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110-630: During World War II, Pyinmana was the base of the Burma Independence Army (later renamed and reorganized into the Burma Defence Army by the Japanese ). 19°45′N 96°12′E  /  19.750°N 96.200°E  / 19.750; 96.200 This Mandalay Region location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Burma National Army The Burma Independence Army ( BIA )

220-747: A government during the invasion led to it being dissolved by the Japanese and the smaller Burma Defence Army ( BDA ) formed in its place. As Japan guided Burma towards nominal independence, the BDA was expanded into the Burma National Army ( BNA ) of the State of Burma , a puppet state under Ba Maw , in 1943. After secret contact with the British during 1944, on 27 March 1945, the BNA revolted against

330-561: A member of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere . Its Head of State became Dr. Ba Maw , an outspoken anti-colonial politician imprisoned by the British before the war. Aung San became Minister of Defence in the new regime, with the new rank of Major General and Bo Let Ya as his Deputy. Bo Ne Win (who would much later become the dictator of Burma after World War II) became Commander-in-Chief of

440-614: A paramilitary force who were openly drilling in uniform with numbers eventually reaching 50,000. It was to replace the BNA as a major deterrence against both the British and his communist rivals in the AFPFL. Aung San became head of the AFPFL in 1946 and continued the more peaceful struggle for Burmese independence until his assassination after the overwhelming victory of the AFPFL in the April 1947 constituent assembly elections. Burma finally became independent on 4 January 1948. The BIA

550-811: A popular front organisation called the Anti-Fascist Organisation (AFO) was formed with Thakin Soe , a founding member of the Communist Party of Burma , as leader. Through the communists, Aung San were eventually able to make contact with the British Force 136 in India . The initial contacts were always indirect. Force 136 was also able to make contacts with members of the BNA's Karen unit in Rangoon through agents dropped by parachute into

660-658: A sheer muslin blouse for women, revealing a corset-like lace bodice called za bawli ( ဇာဘော်လီ ). The Burmese language is very age-oriented. The use of honorifics before personal names is the norm, and it is considered rude to call a person just by their name without the honorific unless they are known from childhood or youth or in the case of a younger underling. Young males are addressed as Maung or Ko (lit. brother), and older or senior men as U (lit. uncle). Likewise, young females are addressed as Ma (lit. sister), and older or senior women as Daw (lit. aunt), regardless of their marital status. 'Aunty' or 'Uncle'

770-454: A sign of religious respect. Strict enforcement of this custom, however, is partly a legacy of British rule in Burma , during which Europeans refused and were exempted from removing their footwear when entering Buddhist places of worship. In pre-colonial Burma, non-royals removed their footwear before entering palace grounds, as a token of respect for the reigning monarch. In the final years of

880-485: A slight bow. Things would be passed to the elders using both hands together. Men may cross their legs sitting on a chair or a mat but women generally would not. Children are taught from young 'to venerate one's elders, to respect one's peers, and to be kind to the young and weak' ( ကြီးသူကိုရိုသေ၊ ရွယ်သူကိုလေးစား၊ ငယ်သူကိုသနား။ kyeethu go yothei, ywedu go layza, ngethu go thana ). Parents are believed to be solely responsible for their children's behaviour as reflected by

990-413: A soup, steamed rice and fermented sauce of preserved fish , along with vegetables for dipping. Condiments like balachaung , Indian-style pickles and pickled vegetables are commonly served alongside the dishes. Although fish sauce and shrimp paste are commonly used ingredients, as in other Southeast Asian cuisines, Burmese cuisine also makes extensive use of chickpeas , lentils and tamarind , which

1100-422: A tank on a vital bridge and forced the British to retreat across open fields where Bo Yan Naing ambushed them with 400 men. Eventually the British and Indian force broke free and continued their retreat, having lost ten tanks, two field guns and 350 men killed or wounded. The BIA's casualties were heavy; 60 killed, 300 wounded, 60 captured and 350 missing, who had deserted. Hirayama and Ikeda were both killed. Most of

1210-637: A traitor for his cooperation with the Japanese and charged with war crimes. However, Supreme Allied Commander Louis Mountbatten was anxious to avoid a civil war and to secure the cooperation of Aung San, who had authority over thousands of highly politicised troops. When the British noticed with alarm that PBF troops were withholding weapons, ready to go underground, tense negotiations in a conference in Kandy , Ceylon , were held in September 1945. Aung San, six PBF commanders and four political representatives of

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1320-402: A turban called gaung baung ), while Bamar women wear a blouse buttoned at the front, called yinzi ( ရင်စေ့ ) or to the side, called yinbon ( ရင်ဖုံး ), and a shawl. In urban areas, skirts and pants are becoming more common, particularly among the young. During the British colonial era, Burmese nationalists associated traditional clothing, in particular Yaw longyi ( ယောလုံချည် ),

