36-550: Pushyamitra Shunga ( IAST : Puṣyamitra Śuṅga ) or Pushpamitra Shunga ( IAST : Puṣpamitra Śuṅga ) (ruled c. 185 – c. 149 BCE ) was the founder and the first ruler of the Shunga Empire which he established to succeed the Maurya Empire . His original name was Puṣpaka or Puṣpamitra and the confusion between Puṣyamitra and Puṣpamitra arose because of the erroneous readings of 'p' and 'y' in
72-568: A macron ). Vocalic (syllabic) consonants, retroflexes and ṣ ( / ʂ ~ ɕ ~ʃ/ ) have an underdot . One letter has an overdot: ṅ ( /ŋ/ ). One has an acute accent : ś ( /ʃ/ ). One letter has a line below: ḻ ( / ɭ / ) (Vedic). Unlike ASCII -only romanisations such as ITRANS or Harvard-Kyoto , the diacritics used for IAST allow capitalisation of proper names. The capital variants of letters never occurring word-initially ( Ṇ Ṅ Ñ Ṝ Ḹ ) are useful only when writing in all-caps and in Pāṇini contexts for which
108-509: A century of scholarly usage in books and journals on classical Indian studies. By contrast, the ISO 15919 standard for transliterating Indic scripts emerged in 2001 from the standards and library worlds. For the most part, ISO 15919 follows the IAST scheme, departing from it only in minor ways (e.g., ṃ/ṁ and ṛ/r̥)—see comparison below. The Indian National Library at Kolkata romanization , intended for
144-444: A distinctive contribution to IR theory through a “hybrid” approach derived from Gandhi and Mao, on the one hand, and behavioralist systems theories, on the other. The study outlines the evolution of his thinking and the connections with his broader concerns with postcolonial nation-building. Above all, Bandypadhyaya played a leading part in advancing Jadavpur University's School of International Relations and Strategic Studies, one of
180-433: A font, etc. It can be enabled in the input menu in the menu bar under System Preferences → International → Input Menu (or System Preferences → Language and Text → Input Sources) or can be viewed under Edit → Emoji & Symbols in many programs. Equivalent tools – such as gucharmap ( GNOME ) or kcharselect ( KDE ) – exist on most Linux desktop environments. Users of SCIM on Linux based platforms can also have
216-515: A university post in Kolkata . He remained at Jadavpur University until his retirement in 1993, advancing to the rank of professor, among other positions. Bandyopadhyaya's classic study is still considered an indispensable guide to the foreign policy-making process in New Delhi. The book's strength comes from an unusual combination of scholarly rigor and inside knowledge. Bandyopadhyaya develops
252-569: A wicked and foolish king named Gomimukhya ("cattle-faced"), or Gomishanda ("Gomin, the bull"), who seized the territory from the east to Kashmir, destroying monasteries and killing monks. Ultimately, he and his officers were killed in the north by falling mountain rocks. This king is identified with Pushyamitra by Jayantanuja Bandyopadhyaya . The 16th-century Tibetan Buddhist historian Taranatha also states that Pushyamitra and his allies killed Buddhist monks and destroyed monasteries from madhyadesha (midland) to Jalandhara . These activities wiped out
288-476: Is a fabrication, considering that Ashoka's edicts express tolerance towards all religious sects. The Sri Lankan Buddhist text Mahavamsa suggests that several monasteries existed in present-day Bihar, Awadh and Malwa at the time Pushyamitra's contemporary Dutthagamani ruled in Lanka. This suggests that these monasteries survived Pushyamitra Shunga's reign. H. C. Raychaudhury argued that Pushyamitra's overthrow of
324-649: Is a transliteration scheme that allows the lossless romanisation of Indic scripts as employed by Sanskrit and related Indic languages. It is based on a scheme that emerged during the 19th century from suggestions by Charles Trevelyan , William Jones , Monier Monier-Williams and other scholars, and formalised by the Transliteration Committee of the Geneva Oriental Congress , in September 1894. IAST makes it possible for
