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128-747: American victory [REDACTED] Spain The Puerto Rico campaign was the American military sea and land operation on the island of Puerto Rico during the Spanish–American War . The offensive began on May 12, 1898, when the United States Navy attacked the capital, San Juan . Though the damage inflicted on the city was minimal, the Americans were able to establish a blockade in the city's harbor, San Juan Bay . On June 22,

256-567: A Fajardan, realized that the garrison was abandoned and his town defenseless against the Americans, he implored the Spanish authorities in San Juan to dispatch troops to defend Fajardo. Losing hope that Spanish troops would come to the town's aid, Veve went to the lighthouse to seek protection for the town from the Americans. On the afternoon of August 5, Veve entered Fajardo with a contingent of bluejackets and United States flags were hoisted over

384-491: A Spanish victory. Around this time, Captain Ángel Rivero Méndez was assigned the command of the Spanish forces at the fortress of San Cristóbal in San Juan. On May 10, when Yale returned to San Juan Bay, Rivero-Méndez ordered his men to open fire on the steamer with an Ordoñez 15 centimeter cannon, in the first attack against American forces in Puerto Rico during the Spanish–American War . For his actions, Rivero-Mendez

512-605: A War College president, this time taking its name from Admiral Henry Kent Hewitt , an advisor to the Naval War College during his tenure as Commander, U.S. Naval Forces Europe , following World War II. Hewitt Hall is home to the Henry E. Eccles Library, the Trident Café, the bookstore and barbershop, and student study areas and lounge. In 1999, the state-of-the-art McCarty Little Hall opened, replacing Sims Hall as

640-410: A battery nearby. One of Hernaíz's Placensias cannons overheated, which forced him to order a temporary cease to the offensive. Landcaster believed that the opposition had been annihilated, ordered an advance. However, the allied fire was renewed, this time supported by Mauser rifle fire. The sudden attack caused confusion among some soldiers, who reported seeing a second Spanish unit nearby. Fearing that

768-533: A bicameral legislature ( Cortes Generales ) consisting of an upper house ( Senate ) and a lower house ( Congress of Deputies ). The king held the power to appoint senators and to annul laws at his discretion. He was given the honorific title of Commander-in-Chief of the army. These were years of economic prosperity. Since the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815, Spain's economy had lagged even further behind that of other European countries. During this time,

896-722: A canal be built either in Honduras, Nicaragua or Panama and that the United States annex the Dominican Republic and purchase Puerto Rico and Cuba. The idea of annexing the Dominican Republic failed to receive the approval of the U.S. Senate and Spain did not accept the 160 million dollars which the U.S. offered for Puerto Rico and Cuba. Mahan made the following statement to the War Department: "Having therefore no foreign establishments either colonial or military,

1024-453: A cannon that had fallen overboard during salvage attempts being lost. On 15 July, the cruiser USS  New Orleans arrived to relieve Yosemite , and then quickly finished off Antonio Lopez the next day by firing twenty incendiary shells into the vessel and sinking her. Though Antonio Lopez had been sunk, her cargo was successfully delivered and ensured that any American assault on San Juan would be met with stronger resistance. Caamaño

1152-477: A cargo of needed military supplies, was pursued by Yosemite until the Spanish freighter ran aground at Ensenada Honda , Puerto Rico, with her valuable cargo. Captain Caamaño was in charge of retrieving the ship's cargo and the men under his command quickly removed as much of it as possible. The desperate efforts proved fruitful, and nearly the entire cargo was salvaged from the hulk with only minor articles and

1280-412: A firefight when the Spanish forces opened fire. The Americans were aided by two companies of the 19th Infantry, supported by artillery and Gatling guns , as well as the 11th Infantry. The Spanish forces retreated after the American reinforcements brought them under intense fire. Schwan's men set up camp on Silva Heights for the night and the following day they continued their drive to Mayagüez. They arrived

1408-601: A landing there. On July 25, General Miles, 1,300 infantry soldiers of the 3,300 total that were assigned for the initial invasion and a convoy of ships, under the command of naval captain Francis J. Higginson of USS  Massachusetts arrived at Guánica Bay. The following Navy ships and Army troopships were part of the convoy: USS Yale with Generals Miles and George A. Garretson embarked, USS  Windom carrying General Guy V. Henry , USS  Columbia , USS  Gloucester , USS  Dixie , USS  Wasp and

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1536-465: A live concert at Spruance Auditorium. In 1974, Conolly Hall was opened and named in honor of Admiral Richard L. Conolly , Naval War College President 1950–1953. It houses the NWC Quarterdeck, Administrative and faculty offices, numerous class and conference rooms, and two underground parking garages. 1976 saw the opening of Hewitt Hall, one of two Naval War College buildings not named after

1664-526: A machine gun nest and placed barbed wire around their perimeter. The first land skirmish in Puerto Rico between the Puerto Rican militia and the American forces occurred when Lieutenant Méndez López and his men attacked and opened fire on the Americans. During the small battle which followed, the Americans returned fire with their machine gun and Gloucester began to bombard the Spanish position. Lieutenant Méndez López and three of his men were wounded and

1792-485: A manifesto blaming Spain's problems on the parliamentary system. Alfonso XIII supported the general and appointed him the new prime minister. Primo de Rivera suspended the constitution and assumed absolute powers as a dictator. He created the Unión Patriótica Española , the only recognized political party, and banned all others. He increased spending on businesses and public services, which led to

1920-442: A map of Puerto Rico (Emerson had lost his). Riefkohl answered that he did, however it was decidedly too big for Emerson's use. Riefkohl returned home, not knowing that Emerson was a spy, and quickly drew another with a depiction of the major ports and harbors of Puerto Rico. Emerson used the map and it is believed by some that he may have given the map to the U.S. Army commanding general, Nelson A. Miles , influencing Mile's decision on

2048-409: A medical unit. The men who had not abandoned the barrio of Guanica swore allegiance to the United States. Garretson named Agustín Barrenechea mayor of Guanica and Simón Mejil the chief of police. On the afternoon of the 25th, Garretson left Guánica with seven companies of the 6th Massachusetts and one company of the 6th Illinois and headed towards Yauco. Secretary of War Russell A. Alger learned about