1430-563: A type of longyi from the Yaw region, and pinni taikpon ( ပင်နီတိုက်ပုံအင်္ကျီ ), a fawn -coloured collarless jacket, with anti-colonialism and nationalist sentiment, because of a clampdown in the 1920s over increasing dissent. Wearing "traditional" clothing was seen as a mode of passive resistance among the Burmese. British rule nonetheless influenced hair fashion and clothing. Cropped short hair, called bo ke ( ဗိုလ်ကေ ) replaced long hair as

1540-474: Is Thingyan , a four-day celebration of the coming Lunar New Year . This festival is held prior to the Burmese New Year, the first day of Tagu which falls in mid-April. It is related and similar to other Southeast Asian New Year festivals ( Songkran , Cambodian New Year , Sinhalese New Year and Lao New Year ), people splash water on one another. However, Thingyan has religious significance, marking

1650-559: Is a salad of pickled tea leaves, are also popular dishes. The Burmese traditionally eat with their fingers, although the usage of Western utensils and chopsticks have become more widespread, especially in towns and cities. Indian breads like paratha and naan or rice noodles are also commonly eaten with dishes, in addition to rice. Weddings are considered one of the Twelve Auspicious Rites in Burmese culture. Traditional Burmese folklore considers love to be destiny, as

1760-489: Is also a popular greeting nowadays, whereas it used to be confined to answering the phone. The typical garment of the Burmese is the Indian lungi or longyi , a sarong worn by both men and women. This replaced the traditional paso for men and tamein for women by the 20th century. For business and formal occasions, Bamar men wear a Manchu Chinese jacket ( တိုက်ပုံအင်္ကျီ ) over an English collar shirt (sometimes donning

1870-414: Is common, but cremation , more common in the cities, is also practised by orthodox Buddhists and monks in Burma. A coin, called kudoga ( ကူးတို့ခ ) is placed in the mouth of the deceased person, to pay a "ferry toll" for crossing death. Before the actual interment of the body, an offering of turmeric -coated rice is given to appease the bhummazo ( ဘုမ္မစိုး ), the guardian deity of the earth. During

1980-454: Is commonly used as well today. The first and second person pronouns vary depending on whom one is speaking to and are age-dependent. Elders are spoken to in a more respectful manner and a special vocabulary exists for speaking to Buddhist monks . Burmese society operates on ana ( အားနာမှု ), a characteristic or feeling that has no English equivalent. It is characterised by a hesitation, reluctance or avoidance, to perform an action based on

2090-606: Is customarily removed before entering a home and Buddhist places of worship. Many workplaces in Myanmar also have shoe-free areas, or restrict footwear altogether, with shoes typically left at the corridor or at the entrance of an office. These customs are strictly enforced in Buddhist places of worship, including Burmese pagodas and in Buddhist monasteries called kyaung . The Burmese remove their footwear at such sites as

2200-408: Is the most popular combat sport in Myanmar. It is a Burmese full-contact martial art called thaing , divided into bando (unarmed combat) and banshay (armed combat). Of the twelve seasonal festivals, regattas are held in the month of Tawthalin (August/September). The term typically describes racing events of rowed or sailed water craft. Equestrian events were held by the royal army in

2310-549: Is the result of the Burmese government, which did not sign the Universal Copyright Convention Agreement, which would have forced Burmese writers to pay royalties to the original writers. Short stories, often published in magazines, also enjoy tremendous popularity. They often deal with everyday life and have political messages (such as subtle criticisms of the capitalist system), partly because, unlike novels, short stories are not censored by

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2420-449: Is to perambulate clockwise ( လက်ယာရစ် let ya yit ) around a pagoda, not counterclockwise ( လက်ဝဲရစ် let wè yit ). Physical demonstrations of affection in public are common between friends of the same gender or between members of the family, but seldom seen between lovers. It is thus common to see friends walking together holding hands or with arms round each other, but couples rarely do so, except in major cities. In Myanmar, footwear

2530-857: Is typically of brick and stucco, and pagodas are often covered with layers of gold leaf while monasteries tend to be built of wood (although monasteries in cities are more likely to be built of modern materials). A very common roofing style in Burmese architecture is called pyatthat ( ပြာသာဒ် ), which is a many tiered and spired roof. Buddhism, notably the Jataka Tales, has greatly influenced Burmese literature. Many historical works are nonfiction. However, British colonization introduced many genres of fiction , which have become extremely popular today. Poetry features prominently, and there are several forms of poetry unique to Burmese literature. By 1976, only 411 titles were published annually, compared to 1882, when 445 titles were published. Various factors, especially