360-503: Is also datable to Pushyamitra's period. H. C. Raychaudhari pointed out that Buddhist monuments were constructed at Bharhut during the Shunga rule. However, according to N. N. Ghosh, these were constructed during the reign of later Shunga rulers, not Pushyamitra's period. H. Bhattacharya theorized that Pushyamitra might have persecuted Buddhists for political, rather than religious, reasons: the politically active Buddhists probably supported
396-782: Is by setting up an alternative keyboard layout . This allows one to hold a modifier key to type letters with diacritical marks. For example, alt + a = ā. How this is set up varies by operating system. Linux/Unix and BSD desktop environments allow one to set up custom keyboard layouts and switch them by clicking a flag icon in the menu bar. macOS One can use the pre-installed US International keyboard, or install Toshiya Unebe's Easy Unicode keyboard layout. Microsoft Windows Windows also allows one to change keyboard layouts and set up additional custom keyboard mappings for IAST. This Pali keyboard installer made by Microsoft Keyboard Layout Creator (MSKLC) supports IAST (works on Microsoft Windows up to at least version 10, can use Alt button on
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#1732765090057432-594: The Indo-Greek rivals of Pushyamitra, which might have prompted him to persecute them. The Ashokavadana states that Pushyamitra declared a reward for killing Buddhist monks in Shakala (present-day Sialkot), which was located near the Indo-Greek frontiers. According to K. P. Jayaswal, this further highlights a political motivation behind his alleged persecution of Buddhists. Others have expressed skepticism about
468-536: The Shunga Empire after assassinating the last Mauryan emperor Brihadratha Maurya . Subsequently, he drove out the Greeks with the Shunga–Greek War and ruled for 36 years. The Buddhist text Ashokavadana names Pushyamitra as the last Mauryan emperor. Sampadin's son was Bṛhaspati who, in turn, had a son named Vṛṣasena, and Vṛṣasena had a son named Puṣyadharman, and Pusyadharman begot Pusyamitra ...... With
504-544: The sangharama , killed the monks there, and departed. ... After some time, he arrived in Sakala , and proclaimed that he would give a ... reward to whoever brought him the head of a Buddhist monk. Like other portions of the text, these accounts are regarded by many historians as being exaggerated. Vibhasa , another 2nd century text, states that Pushyamitra burned Buddhist scriptures, killed Buddhist monks, and destroyed 500 monasteries in and around Kashmir . In this campaign, he
540-603: The Buddhist claims of persecution by Pushyamitra. Étienne Lamotte points out that the Buddhist legends are not consistent about the location of Pushyamitra's anti-Buddhist campaign and his death. The Ashokavadana claims that Pushyamitra offered Roman dinara s as a reward for killing Buddhist monks, but the dinara did not come into general circulation in India before the 1st century BCE. Ashokavadana also claims that Ashoka persecuted Nirgrantha s ( Ajivikas ), which some assert
576-416: The Buddhist doctrine from the north, within five years. Based on Buddhist tradition, some scholars believe that Pushyamitra was indeed a persecutor of the Buddhist faith. However, others believe that Buddhist scholars were biased against Pushyamitra, because he did not patronize them. According to archaeologist John Marshall , there is evidence of some damage to Buddhist establishments at Takshashila around
612-590: The Buddhists" though he may not have actively supported the Buddhists, invoking the Buddhist wrath. Romila Thapar writes that the lack of concrete archaeological evidence casts doubt on the claims of Buddhist persecution by Pushyamitra. It is possible that the Buddhist influence at the Mauryan court declined during Pushyamitra's reign, and the Buddhist monasteries and other institutions stopped receiving royal patronage. This change might have led to discontent among
648-403: The Buddhists, resulting in exaggerated accounts of persecution. Michael Witzel states that Manu Smriti , which emphasizes the role of orthodox faith in state-craft and society, was first compiled under Pushyamitra's rule. According to Kaushik Roy, it was a Brahmanical reaction to the rise of Buddhism and Jainism. Shunga emperors were seen as amenable to Buddhism and as having contributed to