2176-513: A plan which included military operations in Puerto Rican waters. Not only was Puerto Rico considered valuable as a naval station, Puerto Rico and Cuba were also abundant in a valuable commercial commodity which the United States lacked: sugar. On February 15, 1898 USS Maine exploded and sank in Havana Harbor, Cuba. According to the Navy's leading weapons expert, Philip Alger, the explosion

2304-583: A revolt known as the Semana Tragica in Barcelona . The rebellion, led mainly by lower-class citizens and supported by anarchists, communists, and republicans, was a response to what they saw as unfair practices in recruiting soldiers. The government declared a state of war and sent in troops to put down the uprising, which resulted in more than a hundred deaths and the execution of Francisco Ferrer . The socialist Unión General de Trabajadores (UGT) and

2432-631: A small garrison of 300 volunteers to hold the town. When the American forces arrived in Ponce they met no resistance and the Spanish volunteers surrendered. The American forces were not the only ones who participated in the taking of Ponce. Members of the Puerto Rican Commission, which included the leader of the Intentona de Yauco revolt, Antonio Mattei Lluberas and his group, arrived in Ponce aboard USS St. Louis and were assigned to

2560-640: A state of war between the United States and Spain had existed since April 20. One of the United States' principal objectives in the Spanish–American War was to take control of Spanish possessions in the Atlantic—Puerto Rico and Cuba—and their possessions in the Pacific—the Philippines and Guam. On April 27, U.S. ships, the monitor USS  Puritan , and the armored cruisers USS  New York , and USS  Cincinnati , bombarded

2688-792: A story published in Century magazine in September 1898, Emerson Jr. was pretending to be a German journalist. He presented himself to the German consul in St. Thomas and asked for the names of Puerto Ricans of German descent whom he could interview. Among the names which the consul gave him were those of the Riefkohl family of the town of Maunabo . Upon his arrival in the town of Maunabo he met 14-year-old Rudolph W. Riefkohl and asked him in German if he had

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2816-498: A surprise attack. After about an hour of fighting, Spanish artillery batteries had been silenced. American guns advanced some 2,150 yards and set up positions, but soldiers reported seeing Spanish reinforcements nearby and the guns were withdrawn back to the main line. Shortly before the launch of a flanking movement on the Spanish, all military actions in Puerto Rico were suspended on August 13, after U.S. President William McKinley and French ambassador Jules Cambon , acting on behalf of

2944-543: A telegram from Macías denying any peace treaty. All military actions in Puerto Rico were supposed to be suspended on August 13, after President William McKinley and French Ambassador Jules Cambon , acting on behalf of the Spanish government, signed an armistice whereby Spain relinquished its sovereignty over the territory of Puerto Rico. However a final engagement took place on the same day. Restoration (Spain) The Restoration ( Spanish : Restauración ) or Bourbon Restoration (Spanish: Restauración borbónica )

3072-586: A wide range of topics of interest for those studying international relations, foreign area studies, contemporary and historical military topics, and security studies. The Naval Historical Collection (NHC) is the depository for the Naval War College archives, manuscripts, oral histories, and special collections relating to the history of naval warfare and the history of the U.S. Navy in Narragansett Bay . Established in 1969 and located in Mahan Hall,

3200-888: Is connected by two enclosed bridges. Pringle Hall contains a 432-seat auditorium, the Quinn Lecture Room, the Naval Staff College, the Graphic Arts Studio, the Photography Branch, and the Naval War College Press. In 1947, the Naval War College acquired an existing barracks building and converted it to a secondary war gaming facility, naming it Sims Hall after former War College President Admiral William Sowden Sims (Naval War College President from February to April 1917 and again from 1919–1922). In 1957 Sims Hall became

3328-902: The Graduate Program in International Relations at Salve Regina University . The arrangement allows Naval War College students to complete a Master of Arts degree in International Relations from Salve Regina University by taking six additional courses. The Naval War College Press has published the scholarly quarterly journal the Naval War College Review since 1948. It also publishes the "Newport Papers", as well as an historical monograph series and occasional books. The Henry E. Eccles Library, housed in Hewitt Hall, supports

3456-545: The Mona Passage that separates Puerto Rico from the island of Hispaniola to the east, Miles opted to land his troops in the southern region of the island, choosing Guánica as his landing zone. Miles dispatched patrol boats to notify all other convoys of his decision and to order them to proceed to Guanica. Miles' decision to change the invasion site was based on his belief that the town of Fajardo would be fortified and he feared that Spanish coastal gun boats would disrupt

3584-550: The Royal Navy . Part of his strategy called for the acquisition of colonies in the Caribbean Sea that would serve as coaling and naval stations, being strategic points of defense upon the construction of an Isthmusian canal . This idea was not new, since William H. Seward , the former secretary of state under the administrations of various presidents, among them Abraham Lincoln and Ulysses Grant , had stressed that

3712-759: The Second Spanish Republic . Naval War College The Naval War College is one of the senior service colleges including the Army War College , the Marine Corps War College , and the USAF Air War College . Additionally, the U.S. Department of Defense operates the National War College . The college was established on October 6, 1884; its first president, Commodore Stephen B. Luce ,

3840-524: The U.S. Army after the Treaty of Paris of 1898 was signed. The Spanish forces expected the Americans to attack the northern region of the island and concentrated their defenses around San Juan and Arecibo. The Spanish government was also aware of a planned landing by the Americans at Fajardo , located on the east coast and had that town fortified. However, the southern and western regions of Puerto Rico were left with little or no defenses at all. After Cuba

3968-576: The 24th Rifle Battalion, six companies of the Alfonso XIII auxiliaries, and other scattered Spanish and Puerto Rican guerilla forces dispatched from the garrison at Mayagüez to meet and defeat Schwan. The Spanish forces entrenched themselves at a high ridge called Silva Heights, located at a road near the town of Hormigueros . Schwan's troops arrived in the town of San Germán and continued the march towards their objective. Troop A of Schwan's 5th Cavalry approached Silva Heights and were soon engaged in

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4096-401: The American forces. He declared: "Providence will not permit that in these countries which were discovered by the Spanish nation the echo of our language should ever cease to be heard, nor that our flag should disappear before the eyes. ... Long live Puerto Rico, always Spanish. Long live Spain." Macías y Casado hoped that a grant of autonomy would ensure that Puerto Ricans would remain loyal to