2640-408: Is used to add a sour flavour rather than the lime juice or vinegar used in other cuisines. Ethnic cuisines, in particular Shan cuisine, are also prominently found throughout Burma, as are Indian and Chinese dishes, particularly in urban areas. The de facto national dish is mohinga ( မုန့်ဟင်းခါး ), rice noodles in a rich fish soup. Burmese salads ( အသုပ် ), especially laphet thoke , which

2750-570: Is used to justify the prevalent view that women are lesser than men, who are considered to have more hpon . Age is still considered synonymous with experience and wisdom, hence venerated. Parents and teachers are second only to the Three Jewels ( ရတနာသုံးပါး yadana thoun ba ), together making up the Five Boundless Beneficence ( အနန္တငါးပါး ananda nga ba ), and are paid obeisance (called gadaw ) at special times of

2860-543: The Mahagita , an extensive collection of classical songs and are typically divided into indoor and outdoor ensembles. These songs tend to be about various legends in Pali and subsequently in Burmese intermingled with Pali, related to religion or the power and glory of monarchs, and then the natural beauty of the land, forests and the seasons, eventually feminine beauty, love, passion and longing, in addition to folk music sung in

2970-634: The Allies as the Patriotic Burmese Forces (PBF) in 23 June 1945. At the first meeting, the AFO represented itself to the British as the provisional government of Burma with Thakin Soe as Chairman and Aung San as a member of its ruling committee. The Japanese were routed from most of Burma by May 1945. Negotiations then began with the British over the disarming of the AFO, which earlier in March

3080-614: The Ayeyarwady River where thousands of stupas and temples have stood for nearly a millennium in various states of repair . Pagodas are known by their Pali terms zedi ( စေတီ ) or pahto ( ပုထိုး ), but are also commonly called hpaya ( ဘုရား ) which is synonymous with "Buddha". Monasteries are known as hpongyi kyaung ( ဘုန်းကြီးကျောင်း ), hpongyi meaning monk, and since they have traditionally been places of learning where village children are taught how to read and write including and more importantly Pali,

3190-600: The Buddha ) to British officials. These greetings would demonstrate Burmese submission and respect to British rule. In addition, the act stated that villages would provide lodging and food upon the arrival of colonial military or civil officials. Lastly, against mounting rebellions, the British adopted a “strategic hamlet” strategy, whereby villages were burned and uprooted families who had supplied villages with Headmen , sending them to lower Burma and replacing them with British approved appointees. Future changes to Burma included

3300-454: The Burma Independence Army (BIA) was officially formed. The Thirty Comrades, as well as Colonel Suzuki, had their blood drawn from their arms in syringes, then poured into a silver bowl and mixed with liquor from which each of them drank – thway thauk in time-honoured Burmese military tradition – pledging "eternal loyalty" among themselves and to the cause of Burmese independence. The BIA initially numbered 227 Burmese and 74 Japanese. Some of

3410-626: The Chinese communists . Aung San flew to China in 1940, intent to make contact with them in order to discuss investments into an independent Burmese Army. In 1940, the Japanese military interest in Southeast Asia had increased, the British were overtly providing military assistance to Nationalist China against which Japan was fighting in the Second Sino-Japanese War . In particular, they were sending war materials via

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3520-492: The General Council of Burmese Associations , who had split off from the apolitical Young Men's Buddhist Association . Foreign goods were boycotted and the association set up village courts and rejected the British courts of law claiming that a fair trial had a better chance under the control of Burmese people. Student protests, backed by the Buddhist clergy, also led to "National schools" being created in protest against

3630-474: The Karen , Chin and Kachin and isolated the majority Bamar population. As more people joined the rebellion it evolved into a nationwide revolt which only ended after Hsaya San was captured after two years of insurrection. He and many other rebel leaders were executed and imprisoned after the rebellion was put down. The Hsaya rebellion sparked a large emergence of organised anti-colonial politics in Burma during

3740-676: The Karenni State , the Karen-populated area in the east of Burma. In December 1944, the AFO contacted the Allies indicating their readiness to launch a national uprising which would include the BNA. The situation was not immediately considered favourable by the British for a revolt by the BNA and there were internal disputes about supporting the BNA among them; the British had reservations over dealing with Aung San. In contrast to Force 136, Civil Affair officers of Lord Mountbatten in

3850-812: The Konbaung dynasty , diplomatic relations between the British and Burmese soured when the British Resident, a colonial representative, refused to remove his shoes upon entering the raised platform of the Mandalay Palace , a decision that prevented him from meeting King Thibaw Min . Consequently, the British withdrew the Resident and his delegation in October 1879, with his exit portending the Third Anglo-Burmese War , after which

