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50-525: According to Livy and Plutarch , the Valerii were of Sabine origin, but settled in Rome during the reign of Titus Tatius , a contemporary of Romulus , and worked for the peaceful unification of both peoples. Valerius came from a wealthy family. His father was Volesus Valerius , and his brothers were Marcus Valerius Volusus and Manius Valerius Volusus Maximus . He had a daughter, Valeria, and possibly

100-533: A quadrans for the funeral. The remains of Poplicola were buried within the city of Rome, on the Velian Hill . His death was mourned for an entire year. After Poplicola, many noted members of the Valerian gens were buried near the same spot. In 1977 an inscription was discovered in the ruins of the ancient town of Satricum. The Lapis Satricanus dates from the late 6th to early 5th centuries BC and bears

150-595: A Roman citizen under the name of Appius Claudius; he was the founder of the Claudii . When the Sabines attempted to besiege Rome, Poplicola successfully commanded the army, anticipating their movements and thwarting their plans. He was elected consul for the fourth time in 504 BC, and once again defeated the Sabines . He celebrated a triumph in May of that year. Publius Valerius Poplicola died in 503 BC, shortly after passing

200-400: A Scotsman involved in the first Jacobite uprising of 1715 was recaptured (and executed) because, having escaped, he yet lingered near the place of his captivity in "the hope of recovering his favourite Titus Livius ". The authority supplying information from which possible vital data on Livy can be deduced is Eusebius of Caesarea , a bishop of the early Christian Church . One of his works

250-620: A book on geography and a daughter married Lucius Magius, a rhetorician. Titus Livius died at his home city of Patavium in AD 17. The tombstone of Livy and his wife might have been found in Padua. Livy's only surviving work is commonly known as History of Rome (or Ab Urbe Condita , 'From the Founding of the City';). Together with Polybius it is considered one of the main accounts of

300-503: A century after Livy's time, described the Emperor Augustus as his friend. Describing the trial of Cremutius Cordus , Tacitus represents him as defending himself face-to-face with the frowning Tiberius as follows: I am said to have praised Brutus and Cassius , whose careers many have described and no one mentioned without eulogy. Titus Livius, pre-eminently famous for eloquence and truthfulness, extolled Cn. Pompeius in such

350-442: A common pastime. He was familiar with the emperor Augustus and the imperial family. Augustus was considered by later Romans to have been the greatest Roman emperor, benefiting Livy's reputation long after his death. Suetonius described how Livy encouraged the future emperor Claudius , who was born in 10 BC, to write historiographical works during his childhood. Livy's most famous work was his history of Rome . In it he narrates

400-502: A complete history of the city of Rome, from its foundation to the death of Augustus. Because he was writing under the reign of Augustus, Livy's history emphasizes the great triumphs of Rome. He wrote his history with embellished accounts of Roman heroism in order to promote the new type of government implemented by Augustus when he became emperor. In Livy's preface to his history, he said that he did not care whether his personal fame remained in darkness, as long as his work helped to "preserve

450-532: A complex formula (made so by the 0 reference point not falling on the border of an Olympiad), these codes correspond to 59 BC for the birth, 17 AD for the death. In another manuscript the birth is in 180.4, or 57 BC. Aquillia gens The gens Aquillia or Aquilia was a plebeian family of great antiquity at ancient Rome . Two of the Aquillii are mentioned among the Roman nobles who conspired to bring back

500-473: A panegyric that Augustus called him Pompeianus, and yet this was no obstacle to their friendship. Livy's reasons for returning to Padua after the death of Augustus (if he did) are unclear, but the circumstances of Tiberius 's reign certainly allow for speculation. During the Middle Ages , due to the length of the work, the literate class was already reading summaries rather than the work itself, which

550-416: A result, standard information in a standard rendition is used, which gives the impression of a standard set of dates for Livy. There are no such dates. A typical presumption is of a birth in the 2nd year of the 180th Olympiad and a death in the first year of the 199th Olympiad, which are coded 180.2 and 199.1 respectively. All sources use the same first Olympiad , 776/775–773/772 BC by the modern calendar. By

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600-653: A search for the now missing books. Laurentius Valla published an amended text initiating the field of Livy scholarship. Dante speaks highly of him in his poetry, and Francis I of France commissioned extensive artwork treating Livian themes; Niccolò Machiavelli 's work on republics , the Discourses on Livy , is presented as a commentary on the History of Rome . Respect for Livy rose to lofty heights. Walter Scott reports in Waverley (1814) as an historical fact that

650-426: A son or grandson who was also named Publius Valerius Poplicola who served as consul in 475 BC and 460 BC. Before holding public office, Valerius had spoken in defense of the plebs , the common people of Rome. In 509 BC, Valerius was one of the leaders of the Roman revolution, together with Lucius Junius Brutus , Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus , and Spurius Lucretius Tricipitinus . Winning over public opinion while