684-596: The Mauryans cannot be considered as a Brahmin uprising against Buddhist rule, as Brahmins did not suffer during the Mauryan rule: Ashoka's edicts mention the Brahmins before Shramanas , and the appointment of a Brahmin general (Pushyamitra) shows that the Brahmins were honoured at the Mauryan court. The fact that the Ashokavadana mentions Pushyamitra as a Mauryan further erodes its historical credibility, and weakens
720-594: The area of Sanskrit studies make use of free OpenType fonts such as FreeSerif or Gentium , both of which have complete support for the full repertoire of conjoined diacritics in the IAST character set. Released under the GNU FreeFont or SIL Open Font License , respectively, such fonts may be freely shared and do not require the person reading or editing a document to purchase proprietary software to make use of its associated fonts. Jayantanuja Bandyopadhyaya Jayantanuja Bandyopadhyaya (1933 — 5 October 2009)
756-622: The building of the stupa at Bharhut . During his reign the Buddhist monuments of Bharhut and Sanchi were renovated and further improved. There is enough evidence to show that Pushyamitra patronised buddhist art. Pushyamitra Shunga was succeeded in 148 BCE by his son Agnimitra . Pushyamitra Shunga's history is recorded in the Harshacharita authored by Bāṇabhaṭṭa . According to Vicarasreni of Merutunga , Pushyamitra or Pushpamitra got his throne in 204 BC. IAST The International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration ( IAST )
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#1732765090057792-536: The consumer edition since XP. This is limited to characters in the Basic Multilingual Plane (BMP). Characters are searchable by Unicode character name, and the table can be limited to a particular code block. More advanced third-party tools of the same type are also available (a notable freeware example is BabelMap ). macOS provides a "character palette" with much the same functionality, along with searching by related characters, glyph tables in
828-631: The convention is to typeset the IT sounds as capital letters. For the most part, IAST is a subset of ISO 15919 that merges the retroflex (underdotted) liquids with the vocalic ones ( ringed below ) and the short close-mid vowels with the long ones. The following seven exceptions are from the ISO standard accommodating an extended repertoire of symbols to allow transliteration of Devanāgarī and other Indic scripts , as used for languages other than Sanskrit. The most convenient method of inputting romanized Sanskrit
864-542: The death of Pusyamitra, the Mauryan lineage came to an end. --Aśokāvadāna This text appears to have confused Brihadratha with Pushyamitra. H. C. Raychaudhuri theorized that the name "Shunga" is derived from the Sanskrit word for the fig tree. Buddhist texts claim that Pushyamitra cruelly persecuted the Buddhists. The earliest source to mention this is the 2nd Century CE text Ashokavadana (a part of Divyavadana ). According to this account, Pushyamitra (described as
900-459: The hypothesis that he persecuted Buddhists because he was a Brahmin. Raychaudhury also argued that according to Malavikagnimitra , a Buddhist nun named Bhagavati Kaushiki attended Pushyamitra's court, which indicates that they did not persecute Buddhists. However, Shankar Goyal states that there is no evidence of Kaushiki being a Buddhist nun. Historian Eric Seldeslachts states that there is "no proof whatsoever that Pushyamitra actually persecuted
936-475: The last Mauryan emperor) wanted to be famous. His ministers advised him that as long as Buddhism remained the dominant faith, he would never be as famous as his ancestor Ashoka , who had commissioned 84,000 stupas . One advisor told him that he could become famous by destroying Buddhism. Pushyamitra then tried to destroy the Kukkutarama monastery, but it was saved by chance. He then proceeded to Shakala in
972-842: The manuscripts. Pushyamitra is recorded to have performed the Ashvamedha ritual to legitimize his right to rule. Inscriptions of the Shungas have been found as far as the Ayodhya (the Dhanadeva–Ayodhya inscription ), and the Divyavadana mentions that his empire stretched as far as Sakala (now Sialkot ) in the northwestern Punjab region, now in Pakistan. Buddhist texts claim that Pushyamitra persecuted Buddhists; scholars have rejected these claims. Pushyamitra Shunga founded