3960-703: The Mon kingdom of Thaton in the south of the country to obtain the Buddhist Canon and learned monks. The religious tradition created at this time, and which continues to the present day, is a syncretic mix of what might be termed 'pure' Buddhism (of the Theravada school) with deep-rooted elements of the original Hindu-animist culture or nat worship and even strands of Hinduism and the Mahayana tradition of northern India. Islam reached Burma at approximately

4070-796: The Second World War , the Thakins, combined with the Poor Man's Party to create the Freedom Bloc , which opposed cooperation with the British war effort unless Burma was guaranteed independence immediately after the war and threatened to increase its anti-British and anti-war campaign. The British denied the Freedom Bloc's demands and much of its leadership was imprisoned until after the Japanese invasion in 1942. The Thakins looked elsewhere for support and planned on setting up ties with

4180-622: The South East Asia Command (SEAC) wanted him tried for war crimes , including a 1942 murder case in which he had personally executed a civilian, the Headman of Thebyugone village, in front of a large crowd. General William Slim later wrote: "I would accept [Aung San's] help and that of his army only on the clear understanding that it implied no recognition of any provisional government. ... The British Government had announced its intention to grant self-government to Burma within

4290-586: The Taliban 's destruction of the Buddhas of Bamiyan in Afghanistan, religiously motivated riots broke out between Buddhists and Muslims across major cities in Burma, including Sittwe , Pyay , Taungoo and Bago . The current regime's nationalistic policy of Bama san-gyin, which considers Buddhism a key element of Burmese-ness, does provide a systemic bias in favour of Buddhists in terms of preferment in

4400-458: The 1930s. Aung San was a nationalist student activist working for the cause of an independent Burma. While at university, he became an influential political leader and created a new platform for educated nationalistic students who were intent upon a Burmese Independent state. In 1938 he joined the radical, anti-colonial Dohbama Asiayone party (known as the Thakins ). After the outbreak of

4510-551: The AFPFL met with the Supreme Allied Command were Lord Mountbatten acknowledged the BNA's contribution the victory in Burma to ease tensions. The British offered for around 5,000 veterans and 200 officers of the PBF to form the core of a post-war Burma Army under British command into which colonial Karen , Kachin , and Chin battalions would be integrated. In the end, only a small number of PBF troops were selected for

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4620-582: The BIA was disarmed and disbanded on 24 July. Now the Burma Defence Army (BDA), placed under the command of Colonel Aung San with Bo Let Ya as Chief of Staff, led by several Japanese commanders. An officers' training school was established in Mingaladon and the new force of 3,000 men were recruited and trained by Japanese instructors as regular army battalions instead of a guerrilla force during

4730-568: The BIA's casualties resulted from inexperience and lack of equipment. Though Burmese political leader Ba Maw and others later eulogised the BIA's participation in the battle, the official Japanese history never mentioned them. As the invasion speedily continued in Japan's favour, more and more territory fell into Japanese hands who disregarded the agreement for Burma's independence. As the BIA's ranks had swelled with thousands of unorganised army and volunteers, with plenty of weapons spread throughout

4840-474: The Brahmin takes the couple's joined palms out of the bowl and blows the conch shell to end the ceremony. Afterward, entertainers perform, and the wedding is ended with a speech by a guest of higher social standing. Wedding receptions at a hotel, serving tea and ice cream, are common in urban areas. Burmese funerals typically last a week, with the body traditionally buried or cremated on the third day. Burial

4950-577: The British Commonwealth, and we had better limit our discussion to the best method of throwing the Japanese out of the country as the next step toward self-government." In late March 1945, the BNA paraded in Rangoon and marched out ostensibly to take part in the battles then raging in Central Burma . Instead, on 27 March, they openly declared war on the Japanese and rose up in a country-wide rebellion. BNA units were deployed all over

5060-417: The British imposed census. British insistence upon western medicine and inoculation was particularly distasteful to native residents of Burma. These changes led to a greater distrust of the British and in turn harsher mandates as they became aware of Burmese resistance. A major issue in the early 1900s was land alienation by Indian Chettiar moneylenders who were taking advantage of the economic situation in

5170-672: The Burma Independence Army, known as the Thirty Comrades , left Burma in April 1941 and were trained on Hainan Island in leadership, espionage, guerrilla warfare and political tactics. Colonel Suzuki assumed the Burmese name "Bo Mo Gyo" ( Commander Thunderbolt ), for his work with Minami Kikan. On 7 December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and Britain. On 28 December, at a ceremony in Bangkok ,