700-656: The Chronographia , a summary of history in annalist form, and the Chronikoi Kanones , tables of years and events. St. Jerome translated the tables into Latin as the Chronicon , probably adding some information of his own from unknown sources. Livy's dates appear in Jerome's Chronicon. The main problem with the information given in the manuscripts is that, between them, they often give different dates for

750-597: The Orient . Livy Titus Livius ( Latin: [ˈtɪtʊs ˈliːwiʊs] ; 59 BC – AD 17), known in English as Livy ( / ˈ l ɪ v i / LIV -ee ), was a Roman historian. He wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people, titled Ab Urbe Condita , ''From the Founding of the City'', covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome before the traditional founding in 753 BC through

800-478: The Roman army . However, he was educated in philosophy and rhetoric. It seems that Livy had the financial resources and means to live an independent life, though the origin of that wealth is unknown. He devoted a large part of his life to his writings, which he was able to do because of his financial freedom. Livy was known to give recitations to small audiences, but he was not heard of to engage in declamation , then

850-610: The Second Punic War . When he began this work he was already past his youth, probably 33; presumably, events in his life prior to that time had led to his intense activity as a historian. He continued working on it until he left Rome for Padua in his old age, probably in the reign of Tiberius after the death of Augustus. Seneca the Younger says he was an orator and philosopher and had written some historical treatises in those fields. History of Rome also served as

900-489: The Tarquins , and a member of the house, Gaius Aquillius Tuscus , was consul in 487 BC. The nomen Aquilius or Aquillius is probably derived from aquila , an eagle. On coins and inscriptions the name is almost always written Aquillius , but in manuscripts generally with a single l . The oldest branch of the family bore the cognomen Tuscus , suggesting that the gens may have been of Etruscan origin, although

950-422: The 40s BC, a period of civil wars throughout the Roman world . The governor of Cisalpine Gaul at the time, Asinius Pollio , tried to sway Patavium into supporting Marcus Antonius (Mark Antony) , the leader of one of the warring factions during Caesar's Civil War (49-45 BC). The wealthy citizens of Patavium refused to contribute money and arms to Asinius Pollio, and went into hiding. Pollio then attempted to bribe

1000-533: The Aquillii bore the praenomina Gaius , Lucius , and Marcus , which were the three most common names at all periods of Roman history. However, one family, which rose to considerable prominence in the final century of the Republic , preferred the less-common praenomen Manius . The cognomina of the Aquillii under the Republic are Corvus , Crassus , Florus , Gallus , and Tuscus . Tuscus ,

1050-673: The Tarquins. In 506, when his brother Marcus was consul, the Sabines attacked Rome. Poplicola participated in two Roman victories, repelling the invasion. The people rewarded Poplicola with a house on the Palatine Hill . In 505, the Latin League and the Sabines threatened Rome with a large army. Although diplomatic negotiations were halted, Poplicola meddled with the politics of the Sabines, assisting Attius Clausus , who moved to Rome with five hundred followers. Clausus became

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1100-427: The consular office to his successors, Agrippa Menenius Lanatus and Publius Postumius Tubertus . Livy records that at the time of his death, he was considered "by universal consent to be the ablest man in Rome, in the arts both of peace and war". He had little money, and so was buried at the public charge, and was mourned by the Roman matrons as had been done for Brutus before him. By decree, each citizen contributed

1150-409: The consulship and go into exile, as a member of the hated royal family, whom the people could not trust. Collatinus was stunned by this betrayal, as he had been one of the leaders of the rebellion following his wife Lucretia 's suicide because of her being raped by the king's son, Sextus Tarquinius . Nevertheless, he resigned, and Valerius was elected to replace him. Meanwhile, Tarquin, whose family

1200-501: The deposed regime. Valerius was informed of the plot by a slave, Vindicius . He personally investigated the conspiracy, sneaking into the Aquillius estate and finding incriminating evidence, based on which the consuls held a public trial. The conspirators, including two of Brutus' sons, were found guilty and executed. Valerius played a leading role in the trial. After the trial, Brutus demanded that his colleague, Collatinus, resign

1250-534: The driving force behind the "northern theory" regarding the Etruscans' origins. This is because in the book Livy states, "The Greeks also call them the 'Tyrrhene' and the 'Adriatic ... The Alpine tribes are undoubtedly of the same kind, especially the Raetii, who had through the nature of their country become so uncivilized that they retained no trace of their original condition except their language, and even this

1300-561: The foot of the hill, rather than its peak. In later times, the Temple of Victory stood in the same place. For his actions and deference to the people of Rome, Valerius received the surname Poplicola , meaning "one who courts the people". Before the impending elections, Valerius filled up the ranks of the Senate, which had been severely reduced as a result of the revolution and the subsequent war. The consul also promulgated new laws, including