4224-506: The Americans forced the Spanish to retreat from Guamaní Heights. This battle was the costliest battle yet for the Americans since their landing at Guánica, as it resulted in seven wounded. The Spanish forces suffered 2 dead and 15 wounded. Shortly after the American soldiers disembarked, a group of Spanish and Puerto Rican units began moving from Ponce to Aibonito, marching through the Carretera Central (Central Road). The caravan

4352-643: The Americans, depleting the Puerto Rican troops in the island. The 1st Puerto Rican Provisional Battalion, composed of the Talavera Cavalry and Krupp artillery, was sent to Santiago de Cuba where they battled the American forces in the Battle of San Juan Hill . After the battle, the Puerto Rican battalion suffered a total of 70 casualties which included their dead, wounded, missing and prisoners. The Spanish-appointed governor of Puerto Rico , Manuel Macías y Casado , declared martial law , resolving to resist

4480-454: The Americans. As the first group of sailors was entering the darkened lighthouse, naval cadet William H. Boardman was mortally wounded when his revolver fell from a faulty holster and discharged into his thigh, cutting the femoral artery. His was one of only two Navy deaths during the Puerto Rico campaign. On August 4, Governor General Manuel Macías y Casado sent Colonel Pedro del Pino and about 220 troops, including civil guardsmen to recapture

4608-482: The Civil Guard. Meanwhile, two battalions of volunteers from Wisconsin and Pennsylvania , led by Generals Oswald H. Ernst and James H. Wilson , settled on opposite sides of the road to Coamo. On August 9, 1898, the Americans began their offensive, opening cannon fire against the city and completing their attack with artillery fire, the 3rd and 4th Regular Pennsylvania Artillery to provide artillery support for

4736-796: The College of Naval Command and Staff is also required to enroll in one Elective Program course of his or her choice per trimester. A limited number of students may, with selection committee approval, forego up to one trimester of the core curriculum to participate in the Center for Naval Warfare Studies' Advanced Research Program. Beginning in 1914, NWC imparts its competent, executive-level programs beyond campus through its, now web-based, College of Distance Education (CDE). The three main CDE courses are Strategy and War, Theater Security Decision Making, and Joint Maritime Operations. Originally established in 1998 as

4864-610: The Fajardo Customs House at the harbor and city hall. On the evening of August 6, Captain Charles J. Barclay of Amphitrite ordered 28 sailors and 7 officers commanded by Lieutenant Charles N. Atwater and Assistant Engineer David J. Jenkins ashore to relight and occupy the Fajardo Light. They were also ordered to quarter 60 women and children of the town's families that were deemed in danger for having sided with

4992-585: The NHC's primary source material are of interest to naval historians, scholars, and students of American military and diplomatic history, Naval War College students, faculty and staff, and the general public. Over the years, the Naval War College has expanded greatly. The original building, the former Newport Asylum for the Poor, now serves as home to the Naval War College Museum . In 1892, Luce Hall

5120-859: The Naval Command and Staff College, it teaches Theater Security Decision Making and in support of the College of Naval Warfare, it teaches National Security Decision Making. The College of Naval Warfare is a multidisciplinary program designed for U.S. Navy and U.S. Coast Guard officers in the grades of commander or captain , U.S. Marine Corps, U.S. Army and U.S. Air Force officers in the grades of lieutenant colonel or colonel , and civilians of equivalent seniority from various federal agencies. This senior level professional military education program provides students with executive-level preparation for higher responsibilities as senior captains / colonels and as junior flag officers / general officers . College of Naval Warfare students pursue studies in each of

5248-606: The Naval Operational Planner Course, the Maritime Advanced Warfighting School (MAWS) is a 13-month program that educates U.S. officers of all services to: MAWS integrates the College of Naval Command and Staff core curriculum with specialized education and hands-on, real-world projects in the operational planning domain. MAWS is the U.S. Navy's peer school to the U.S. Army's School of Advanced Military Studies (SAMS),

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5376-481: The Naval War College's mission by providing information literacy training, reference tutorials and assistance, electronic literature searches, and access to over 90 databases, and interlibrary loan services to Professional Military Education/ Joint Professional Military Education , faculty research and analysis, and College of Distance Education. The library also aids curricula development by assisting faculty research, publishing bibliographies and research guides covering

5504-645: The Naval War College's three core subject areas in the following order of presentation: Joint Military Operations, Strategy and Policy, and National Security Decision Making. During all trimesters, College of Naval Warfare students are joined in lectures and in seminars by international students of the Naval Command College. Each College of Naval Warfare student is also required to enroll in one Elective Program course of his or her choice per trimester. A limited number of students in each class may, with selection committee approval, forego up to one trimester of

5632-477: The Naval War College's three core subject areas in the following order of presentation: Strategy and War, Theater Security Decision Making, and Joint Maritime Operations. While this basic curriculum is essentially the same as that of the more senior students enrolled in the College of Naval Warfare, individual courses are tailored to the experience level and career needs of the CNCS's mid-grade officers. Each student in

5760-450: The Puerto Rico campaign. After the town of Yauco was taken, Miles decided to attack the City of Ponce by sea and by land. Garretson's 6th Illinois and 6th Massachusetts had returned to Guanica and after the troops rested, Garretson and his men were ordered to move eastward to Ponce. Lt. Col. Rafael Martinez Illecas, in charge of the Spanish forces in that city, had pulled out, leaving behind

5888-555: The Restoration attempted to establish a new political system that ensured stability through the practice of turno , an intentional rotation of liberal and conservative parties in leadership often achieved through electoral fraud . Critics of the system included republicans , socialists , anarchists , Basque and Catalan nationalists, and Carlists . The Restoration period was characterized by political instability, economic challenges, and social unrest. Key issues that defined

6016-557: The Spanish Crown. On May 24, 1898, in a letter to Theodore Roosevelt, Henry Cabot Lodge wrote, "Porto Rico is not forgotten and we mean to have it". The Spanish Crown was unaware that, at the time, the United States had successfully infiltrated the island with a number of spies, among them Henry Howard Whitney , Henry Ward, George Bronson Brea, William Freeman, James Dewel, Frederick Ober and Edwin Emerson, Jr. According to

6144-759: The Spanish fortifications at Matanzas Bay in Cuba. By July 16, an armistice was signed at the Arbol de La Paz (a large ceiba tree) in Santiago de Cuba by U.S. and Spanish forces ending hostilities in Cuba and its waters. The United States then directed its undivided military resources to Puerto Rico. Two leaders of the Puerto Rican section of the Cuban Revolutionary Party, Julio J. Henna and Roberto H. Todd, had written to U.S. President McKinley asking that Puerto Rico be included in whatever intervention