5280-527: The Burmese saing saya Kyaw Kyaw Naing has made more widely known in the West. Traditional folk music is atypical in Southeast Asian music, as it is characterised by sudden shifts in rhythm and melody as well as change in texture and timbre. An instrument unique to Burma is the saung-gauk , an arched harp that can be traced to pre-Hittite times. Classical traditions of Burmese music are found in

5390-536: The Burmese soldiers were second-generation residents in Thailand, who could not speak Burmese. The BIA formed was broken into six units which were assigned to participate in the invasion of Burma in January 1942, initially as intelligence-gatherers, saboteurs and foragers. The leader of the Burma Independence Army were declared with Keiji Suzuki as Commander-in-Chief, with Aung San as Senior Staff Officer . When

5500-457: The Hindu god Brahma writes one's destiny in love on a child's brow when he or she is six days old, called na hpuza ( နဖူးစာ , lit. "destiny on the forehead"). A Burmese wedding can be religious or secular and extravagant or simple. Traditionally, a marriage is recognised with or without a ceremony when the man's longyi (sarong) is seen hanging from a rail of the house or if the couple eats from

5610-504: The Immigration Act. Burmese authorities subsequently announced a crackdown tourists wearing shoes inside Bagan 's pagodas. Burmese cuisine has been influenced by Indian , Chinese and Thai cuisines as well as domestic ethnic cuisines. It is not widely known throughout the world and can be characterised as having a mildly spicy taste, with a limited use of spices . A typical Burmese meal consists of several Burmese curries ,

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5720-659: The Imperial General Headquarters, it was decided in February 1941 to form an organisation named Minami Kikan , which was to support Burmese resistance groups and to close the Burma Road to China. In pursuing those goals, it would recruit potential independence fighters in Burma and train them in Japans ally Thailand or Japanese occupied China . Aung San and 29 others, the future officers and core of

5830-399: The Japanese were prepared to give—that he had exchanged an old master for an infinitely more tyrannical new one. As one of his leading followers once said to me, "If the British sucked our blood, the Japanese ground our bones!" During 1944, the BNA made contacts with other political groups inside Burma, such as the communists who had taken to the hills in the initial invasion. In August 1944,

5940-510: The Japanese. The army received recognition as an ally from Supreme Allied Commander, Lord Mountbatten , who needed their assistance against retreating Japanese forces and to ease the strain between the army's leadership and the British. As part of the Anti-Fascist People's Freedom League , the BNA was re-labelled the Patriotic Burmese Forces ( PBF ) during a joint Allied–Burmese victory parade in Rangoon on 23 June 1945. Following

6050-714: The Konbaung dynasty before. The British removed and exiled King Thibaw Min and separated government from the Buddhist Sangha , with large consequences in the dynamics of Burmese society and was particularly devastating to Buddhist monks who were dependent on the sponsorship of the monarchy. British control increased over time, for example, in 1885 under the Colonial Village Act, all Burmese, except for Buddhist monks, were required to Shikko (a greeting hitherto used only for important elders, monks and

6160-497: The Mandalay style, which developed in the late 1800s, consists of an oval-shaped Buddha with realistic features, including naturally curved eyebrows, smaller but still prominent ears, and a draping robe. There are 10 traditional arts, called pan sè myo ( ပန်းဆယ်မျိုး ), listed as follows: In addition to the traditional arts are silk weaving, pottery, tapestry making, gemstone engraving, and gold leaf making. Temple architecture

6270-491: The Press Scrutiny Board. Poetry is also a popular genre today, as it was during the monarchical times. However, unlike novels and other works, which use literary Burmese, poetry uses vernacular rather than literary Burmese. This reform movement is led by left-leaning writers who believe laymen's language (the vernacular and colloquial form of Burmese) should be used instead of formal Burmese in literature. One of

6380-495: The United States, the result of American missionary work. The Chinese contribution to Burma's religious mix has been slight, but several traditional Chinese temples were established in Yangon and other large cities in the nineteenth century when large-scale Chinese migration was encouraged by the British. Since approximately 1990 this migration has resumed in huge numbers, but the modern Chinese immigrants seem to have little interest in religion. Some more isolated indigenous peoples in

6490-412: The actions of a subset of regular BIA and their Japanese officers. Elements of the BIA in Irrawaddy destroyed 400 Karen villages with a death toll reaching 1,800. In one instance, which was also described in Kyaw Zaw's , one of the Thirty Comrades, memoirs, Colonel Suzuki personally ordered the BIA to destroy two large Karen villages and killing all within as an act of retribution after one of his officers

