical theory his name is associated with several of the most important correlations of the physical properties of substances with their chemical constitution. Much of his work was concerned with specific volumes , the conception of which he set forth in a paper published when he was only twenty-two years of age; and the principles he established have formed the basis of subsequent investigations in that subject, although his results have in some cases undergone modification. Another question to which he gave much attention

864-402: The list above are shorter and are, to a substantial degree, condensations of the material in the Summa Perfectionis . Two further works, Testamentum Geberi and Alchemia Geberi , are "absolutely spurious, being of a later date [than the other four]", as Marcellin Berthelot put it, and they are usually not included as part of the pseudo-Geber corpus. Their author is not the same as

900-419: The molecules present have been changed, this is a chemical change, similar to an intrinsic change. Sulfur-mercury theory of metals One of the goals of Theorica et practica is to affirm the validity of the sulfur-mercury theory of metals , which basically states that metals are composed of sulfur and mercury and the different proportions between the two form different types of metals. Observations of

936-404: The others, but it is not certain that the first four have the same author either. De inventione veritatis has the earliest known recipe for the preparation of nitric acid . Manuscripts: Early editions: Early translations: Islamic alchemy was held in high esteem by 13th century European alchemists, and the author adopted the name of an illustrious predecessor, as was usual practice at

972-525: The pseudo-Gerber Corpus was a direct translation of a work originally written in Arabic, pointing to a number of Arabic Jabirian manuscripts which already contain much of the theories and practices that Berthelot previously attributed to the Latin corpus. Paul of Taranto Paul of Taranto was a 13th-century Franciscan alchemist and author from southern Italy . ( Taranto is a city in Apulia.) Perhaps

1008-413: The reactivity of metals suggest that metals were in fact composed of sulfur and mercury. When metals were heated, they gave off a sulfurous odor. When mercury came in contact with metals such as gold , silver , copper , tin , or lead , an amalgam resulted. These observations lead to the conclusion that metals were composed of both mercury and sulfur. Paul addresses one of the many arguments against

1044-472: The same metal after a process of calcining, dissolving, subliming, and lastly reducing metals. Since he was able to recreate the same metal that he started with, he obviously did not break the metal down into the pure elements, but instead into some intermediate phases. Hermann Franz Moritz Kopp Hermann Franz Moritz Kopp (30 October 1817 – 20 February 1892), German chemist , was born at Hanau , where his father, Johann Heinrich Kopp (1777–1858),

1080-446: The substance, generally combining characteristics such as feathers, a beak, and the ability to lay eggs. Describing a bird as big/small or timid/aggressive simply adds qualification to the bird, but is not defining characteristics of a bird. These concepts of substance and accident stem from Aristotle ’s works. Nature and intellect relationship Paul argues that human intellect is superior to nature . Therefore, humans must have

1116-675: The sulfur-mercury theory: that intermediate substances cannot exist between the pure elements and the “final product.” Therefore, metals cannot be broken down into sulfur and mercury. In Theorica et practica , Paul first presents this argument before declining it in a contra and pro fashion. He first states the argument against the sulfur-mercury theory. Essentially the argument is as follows: In order to make “A” from “B and C”, “B and C” become corrupted as soon as they combine to make “A,” so “B and C” clearly cannot exist within “A.” Paul then rebuttals against this argument in two ways: theoretical examples and scientific experimentations. One example

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1152-517: The then-recent discovery of Jabir's The Book of Seventy diminished the weight of the argument of there being "no Arabic originals" corresponding to pseudo-Geber, By 1957, Holmyard was willing to admit that "the general style of the works is too clear and systematic to find a close parallel in any of the known writings of the Jabirian corpus" and that they seemed to be "the product of an occidental rather than an oriental mind" while still asserting that

1188-467: The time. The authorship of Geber (Jabir ibn Hayyan) was first questioned in the late 19th century by the studies of Kopp , Hoefer , Berthelot , and Lippmann . The corpus is clearly influenced by medieval Islamic writers (especially by Abu Bakr al-Razi , and to a lesser extent, the eponymous Jabir). The identity of the author remains uncertain. He may have lived in Italy or Spain, or both. Some books in

1224-420: The tree was alive. Paul’s experimental approach is to decompose metals into other materials, then attempt to recombine those materials into the metal again. If the sulfur-mercury theory is correct, you can decompose metals into the four elements, but when attempting to recombine the elements, there is no reason for the elements to recombine into any one particular metal. Paul writes that he successfully recreated

1260-420: Was one of the most widely read alchemy books in western Europe in the late medieval period. Its author assumed that all metals are composed of unified sulfur and mercury corpuscles and gave detailed descriptions of metallic properties in those terms. The use of an elixir for transmuting base metals into gold is explained (see philosopher's stone ) and a lengthy defense is given defending alchemy against

1296-501: Was the connection of the boiling point of compounds , organic ones in particular, with their composition. In addition to these and other laborious researches, Kopp was a prolific writer. In 1843–1847 he published a comprehensive History of Chemistry , in four volumes, to which three supplements were added in 1869–1875. The Development of Chemistry in Recent Times appeared in 1871–1874, and in 1886 he published

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