6272-424: The Spanish government of abandoning military equipment during his retreat, committed suicide on August 2. Miles, upon learning about the lack of discipline of the 6th Massachusetts during the battle, ordered an investigation. The 6th Massachusetts was sent on a hard march from Guánica to Ponce as punishment and the regimental commander, a lieutenant colonel, a major, and a captain resigned upon request. On August 1,

6400-603: The Spanish government, signed an armistice whereby Spain relinquished its sovereignty over the territories of Puerto Rico, Cuba, the Philippines and Guam. In 1890, Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan , a member of the Navy War Board and leading U.S. strategic thinker, wrote a book titled The Influence of Sea Power upon History in which he argued for the creation of a large and powerful navy modeled after

6528-468: The Spanish opened fire. The Americans protected their position by the stream and increased their firepower as more reinforcements arrived. The outnumbered Spanish troops retreated to Guayama as the Americans made their advance on the hills. The firefight, which lasted half an hour, left three American wounded. When the 4th Ohio entered the town they discovered that the Spaniards had fled north and abandoned

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6656-461: The Spanish squadron and then move on to attack secondary shore targets- San Juan's castles , forts and batteries . He was unaware that Topete had already eluded them and slipped his squadron into the Bay of Santiago. On May 12, Sampson's squadron arrived at San Juan, finding an empty harbor. Making the best of the situation and as an exercise for his untested gunners, Sampson ordered the bombardment of

6784-415: The U.S. Army transports Lampasas , Unionist , Stillwater and Specialist . Two captured Spanish ships, Nueces and Rita that had been confiscated by USS Yale as war prizes were also used. In 1898, Guánica was a small barrio within the jurisdiction of the town of Yauco . It had 60 houses in all and its only defense was eleven members of the 4th Volante de Yauco, a Puerto Rican militia unit, under

6912-526: The U.S. Marine Corps' School of Advanced Warfighting (SAW), the U.S. Air Force's School of Advanced Air and Space Studies (SAASS), and the Joint Forces Staff College's Joint Advanced Warfighting School (JAWS). The National Security Affairs Department (NSA) curricula provide military officers and federal government civilians a foundation in contemporary security studies to analyze how the U.S. government makes foreign policy decisions and

7040-534: The War College's primary wargaming facility. The other building named after a non-president is named after Captain William McCarty Little , an influential leader and key figure in refining the techniques of war gaming. This high-tech facility is used primarily by the Center for Naval Warfare Studies to conduct war games and major conferences, and for research and analysis. The building features

7168-605: The Yauco rail terminus that ran between that town and the city of Ponce , the largest in the southern region of the island. Garretson and his men arrived in the darkness of night and were informed by his scouts of the possibility of a hostile situation at the Hacienda Desideria. He ordered the Illinois company and two companies (companies L and M) of the 6th Massachusetts to occupy a small hill on his right that overlooked

7296-446: The allied soldiers retreated after the battle left two dead on their side, and four on the American side. The United States was able to seize control of Fajardo on August 1, but was forced to withdraw on August 5 after a group of 200 Puerto Rican–Spanish soldiers led by Pedro del Pino gained control of the city, while most civilian inhabitants fled to a nearby lighthouse. The Americans encountered larger opposition as they advanced towards

7424-482: The allied troops opened cannon fire as the Americans entered their range. Potts ordered the deployment of two batteries while O'Hern received orders from Commander Landcaster to set a cannon at a distance of a 100 yards to the vanguard's right. They intended to defeat a small group led by Captain Hernaíz. Shrapnel from allied cannon fire was falling close to Lancaster's location, and he asked Potts to help him by deploying

7552-648: The allied units could capture the American equipment, Landcaster ordered a retreat. Lieutenant Hains was gravely injured by a Mauser bullet, being replaced by Sergeant John Long. Meanwhile, most of Potts' men fled the battlefield. In the crossfire the allied forces overpowered the American infantry, using Mauser fire to disorganize their artillery, during which time four American officials were gravely injured including Long, Lieutenant Harris, Captain E.T. Lee and Corporal Oscar Sawanson. Private Frederick Yough, Corporal August Yank, George J. Bruce and Private Sices also received injuries, with Yough subsequently dying. Harris' position

7680-464: The anarchist Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT) attempted to organize a national general strike, but the unions were only able to mobilize urban workers. When World War I broke out in 1914, the Italian government declared its neutrality , allowing Spain to do the same. Spain's neutrality led to economic growth. In 1918-1920, the flu pandemic resulted in the death of 200,000 Spaniards (1% of

7808-496: The bankruptcy of his government. As a result of these actions, the military withdrew their support. Alfonso XIII did the same and forced him to resign in January 1930. Alfonso XIII attempted to gradually restore the previous system and bolster his prestige by enlisting General Dámaso Berenguer as Prime Minister . However, due to the king's perceived support of the dictatorship, this proved unsuccessful and led to growing calls for

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7936-764: The bulk of the Spanish fleet under Admiral Pascual Cervera y Topete was steaming from the Cape Verde Islands to the Antilles and ultimately to Puerto Rico. With this understanding, Rear Admiral William T. Sampson and a squadron of ten American warships, the battleships USS  Iowa , Indiana , New York , cruisers USS  Montgomery and Detroit , monitors USS  Amphitrite and Terror , torpedo boat USS  Porter , two unidentified auxiliary cruisers , and an unarmed collier had stood out from Havana at noon on May 2 bound for Puerto Rico. Sampson intended to intercept and destroy

8064-417: The challenges of operational and strategic leadership over the remainder of their careers as decision makers and problem solvers. More than 1,900 students have graduated from the Maritime Staff Operators Course, 200 from the Executive Level OLW Course, and more than 450 U.S. and international flag and general officers from the Flag Course. Just as its educational programs have expanded in depth and reach, so have

8192-514: The city without suspicion and contact Rufino Huertas, a separatist teacher. Huertas gave Patterne a series of defense plans that were previously developed and organized by Martínez Illescas. While inactive, the Puerto Rican soldiers deployed in Asomante completed rounds every two hours, working four hours daily. They mostly ate beans, some rice and meat, while conserving several cracker packs for Spanish reinforcements that were supposed to arrive. They slept in improvised huts that did not protect them from