6600-424: The actual funeral, gifts in the form of paper fans containing the deceased person's name, as well as Buddhist scriptures relating to the impermanence of life (anicca) and samsara are distributed to all attendees. In urban areas, flower wreaths and florals are typically given at a funeral, as well as money , for less well-to-do families. However, in villages, more practical gifts such as food items are given to

6710-643: The administration of Moulmein , the Japanese 55th Division had flatly refused Burmese requests and even forbade them to enter the town. Many in the BIA considered the Japanese suppression of them to be based on notions of racial superiority . However, the BIA's attempts at creating a government were dared by Colonel Suzuki, who said to U Nu that: "Independence is not the kind of thing you can get by begging for it from other people. You should proclaim it yourselves. The Japanese refuse to give it? Very well then, tell them that you will cross over to someplace like Twante and proclaim it and set up your government. What's

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6820-407: The anti-British political groups. Suzuki visited Burma secretly, posing as a journalist for the Yomiuri Shimbun under the name Masuyo Minami , in September 1940, meeting with political leaders Thakin Kodaw Hmaing and Thakin Mya . The Japanese later made contact with Aung San in China who had reached Amoy when he was detained by Suzuki. Suzuki and Aung San flew to Tokyo . After discussions at

6930-424: The armed forces and other State structures. Aspects of Burmese culture are most apparent at religious sites . The country has been called the "Land of Pagodas" as the landscape is dominated by Buddhist pagodas or stupas . The four most important Burmese Buddhist pilgrimage sites are Shwedagon Pagoda in Yangon , Mahamuni Buddha in Mandalay , Kyaiktiyo Pagoda in Mon State , and Bagan , an ancient capital by

7040-460: The army entered into Burma it was made up of 2,300 men and organised in the following way. As the Japanese and the BIA entered Burma, the BIA gained a lot of support from the civilian population and were bolstered by many Bamar volunteers. This caused their numbers to grow to such a level that by the time the Japanese forces reached Rangoon on 8 March, the BIA numbered 10,000–12,000, and eventually expanded to between 18,000 and 23,000. Many of

7150-440: The army, with most being sent home with two months pay. Aung San was offered the rank of Deputy Inspector General of the Burma Army, but which he declined upon the return of Governor Dorman-Smith's government. Bo Let Ya instead got the position while Aung San became a civilian political leader in the AFPFL and the leader of the People's Volunteer Organisation (PVO), ostensibly a veterans organisation for ex-BNA, but in reality,

7260-403: The body. It is also considered taboo to touch another's feet, but worse still to point with the foot or sit with feet pointing at someone older, because the feet are considered the lowest. Also, pointing a finger at Buddha images is considered blasphemous, although this custom has slowly eroded. Shoes are always taken off upon entering homes, monasteries and pagoda compounds. A custom of the Burmese

7370-409: The ceremony. The bride and groom sit on cushions next to each other. At the beginning of the wedding, the Brahmin blows a conch shell to commence the ceremony and joins the palms of the couple, wraps them in white cloth, and dips the joined palms in a silver bowl. The Burmese word "to marry" is let htat ( လက်ထပ် ), which literally means "to join palms together". After chanting a few Sanskrit mantras,

7480-479: The colonial education system. As a result the British to imposed restrictions on free speech and an increase of the police force. The first major organised armed rebellion occurred between 1930 and 1932 and was called The Hsaya Rebellion . The former monk Hsaya San sparked a rebellion by mobilising peasants in rural Burma after protests against taxes and British disrespect towards Buddhism. The Burmese colonial army under British rule included only minorities such as

7590-450: The country under ten different regional commands (see table below). Those near the British front-lines around the Irrawaddy River requested arms and supplies from Allied units operating in this area. They also seized control of the civil institutions in most of the main towns. 27 March is now marked as Armed Forces Day , a national holiday in Myanmar. Aung San and others subsequently began negotiations with Mountbatten and officially joined

7700-404: The country which led to widespread chaos, looting and killings were common. The Japanese army command formed an administration on their own terms and the commanders of the Fifteenth Army began undermining the creation of a Burmese government. Thakin Tun Oke had been selected to be the political administrator and government organiser. BIA attempted to form local governments in Burma. Attempts over

7810-541: The dance traditions. ( yodaya aka ), is also popular in Myanmar, Yodaya is the named that was given by Burmese for Thailand. The yodaya dance is only dance with yodaya for entertaining the royal families at royal court, it retains unique qualities that distinguish it from other regional styles, including angular, fast-paced and energetic movements and emphasis on pose, not movement. Various types of Burmese music use an array of traditional musical instruments, assembled in an orchestra known as hsaing waing which