1008-585: The north-west, where he offered a prize of one hundred Roman denarii (coins) for every head of a Buddhist monk brought to him. Next, he proceeded to the Koshthaka kingdom, where a Buddhist yaksha named Damshtranivasin killed him and his army with help of another yaksha named Krimisha. ... Pushyamitra equipped a fourfold army, and intending to destroy the Buddhist religion, he went to the Kukkutarama (in Pataliputra ). ... Pushyamitra therefore destroyed
1044-700: The opportunity to install and use the sa-itrans-iast input handler which provides complete support for the ISO 15919 standard for the romanization of Indic languages as part of the m17n library. Or user can use some Unicode characters in Latin-1 Supplement, Latin Extended-A, Latin Extended Additional and Combining Diarcritical Marks block to write IAST. Only certain fonts support all the Latin Unicode characters essential for
1080-543: The reader to read the Indic text unambiguously, exactly as if it were in the original Indic script. It is this faithfulness to the original scripts that accounts for its continuing popularity amongst scholars. Scholars commonly use IAST in publications that cite textual material in Sanskrit, Pāḷi and other classical Indian languages. IAST is also used for major e-text repositories such as SARIT, Muktabodha, GRETIL, and sanskritdocuments.org. The IAST scheme represents more than
1116-471: The right side of the keyboard instead of Ctrl+Alt combination). Many systems provide a way to select Unicode characters visually. ISO/IEC 14755 refers to this as a screen-selection entry method . Microsoft Windows has provided a Unicode version of the Character Map program (find it by hitting ⊞ Win + R then type charmap then hit ↵ Enter ) since version NT 4.0 – appearing in
Pushyamitra Shunga - Misplaced Pages Continue
1152-486: The romanisation of all Indic scripts , is an extension of IAST. The IAST letters are listed with their Devanagari equivalents and phonetic values in IPA , valid for Sanskrit , Hindi and other modern languages that use Devanagari script, but some phonological changes have occurred: * H is actually glottal , not velar . Some letters are modified with diacritics : Long vowels are marked with an overline (often called
1188-532: The time of Shunga rule. He also theorized that the Sanchi stupa was vandalized in 2nd century BCE (that is, during Pushyamitra's reign), before being rebuilt on a larger scale. G. R. Sharma, who excavated the Buddhist ruins at Kaushambi , suggested that the destruction of the local monastery might have happened during the reign of Pushyamitra Shunga. P. K. Mishra believes that the damage to the Deur Kothar stupa
1224-487: The transliteration of Indic scripts according to the IAST and ISO 15919 standards. For example, the Arial , Tahoma and Times New Roman font packages that come with Microsoft Office 2007 and later versions also support precomposed Unicode characters like ī . Many other text fonts commonly used for book production may be lacking in support for one or more characters from this block. Accordingly, many academics working in
1260-727: Was a former Bengali diplomat and scholar of International relations . He is best known for his classic study The Making of Indian Foreign Policy (1970), which is considered a classic in Indian scholarship in International Relations. Before becoming an academic, Bandypadhyaya had been a diplomat, entering the Indian Foreign Service in 1955 and reaching the level of Undersecretary in the Ministry of External Affairs, before resigning in 1960 to take up
1296-525: Was supported by yakshas, kumbhanda s, and other demons. However, when he reached the Bodhi tree , the deity of that tree took the form of a beautiful woman and killed him. Shariputrapariprichha , translated into Chinese between 317 and 420 CE also mentions this legend, but this particular version is more detailed, and describes eastern India (not Kashmir) as the center of Pushyamitra's anti-Buddhist campaign. The medieval-era Arya-Manjushri-Mula-Kalpa mentions
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