1350-486: The fourth century BC, and flourished at least until the time of Augustus . Their name simply means "flower". Gallus may refer to a cock , or to a Gaul , even though the Galli were from Lanuvium. Crassus , a surname common in many gentes , may be translated as "thick," "dull," "simple," or "crude." The last cognomen to appear was Felix , meaning "lucky". In the last century of the Republic, two Aquillii who reached

1400-439: The king of Clusium , attacked Rome at the behest of Tarquin. According to Plutarch, both Poplicola and his colleague, Lucretius, were severely wounded during the battle. During the siege, Poplicola executed a successful sally , defeating a Clusian raiding party. According to Plutarch, Poplicola negotiated a treaty with Porsena, ending the war. He gave the king hostages, including his daughter Valeria, whom Porsena protected from

1450-507: The king was campaigning away from the city, they deposed and banished Lucius Tarquinius Superbus , the seventh and last King of Rome . In place of the monarchy, they established a republic , together with the office of consul . Brutus and Collatinus were elected the first consuls. From exile, the Tarquins plotted the assassination of the consuls, together with some disaffected members of the Aquillii and Vitellii , who had benefited from

1500-508: The memory of the deeds of the world’s preeminent nation." Because Livy was mostly writing about events that had occurred hundreds of years earlier, the historical value of his work was questionable, although many Romans came to believe his account to be true. Livy was married and had at least one daughter and one son. He also produced other works, including an essay in the form of a letter to his son, and numerous dialogues, most likely modelled on similar works by Cicero . One of his sons wrote

1550-642: The name Poplios Valesios , which would be rendered in Classical Latin as Publius Valerius. This does not prove the historicity of the narrative given by later Roman historians, but it does demonstrate that at least one prominent individual did indeed bear the name at the close of the 6th century. In The Federalist Papers , a collection of 85 essays promoting the adoption of the United States Constitution , written by Alexander Hamilton , James Madison , and John Jay in 1787–1788,

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1600-404: The nomen of the gens is indisputably Latin , and the name Tuscus could have been acquired in other ways. This cognomen is nonetheless dubious as only found in late sources; Robert Broughton mentions that it could have also been Sabinus . From the imagery of their coins, it seems that the Aquillii had a special devotion for Sol , a rare occurrence under the Republic. The oldest families of

1650-401: The oldest surname of the gens, means "Etruscan", and this branch of the family is thought by some writers to have been patrician , since they were among the Roman nobility at the beginning of the Republic, and according to tradition, the consulship was closed to the plebeians until the lex Licinia Sextia of 367 BC. However, modern scholarship suggests that the nobility of the Roman monarchy

1700-568: The reign of Augustus in Livy's own lifetime. He was on good terms with members of the Julio-Claudian dynasty and was a friend of Augustus , whose young grandnephew, the future emperor Claudius , he encouraged to take up the writing of history. Livy was born in Patavium in northern Italy , now modern Padua , probably in 59 BC. At the time of his birth, his home city of Patavium was

1750-569: The reign of Augustus, who came to power after a civil war with generals and consuls claiming to be defending the Roman Republic , such as Pompey . Patavium had been pro-Pompey. To clarify his status, the victor of the civil war, Octavian Caesar , had wanted to take the title Romulus (the first king of Rome) but in the end accepted the senate proposal of Augustus . Rather than abolishing the republic, he adapted it and its institutions to imperial rule. The historian Tacitus , writing about

1800-475: The result of bad feelings he harboured toward the city of Patavium from his experiences there during the civil wars. Livy probably went to Rome in the 30s BC, and it is likely that he spent a large amount of time in the city after this, although it may not have been his primary home. During his time in Rome, he was never a senator nor held a government position. His writings contain elementary mistakes on military matters, indicating that he probably never served in

1850-437: The right of appeal ( provocatio ) from the decisions of a magistrate, and demanding the forfeiture of all the rights of anyone convicted of plotting to restore the monarchy. Poplicola was elected consul three more times, in 508, 507, and 504 BC. Horatius was his colleague again in 507, while his colleague in 508 and 504 was Titus Lucretius Tricipitinus . He was the first consul ever to be re-elected. In 508 BC, Lars Porsena ,

1900-590: The same events or different events, do not include the same material entirely, and reformat what they do include. A date may be in Ab Urbe Condita or in Olympiads or in some other form, such as age. These variations may have occurred through scribal error or scribal license. Some material has been inserted under the aegis of Eusebius . The topic of manuscript variants is a large and specialized one, on which authors of works on Livy seldom care to linger. As