8320-415: The city's citadels. Captains Ramón Acha Caamaño and José Antonio Iriarte were among those who defended the city, from Castillo San Felipe del Morro . They had three batteries under their command, which were armed with at least three 15 cm Ordóñez cannons. The battle lasted three hours and resulted in the death of Justo Esquivies, the first Puerto Rican soldier to die in the Puerto Rico campaign. Caamaño

8448-439: The city, ending the Battle of Guayama. General John Rutter Brooke used the Cautiño Residence ( Casa Cautiño ) by the town square in Guayama as his military headquarters. On August 6, Colonel Alonzo B. Coit sent two companies of the 4th Ohio on a reconnaissance mission across and beyond a cast iron bridge that crossed the Río Guamaní ( Guamaní River ). The road beyond the bridge was essential for General Hains' projected advance to

8576-426: The city. When Colonel Pino entered Fajardo on August 7, he found it nearly deserted because the residents, fearing a battle, had fled to the Fajardo Light and the surrounding hills. At close to midnight on August 8, Pino's troops began their assault on the lighthouse. The landing party of Amphitrite ' s sailors occupying the lighthouse doused the light and signaled the ships offshore, initiating shore bombardment as

8704-413: The civil guards, and mounted guerrillas from the towns of Yauco and Sabana Grande . Puig had the men positioned on both sides of the road that ran from Guánica to the coffee Hacienda Desideria (owned by Antonio Mariani) in Yauco, as well as an infantry company positioned on a hill south of the hacienda. In the meantime, Garretson set out of Guánica with his men towards Yauco with the intention of capturing

8832-428: The command of Captain Charles Sigsbee arrived at San Juan Bay from Cuba and joined the blockade. Shortly after midday the old Spanish cruiser Isabel II set off from San Juan to engage Saint Paul with support from shore batteries. Isabel II opened fire on Saint Paul at long range without success in an attempt to break the blockade. Terror , a Spanish destroyer docked in San Juan for repairs, attempted to cover

8960-467: The command of Lieutenant Enrique Méndez López. When the Guánica lighthouse keeper Robustiano Rivera spotted the approaching convoy, he immediately gave the alert to the residents of the barrio. All of the residents, with the exception Agustín Barrenechea, Vicente Ferrer, Juan María Morciglio, Simón Mejil, Salvador Muñoz, Cornelio Serrano and Pascual Elena, who welcomed the invaders, abandoned their homes and joined Rivera on his journey to Yauco where he broke

9088-473: The core curriculum to participate in the Center for Naval Warfare Studies' Advanced Research Program. The Naval War College has been accredited by the New England Association of Schools and Colleges since 1984. Several years later the Naval War College earned the authority to award to students in some of its programs a Master of Arts in National Security and Strategic Studies . Naval War College students are also permitted to transfer up to 18 credits to

9216-512: The country underwent significant modernization. Domestic production was expanded in most areas, supported by a highly protectionist policy. The Liberal Party , led by Práxedes Mateo Sagasta , and the Conservative Party , led by Antonio Cánovas del Castillo , alternated in power through the controlled process of el turno pacífico . Local figures, known as caciques , manipulated the election results, fueling growing resentment of

9344-472: The crossfire, prompting a retreat order. The allied units (Spanish and Puerto Rican) lost five soldiers and two civil guards. During the following two days the Americans decided to do a battlefield reconnaissance and Colonel Samuel Reber II , developed a croquis of the Aibonito Pass. Spies were deployed throughout Coamo, including a Puerto Rican separatist named Carlos Patterne, who was able to enter

9472-461: The cruiser Isabel II and the destroyer Terror delivered a Spanish counterattack , but were unable to break the blockade and Terror was damaged. The land offensive began on July 25, when 1,300 infantry soldiers led by Major General Nelson A. Miles disembarked off the coast of Guánica . After controlling the first skirmish, the Americans advanced to Coamo , where they engaged Puerto Rican and Spanish troops in battle. The battle concluded when

9600-417: The cruiser's escape with a torpedo attack but was thwarted when her rudder was damaged by a direct hit from Saint Paul . Losing steerage, Terror inadvertently turned broadside, allowing Saint Paul to score direct hits near Terror ' s waterline, disabling one of her engines and causing her to list. Terror abandoned the attack and returned to port, followed by Isabel II . On June 26, USS Saint Paul

9728-467: The establishment of a republic. On 17 August 1930, republican groups formed the Pact of San Sebastián , forming a revolutionary committee that would later become the leadership of the Second Spanish Republic . Berenguer eventually resigned, and the king appointed Admiral Juan Bautista Aznar in his place. On 12 April 1931, Aznar called for local elections to appease the democrats and republicans, replace

9856-580: The following morning to find that the Spanish forces had abandoned the city to retreat to the east towards Lares . Schwan decided to send forces in order to follow and capture Soto Villanueva and his forces, as he was additionally ordered to take the town of Las Marías which was in the way of the retreating army's path. The outcome of the Silva Heights Battle left 3 Spanish dead, 6 wounded, and 136 prisoners. Schwan's brigade suffered 15 wounded and 2 killed in action. The American cavalry pursued

9984-468: The frontal assault on the Baños, damaging the resort. The Americans intended to encircle and defeat the defenses in the city. A group of soldiers entered the city from the backside, having advanced through a river nearby. The rear assault was reinforced by Wilson's army under General Ernst, attempting to trap the allied soldiers in a crossfire, employing a tactic known as the pincer movement . Martínez Illescas

10112-524: The grade of lieutenant commander , U.S. Marine Corps , U.S. Army , and U.S. Air Force officers in the grade of major , and civilians of equivalent seniority from various federal agencies. This intermediate level service college course provides an initial opportunity for joint professional military education wherein students prepare for increased responsibilities as commanders / lieutenant colonels , and as junior captains / colonels . College of Naval Command and Staff students pursue studies in each of

10240-464: The hacienda. Captain San Pedro detected the movements of the American troops from his positions on a nearby hill and ordered his men to open fire. Garretson then ordered a direct attack on the Spanish and Puerto Rican forces in the hacienda. At day break, the 6th Massachusetts overran the Spanish forces and suffered four casualties. Puig was expecting reinforcements from Yauco which did not arrive and