7920-527: The days in which Buddhists are expected to observe the Eight Precepts of Buddhism. Football is the most popular sport in Myanmar. Similar to football, chinlone ( Burmese : ခြင်းလုံး ) is an indigenous sport that utilises a rattan ball and is played using mainly the feet and the knees, but the head and also the arms may be used except the hands. Lethwei ( Burmese : လက်ဝှေ့ ; IPA : [lɛʔ.ʍḛ] ), or Burmese bareknuckle boxing,

8030-476: The deceased, concluded with a Buddhist water libation ceremony. Myanmar is a predominantly Theravada Buddhist country. Buddhism reached Burma around the beginning of the Christian era, mingling with indigenous form of Hinduism . The Pyu and Mon kingdoms of the first millennium were Hindu-Buddhist. According to traditional history, King Anawrahta of Bagan adopted Buddhism in 1056 and went to war with

8140-476: The dethronement of the Konbaung dynasty in the Third Anglo-Burmese War , British colonial rule and westernisation have shaped various aspects of Myanmar culture. Today, Myanmar's culture is characterized by the rich diversity of its ethnic groups, each contributing to a unique cultural identity. Historically, Myanmar art was based on Buddhist themes. There are several regional styles of Buddha images, each with certain distinctive characteristics. For example,

8250-607: The difficulty about that? If they start shooting, you shoot back." Aung San tried to establish a training school in Bhamo . His efforts were too late and interrupted by the Kempeitai . After the Japanese invasion of Burma the Japanese Commander of the 15th Army, Lieutenant-General Shōjirō Iida , recalled Suzuki to Japan. In its place the Japanese created civil organisations designed to guide Burma toward puppet state .

8360-446: The establishment of land titles, payment of taxes to the British, records of births and deaths and the introduction of census that included personal information, including information pertaining to jobs and religion. The census was especially hard on Burmese identity due to the variation of names and the habit of villagers to move between various families. These traditions were very different from Western culture and not compatible with

8470-465: The expanded Burma National Army (BNA). The BNA eventually consisted of seven battalions of infantry and a variety of supporting units with a strength which grew to around 11,000–15,000 men. Most were from the majority Bamar population, but there was one battalion raised from the Karen minority. Although Burma was nominally self-governing, the power of the State of Burma to exercise its sovereignty

8580-419: The expressions: mi ma hsonma, hpa ma hsonma ( မိမဆုံးမ ဖမဆုံးမ undisciplined either by mother or by father) and ami youk tau hnoukkyan, ahpa youk tau ko amu-aya kyan (bad language from bad mother, bad body-language from bad father). Saying "thank you" however is not Burmese custom between friends and within the family. It is considered rude to touch a person's head , because it is the "highest" point of

8690-715: The failure of the BIA due to the lack of resources, lack of strong administrative control and the failure to include both the highland and lowland regions of Burma. However, the BIA became the first truly national Burmese army and remains honoured in Burma today , with Aung San and many of the Thirty Comrades being seen as national heroes. Culture of Myanmar The culture of Myanmar ( Burma ) ( Burmese : မြန်မာ့ယဉ်ကျေးမှု ; MLCTS : /mranma yanykye:hmu/ ) has been heavily influenced by Buddhism . Burmese culture has also been influenced by its neighbours. Since

8800-470: The fear that it will offend someone or cause someone to lose face, or become embarrassed. Also, there is the concept of hpon ( ဘုန်း ; from Sanskrit bhaga ), which translates to "power". It is used as an explanation for the varying degrees of ethnic, socioeconomic, and gender differences between people in a society. Hpon refers to the cumulative result of past deeds, an idea that power or social position comes from merit earned in previous lives. This idea

8910-611: The forefront of the campaign. The Ledi Sayadaw , a prominent Buddhist monk, penned On the Impropriety of Wearing Shoes on Pagoda Platforms , which drew in widespread support for the YMBA's activism. In 1919, after a two-year battle, Cambridge-educated barrister, Thein Maung , a YMBA member, successfully persuaded the colonial government to issue an order prohibiting footwear on the grounds of religious sites. Thein Maung's undertaking

9020-650: The greatest female writers of the Post-colonial period is Journal Kyaw Ma Ma Lay . Khin Myo Chit was another important writer who wrote, among her works, The 13-Carat Diamond (1955), which was translated into many languages. The journalist Ludu U Hla was the author of numerous volumes of ethnic minority folklore, novels about inmates in U Nu-era jails, and biographies of people working in different occupations. Prime Minister U Nu himself wrote several politically oriented plays and novels. Other prolific writers of

9130-449: The grieving family. For seven days, the windows and doors of the house in which the person died may be left open, to let the deceased person's consciousness or "spirit", called leippya ( လိပ်ပြာ , lit.   ' butterfly ' ) leave the home, and a vigil may be kept at nighttime. On the seventh day, called yet le ( ရက်လည် ), a meal is offered to monks, who in turn recite blessings, protective parittas and transfer merit to