1950-554: The second wealthiest on the Italian peninsula, and the largest in the province of Cisalpine Gaul (northern Italy). Cisalpine Gaul was merged in Italy proper during his lifetime and its inhabitants were given Roman citizenship by Julius Caesar . In his works, Livy often expressed his deep affection and pride for Patavium, and the city was well known for its conservative values in morality and politics. Livy's teenage years were during

2000-613: The slaves of those wealthy citizens to expose the whereabouts of their masters; his bribery did not work, and the citizens instead pledged their allegiance to the Senate . It is therefore likely that the Roman civil wars prevented Livy from pursuing a higher education in Rome or going on a tour of Greece , which was common for adolescent males of the nobility at the time. Many years later, Asinius Pollio derisively commented on Livy's "patavinity", saying that Livy's Latin showed certain "provincialisms" frowned on at Rome. Pollio's dig may have been

2050-482: The spoils of battle and returned to Rome, where he celebrated a triumph on March 1, 509 BC. His four-horse chariot subsequently became the traditional vehicle for a victorious Roman general. Then, Valerius held a magnificent funeral for Brutus, and gave a memorable speech. Livy wrote that Valerius fought the Veientes again in the same year, although the reason is not stated. After the death of Brutus, Valerius

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2100-468: The structure in a single night. Addressing an assembly of the people, he caused his lictors to lower their fasces as a mark of humility, and to remove the axes from them within the city. "I have just liberated Rome, bravely, but now I am slandered, like being either an Aquillius or a Vitellian . I am the bitterest enemy of the former kings, so I shouldn't be accused of wanting to be king." In order to allay suspicions, he caused his house to be built at

2150-733: The three statesmen used the allonym "Publius" in honor of Poplicola's role in establishing the Roman Republic . Following the Spanish–American War , a piece titled "The Duty of the American People as to the Philippines" was published under the pseudonym "Publicola". The author recommended the development of the Philippines to improve the lives of the Filipino people , as well as to further American trading interests in

2200-649: Was a summary of world history in ancient Greek , termed the Chronikon , dating from the early 4th century AD. This work was lost except for fragments (mainly excerpts), but not before it had been translated in whole and in part by various authors such as St. Jerome . The entire work survives in two separate manuscripts, Armenian and Greek (Christesen and Martirosova-Torlone 2006). St. Jerome wrote in Latin. Fragments in Syriac exist. Eusebius ' work consists of two books:

2250-523: Was not exclusively patrician, and that a number of early consuls belonged to families that were later regarded as plebeian. Still, as most patrician gentes also had plebeian branches, the possibility that some of the early Aquilii were patricians cannot be discounted. Corvus refers to a raven . This surname is more famous from the gens Valeria . The Aquillii Flori first appear during the First Punic War , although they must have existed since

2300-533: Was not free from corruption". Thus, many scholars, like Karl Otfried Müller, utilized this statement as evidence that the Etruscans or the Tyrrhenians migrated from the north and were descendants of an Alpine tribe known as the Raeti. Livy's History of Rome was in high demand from the time it was published and remained so during the early years of the empire. Pliny the Younger reported that Livy's celebrity

2350-600: Was of Etruscan origin, obtained the support of the Etruscan cities of Tarquinii and Veii . At the head of an Etruscan army, Tarquin fought the consuls Brutus and Valerius at the Battle of Silva Arsia . Valerius commanded the Roman infantry, while Brutus led the cavalry. Arruns Tarquinius , the king's son, died in combat with Brutus, who was also mortally wounded, but the Romans were ultimately victorious. Valerius collected

2400-503: Was so widespread, a man from Cádiz travelled to Rome and back for the sole purpose of meeting him. Livy's work was a source for the later works of Aurelius Victor , Cassiodorus , Eutropius , Festus , Florus , Granius Licinianus and Orosius . Julius Obsequens used Livy, or a source with access to Livy, to compose his De Prodigiis , an account of supernatural events in Rome from the consulship of Scipio and Laelius to that of Paulus Fabius and Quintus Aelius. Livy wrote during

2450-511: Was tedious to copy, expensive, and required a lot of storage space. It must have been during this period, if not before, that manuscripts began to be lost without replacement. The Renaissance was a time of intense revival; the population discovered that Livy's work was being lost and large amounts of money changed hands in the rush to collect Livian manuscripts. The poet Beccadelli sold a country home for funding to purchase one manuscript copied by Poggio . Petrarch and Pope Nicholas V launched

2500-448: Was the sole surviving consul. Spurius Lucretius was chosen in place of Brutus, but he died after a few days, and was followed by Marcus Horatius Pulvillus . When Valerius began construction of a new house on top of the Velian Hill , which would be conspicuously visible from the Senate house , a rumour began to circulate that he intended to re-establish the monarchy, with himself as king. At once, Valerius stopped building, and demolished

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