10368-409: The headquarters of General Miles. From this group Miles organized the "Porto Rican Scouts", which was later assigned to General Theodore Schwan, under the command of Edwardo Lugo Viñas. Miles then ordered Brigadier General Peter G. Hains and the men of the 3rd Illinois, 4th Ohio and 4th Pennsylvania Volunteer Infantry Regiments to take Arroyo , a small port 60 miles (97 km) east of Ponce that served

10496-491: The invasion: "Spanish troops are retreating from southern part of Puerto Rico. This is a prosperous and beautiful country. The Army will soon be in mountain region. Weather delightful; troops in the best of health and spirit. Anticipate no insurmountable obstacles in future results. Results thus far have been accomplished without loss of a single life. After Rivera, the keeper of the Guánica lighthouse notified Atilio Gaztambide,

10624-453: The journey would last two days. The group decided to spend one night in the resort of the town of Coamo known as the Baños de Coamo before continuing their march in the morning. Martínez Illescas immediately ordered the construction of several trenches; while building these, the soldiers were ambushed by an anti-Spanish guerilla force, led by Pedro María Descartes, who managed to kill a member of

10752-415: The landing at Guanica the next day when he read an Associated Press report in a local Washington, D.C. , newspaper. The War Department had ordered Miles to invade Puerto Rico by way of San Juan and therefore Alger was completely surprised with the report. Miles would have been subject to disciplinary actions had the invasion not gone so smoothly. Alger received the following cable from Miles three days after

10880-518: The landing points for the invasion of Puerto Rico. A photostatic copy of Riefkohl's map was published in the Century article. The first engagement between the belligerents occurred on May 8, 1898, when the converted liner USS  Yale captured a Spanish freighter, Rita , in San Juan Bay. On May 9, Yale fought a brief battle with Alfonso XIII , a Spanish auxiliary cruiser , resulting in

11008-616: The landing site for the US Army's invasion of Puerto Rico. Rodgers ordered a reconnaissance landing party ashore, including Puerto Rican volunteers. The sailors advanced to within a one-half mile (0.80 km) of Fajardo, about five miles (8.0 km) from the coast, but withdrew when they encountered Spanish troops. The 25-man Spanish garrison stationed in Fajardo was alerted to the American presence and ordered to withdraw after notifying their superiors in San Juan. When Santiago Veve Calzada,

11136-415: The larger, nearby coastal town of Guayama . Arroyo was taken on August 2 and on August 5 Hanes ordered the 4th Ohio, the 3rd Illinois and a battery of Sims-Dudley guns, manned by Company G of the 4th Ohio, to capture Guayama. Spanish forces were entrenched on the crest of two small hills, between which the road from Arroyo to Guayama ran. The Americans had crossed a stream in front of the hills when suddenly

11264-446: The local governing bodies of the dictatorship, and gradually restore the restoration. Although the monarchists still had some support, the republican and socialist parties won an overwhelming victory. Their victory led to street riots and demands for the abolition of the monarchy. On 14 April, the king fled Spain after the army announced it would not defend him. A provisional government led by Niceto Alcalá-Zamora immediately established

11392-555: The loss of Spain's last major overseas colonies, including Cuba , Guam , Puerto Rico , and the Philippines . This rapid collapse devastated Spain and damaged the credibility of the government and its associated ideologies. It also nearly caused a military coup d'état led by General Camilo García de Polavieja . This event marked the beginning of the country's decline, giving rise to numerous conflicting opposition movements at local and national levels. Alfonso XIII came of age in May 1902 and

11520-700: The main island's interior. They engaged in two crossfires in Guamani River and Coamo , both of which were inconclusive as the allied soldiers retreated. A battle in San Germán concluded in a similar fashion with the Spanish retreating to Lares . On August 9, 1898, American troops that were pursuing units retreating from Coamo and Asomante encountered heavy resistance in Aibonito and retreated after six of their soldiers were injured. They returned three days later, reinforced with artillery units and attempted

11648-655: The mayor of the town of Yauco , located six miles (9.7 km) north of Guánica, of the American invasion of Guánica, the mayor in turn notified Governor Macías via telegraph. Governor Macías ordered Captain Salvador Meca and his 3rd Company of the 25th Patria Battalion from Yauco to head for Guánica. Meca and his men were joined by Lieutenant Colonel Francisco Puig, who assumed command of the Spanish forces at Hacienda Desideria two miles (3.2 km) from Guánica. Puig arrived with two companies known as "Cazador Patria Battalion", and they were joined by Puerto Rican volunteers,

11776-465: The men who continued to attack retreated to Aibonito when they realized that the Americans were using a pincer movement. Brigadier General Theodore Schwan and 2,896 men of his Independent Brigade had landed in Guanica and marched towards occupied Yauco. Schwan and his men were ordered to move westward and to capture the city of Mayagüez . Colonel Julio Soto Villanueva ordered 1,500 Spanish Regulars of

11904-498: The military, who felt misunderstood as they were ordered to advance inland without adequate resources to occupy the difficult terrain. Military and civil unrest grew, amplified by fears of anarchist terrorism or proletarian revolution and the rise of nationalist movements. On 13 September 1923, Miguel Primo de Rivera , Captain General of Catalonia , staged a coup d'état and deposed Prime Minister Manuel García Prieto after issuing

12032-434: The militia unit was forced to retreat to the town of Yauco. After the skirmish was over, men from Lampasas landed on the beach to secure the area and to build a landing dock. Three thousand and three-hundred American soldiers under the command of General Miles landed. The units that landed were the 6th Volunteer Regiments of Illinois and Massachusetts, an artillery battalion, five battery companies, two engineer companies and

12160-511: The monitors USS  Puritan , USS  Amphitrite , armed tug USS  Leyden , and collier USS  Hannibal were sailing off the coast of Fajardo on the northeast corner of Puerto Rico, when Captain Frederick W. Rodgers , Puritan ' s commanding officer and senior officer afloat, spotted the Faro de Las Cabezas de San Juan ( Cape San Juan Lighthouse ) that had been designated

12288-403: The naval guns began firing a protective pattern. After two hours, the Spanish forces retreated back to the town. The Americans suffered no casualties, despite a close call when a wayward naval shell smashed through the two-foot (0.61 m) thick walls of the lighthouse within touch of six men but failed to explode. The Spanish losses were two dead and three wounded, including a lieutenant. Early

12416-514: The news of the invading forces to the city's mayor. Gloucester was the first ship to set anchor in the Bay of Guánica. Twenty-eight sailors and marines , under the command of lieutenants H. P. Huse and Wood, departed from the ship on rafts and landed on the beach. The marines lowered the Spanish flag from the beach flagpole and replaced it with the American flag . They then proceeded to set up

12544-409: The next morning, Barclay decided the continued occupation of the lighthouse was of marginal value and ordered his men back to the ship. A landing party of 30 sailors from Amphitrite and a similar number of U.S. Marines from USS  Cincinnati under Lieutenant John A. Lejeune came ashore to secure the area while the 60 Fajardan civilians boarded Leyden for passage to Ponce and the lighthouse

12672-481: The period include: On 29 December 1874, General Arsenio Martínez Campos 's pronunciamiento overthrew the First Spanish Republic and restored the monarchy, crowning Alfonso XII , son of the exiled Isabella II , as king . The Constitution of 1876 was soon established; it remained in force throughout the Restoration. This constitution established Spain as a constitutional monarchy with

12800-662: The population). In 1921, conflict in Morocco escalated, beginning the Rif War . A group of Moroccan militants launched a surprise attack on the Spanish army. Led by the Moroccan chieftain Abd-Al-Krim , Moroccans nearly annihilated the Spanish forces and pushed them back toward Melilla in the Battle of Annual . The top military officers were blamed for the Spanish defeat due to poor planning. This led to lowered morale among

12928-583: The primary center for the Naval War College's wargaming department, serving as such until 1999. Sims Hall is undergoing renovations that are expected to be completed in 2021. The 1970s saw the War College's most active expansion, with the opening of three separate buildings. In 1972, Spruance Hall, named after former NWC President Admiral Raymond A. Spruance (March 1946 – July 1948), was completed, housing faculty offices and an 1,100 seat auditorium. On March 17, 1975, Johnny Cash with The Tennessee Three including June Carter Cash and Carl Lee Perkins performed

13056-487: The rail terminus which connected the town to the city of Ponce, and proceeded to march towards the town of Peñuelas . Garretson's troops entered Yauco on the afternoon of July 26 and on July 27 Puig's men continued their march, leaving their artillery and heavy equipment behind, passing the towns of Adjuntas and Utuado and finally arriving at the town of Arecibo on the northern coast of the island on July 29. Colonel Puig, believing that he would be dishonored and accused by

13184-559: The rain. The American commanders decided to attack the trenches with artillery, while sending a large group to Barranquitas , from which they would try to attack the allied troops from the back. At 10:30 a.m. Captain Ramsay D. Potts led part of the 3rd Wisconsin Volunteer Infantry Regiment through the central highway to Aibonito. Lieutenants Bliss and O'Hern led two units with similar equipment. At 1:00 p.m.

13312-484: The research and analysis efforts conducted by its Center for Naval Warfare Studies. Through war games, conferences, workshops, and publications, its research arm provides direct curriculum support to its educational programs and focused, task-driven analysis for fleet customers and government agencies across the national security spectrum. The College of Naval Command and Staff (CNCS) is a multidisciplinary program designed for U.S. Navy and U.S. Coast Guard officers in

13440-492: The role the U.S. plays in the world. This includes: the ability to develop and communicate analyses of current and emerging security issues facing the U.S. and its international partners and allies, the understanding of U.S. decision making dynamics at the strategic level, and the ability to assess political, budgetary, bureaucratic, organizational, and leadership factors influencing decision making and implementation of U.S. foreign policy and strategy development.   In support of

13568-660: The scope of his strategic thinking and influence on naval leaders worldwide. The College engaged in wargaming various scenarios from 1887 on, and in time became a laboratory for the development of war plans . Nearly all of the U.S. naval operations of the twentieth century were originally designed and gamed at the NWC. More than 50,000 students have graduated since its first class of 9 students in 1885 and about 300 of today's active duty admirals, and generals and senior executive service leaders are alumni. The college's joint professional military education (JPME) programs prepare leaders for

13696-559: The ships of war of the United States, in war will be like land birds, unable to fly far from their own shores. To provide resting places for them where they can coal and repair, would be one of the first duties of a government proposing to itself the development of the power of the nation at sea." Since 1894, the Naval War College had been formulating plans for war with Spain. By 1896, the Office of Naval Intelligence had prepared

13824-521: The soldiers that had retreated from Coamo, but were not able to reach them until the units had entered Aibonito Pass, a region more commonly known as Asomante. The region had been prepared by allied Puerto Rican and Spanish troops, who had built a trench and placed soldiers and equipment around the foliage. As soon as the soldiers noticed the presence of the invading unit they opened cannon fire. The cavalry received infantry reinforcements, which were received by battery fire. Six American soldiers were injured in

13952-678: The system. This led to the formation of major nationalist movements and unions in Catalonia , Galicia , and the Basque Country . Alfonso XII died in November 1885 from a recurrence of dysentery . At that time, his wife Maria Cristina was pregnant. Their son Alfonso XIII was born on 17 May 1886, and a Regency was formed, headed by the Queen Mother Maria Cristina. In 1898, the Spanish–American War led to

14080-485: The town of Cayey . The 4th Ohio observed elements of Spain's 6th Provisional Battalion under the command of Julio Cervera Baviera entrenched in Guamaní Heights, six miles north of the bridge. The 4th felt that they were too strongly entrenched to attempt an assault at the time. The 4th Ohio requested reinforcements and on August 9, attacked the Spaniards and a short firefight erupted. The numerical superiority of

14208-577: The years. Pringle Hall (named after Vice Admiral Joel R. P. Pringle , Naval War College President from 1927–1930) was opened in 1934, and was the principal site for war gaming from the time of its completion in 1934 until the Naval Electronic Warfare Simulator was built in Sims Hall in 1957. The exterior facing of the building is pink Milford granite , similar in appearance to the ashlar granite of Luce Hall, to which it

14336-410: Was abandoned to the Spaniards. In Fajardo, Pino's men tore down the U.S. flags that flew over the harbor Customs House and City Hall, returning to San Juan after verifying that the lighthouse was abandoned. The contingent of about 20 civil guards that had accompanied Pino, were left to maintain order in the town. The skirmish at Fajardo was the only time that American forces withdrew from a position during

14464-625: Was awarded the Cruz de la Orden de Merito Militar (the Cross of the Order of the Military Merit) first class for his actions. After causing much damage to the Spanish defenses and receiving minor damage, low on coal and ammunition, Sampson ordered a cease fire and returned to Havana, Cuba, and then on to Key West, Florida , for repairs and supplies. On June 22, 1898, USS  Saint Paul under

14592-565: Was awarded the Cruz de la Orden de Merito Militar (the Cross of the Order of the Military Merit) first class. The Bombardment of San Juan or the First Battle of San Juan (not to be confused with the Battle of San Juan Hill or the Battle for the Río San Juan de Nicaragua ) refers to an American naval attack on the fortifications of San Juan, Puerto Rico , during the Spanish–American War. The American naval commanders believed

14720-514: Was awarded the Cruz de la Orden de Merito Naval by the Spanish government. The residents of San Juan were furious with Captain Rivero-Méndez and blamed him for the destruction wreaked on their city by American bombardments. Nothing came of those recriminations and Captain Rivero-Méndez was ordered to turn over the keys of all the military installations in San Juan to Captain Henry A. Reed of

14848-513: Was composed of two companies of the Batallón de Cazadores de la Patria (Battalion of the Motherland's Hunters) and some members of the Civil Guard and a Puerto Rican guerilla force. A total of 248 infantry men and 42 members of the cavalry formed the battalions under the command of Lt. Col. Rafael Martínez Illescas, the same commander who was in charge of the Ponce garrison. Traveling by foot,

14976-867: Was crowned on 17 May 1902, ending the regency of the Queen Mother. Spain began its international rehabilitation after the Algeciras Conference of 1906. In 1907, it signed the Pact of Cartagena with France and Great Britain, a defensive alliance against the Triple Alliance . The Spanish government was able to begin rebuilding its fleet and built the España-class battleship and the Reina Victoria Eugenia-class battleship . In 1909, failed attempts to conquer Morocco led to domestic discontent, culminating in

15104-673: Was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1964, and listed on the National Register of Historic Places . Luce Hall was again listed on the National Register in 1972. Mahan Hall, named after Rear Admiral Alfred Thayer Mahan (NWC President from 1886–1889 and 1892–1893), was completed and opened in 1904, and encompasses the historic Mahan Rotunda and Reading Room, as well as student study areas. The Mahan Rotunda also serves as an impromptu museum of gifts and artifacts donated by graduating international students over

15232-419: Was due to a coal fire igniting a reserve magazine of six tons of gunpowder, much of which was already degrading due to the humid climate. However, the United States forwarded an ultimatum to Spain to withdraw from Cuba following the sinking of Maine . In response, Spain broke off diplomatic relations with the United States, and on April 23, 1898, Spain declared war . On April 25, the U.S. Congress declared that

15360-417: Was filled by O'Hern, while Sawanson was fatally shot while trying to support the artillery. In total the allied units had only an injured artillery man, while the American side had two dead and five injured. Wilson's camp was the first to receive a telegram from General Miles notifying him that the war had ended. The Americans sent Bliss to Asomante, but Nouvilas refused to suspend the hostilities after receiving

15488-484: Was given the old building of the Newport Asylum for the Poor to house it on Coasters Harbor Island in Narragansett Bay . Among the first four faculty members were Tasker H. Bliss , a future Army Chief of Staff, James R. Soley , the first civilian faculty member and a future Assistant Secretary of the Navy , and, most famously, Captain (later, Rear Admiral) Alfred Thayer Mahan , who soon became renowned for

15616-469: Was opened as the college's new home, at a cost of $ 100,000. At the time, the building housed lecture rooms and a library. Wings at either end provided two sets of quarters, occupied by the president of the College and members of the faculty. When the Naval War College was enlarged in 1932, this original building was renamed Luce Hall in honor of the institution's founder and first Superintendent (later President), Stephen B. Luce . This original pair of buildings

15744-538: Was ordered to disengage and retreat. Before retreating the right wing of the Spanish force, which was not overrun, initiated a flanking attack against two positions held by the Illinois and Massachusetts companies. The unexpected strength of the Spanish force caused some of the 6th Massachusetts troops to momentarily withdraw, but the Spanish forces were eventually driven off. Puig and his forces suffered two officers and three soldiers wounded and two soldiers dead. Puig and his men retreated towards Yauco, but failed to destroy

15872-506: Was planned for Cuba as early as March 10. They even provided the U.S. government with information about the Spanish military presence on the island. On April 21, 1898, the Gaceta de Puerto Rico published a decree signaling martial law for the island, suspending all constitutional rights in the preparation for war. With the outbreak of war, the Spanish Crown sent the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Puerto Rican provisional battalions to defend Cuba against

16000-497: Was relieved by USS  Yosemite , which continued the blockade of San Juan Bay. On June 28, 1898, the American auxiliary cruiser USS  Yosemite fought with a squadron of Spanish warships. This squadron consisted of one cruiser, two gunboats and one blockade runner. During the engagement, SS Antonio López , a transoceanic steamer belonging to the Compañía Transatlántica Española carrying

16128-509: Was surprised by the attack and led an improvised attack, but he was killed in the crossfire along with his second-in-command, leaving Captain Hita in charge; he ordered his men to surrender. Half of the allied troops ignored the order, and continued the attack, Troop C galloped at top speed north from the Baños de Coamo, after finding the resort abandoned by the Spanish. Hita's men were sent to a prisoner-of-war camp located at Río Descalabrado , while

16256-501: Was taken, President William McKinley approved the land invasion of Puerto Rico by way of Fajardo , taking into consideration that the Spaniards had fortified San Juan, where they expected the initial attack. A convoy of ships left Tampa, Florida , and on July 21 another convoy, which included USS Yale , USS Massachusetts , USS Gloucester and USS Dixie , departed from Guantánamo for a four-day journey to Puerto Rico. Major General Miles traveled aboard USS Yale . While approaching

16384-600: Was the period in Spanish history between the First Spanish Republic and the Second Spanish Republic from 1874 to 1931. It began on 29 December 1874, after a coup d'état by General Arsenio Martínez Campos ended the First Spanish Republic and restored the monarchy under Alfonso XII , and ended on 14 April 1931 with the proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic. After nearly a century of political instability and several civil wars,

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