9240-586: The involvement of Japanese help in overthrowing the British. Throughout the invasion, the swelling numbers of the BIA were involved in attacks on minority populations (particularly the Karens ) and preyed on Indian refugees fleeing from the Japanese. The worst atrocities against the Karens in the Irrawaddy Delta south of Rangoon cannot however be attributed to dacoits or unorganised recruits, but rather

9350-466: The language of the Buddhist scriptures , school also came to be called kyaung ( ကျောင်း ) in the Burmese language . There are twelve months in the traditional Burmese calendar and twelve corresponding festivals. Most of the festivals are related to Burmese Buddhism and in any town or village the local paya pwè (the pagoda festival ) is the most important one. The most well-known festival

9460-479: The lengthened bureaucratic process to obtain printing permits, censorship, and increasing economic hardship of consumers because of the socialist economic schemes, contributed to the decline of Burmese literary output. Popular novels have similar themes to Western novels, often involving adventure, espionage, detective work, and romance. Many writers also translate Western novels, especially those of Arthur Hailey and Harold Robbins . The flourishing translation sector

9570-454: The more inaccessible parts of the country still follow traditional animism . Burma has nominal guarantees of freedom of religious expression , although religious minorities (Christians and Muslims), particularly those in the countryside are subject to discrimination. Sporadic riots between Burmese Buddhists and Burmese Muslims are not uncommon, and tensions between the two religious groups are high, particularly in major cities. In 2001, after

9680-576: The newly opened Burma Road . Colonel Keiji Suzuki , a staff officer at the Imperial General Headquarters in Japan, was given the task of devising a strategy for dealing with Southeast Asia and he produced a plan for clandestine operations in Burma. The Japanese knew little about Burma at the time and had few contacts within the country. The top Japanese agent in the country was Naval Reservist Kokubu Shozo, who had been resident there for several years and had contacts with most of

9790-413: The newly wed couple and recite a protective paritta . Typically, the bride and groom arrange an almsgiving feast to monks the morning of the wedding to gain merit. A more extravagant wedding requires months of preparation, including consultation with an astrologer in choosing the most auspicious time and setting of the event. Also, a master of ceremonies, typically a brahmin , is hired to preside over

9900-402: The norm among Burmese men. Similarly, women began wearing hairstyles like amauk ( အမောက် ), consisting of crested bangs curled at the top, with the traditional hair bun ( ဆံထုံး ). The female sarong ( htamein ) became shorter, no longer extending to the feet, but to the ankles, and the length of the sarong's top decreased to reveal more waistline. This period also saw the introduction of

10010-630: The officers of the BNA were obliged to salute low-ranking privates of the Imperial Japanese Army as their superiors. Aung San soon became disillusioned about Japanese promises of true independence and of Japan's ability to win the war. As the British General in the Burma Campaign William Slim put it: "It was not long before Aung San found that what he meant by independence had little relation to what

10120-641: The paddy fields. Pop music, both adopted and homegrown, however, dominates the music of Burma today. The "traditional" Burmese greeting is mingalaba ( မင်္ဂလာပါ , from Pali maṅgala and roughly translated as 'auspiciousness to you'). This is, however, a comparatively recent form of greeting, first emerging during British rule in Burma during the 19th to 20th centuries, coined as a Burmese language equivalent to 'hello' or 'how are you.' More informal rhetorical greetings such as "Have you eaten?" ( ထမင်းစားပြီးပြီလား Htamin sa pi bi la ) and "How are you?" ( နေကောင်းလား Nei kaung la ) are still common. "Hello"

10230-928: The post-colonial era include Thein Phae Myint (and his The Ocean Traveller and the Pearl Queen, considered a Burmese classic), Mya Than Tint (known for his translations of Western classics like War and Peace), Thawda Swe and Myat Htun. Distinguished women writers, who have also been an ever-present force in Burmese literary history, include Kyi Aye , Khin Hnin Yu , and San San Nweh. Burmese Historians: Ba Shin , Than Tun , Thant Myint-U , Htin Aung , Sao Saimong , Myoma Myint Kywe , and San C. Po were famous in Burma. Dance in Burma can be divided into dramatic, folk and village, and nat dances, each having distinct characteristics. Although Burmese dance has been influenced by

10340-404: The remaining half of the Burmese kingdom ( Upper Burma ) was fully annexed into British India. This "shoe question" became a rallying cry for Burmese nationalists, comparable to the cow protection movement in neighboring British India. In 1916, the nationalist Young Men's Buddhist Association (YMBA) began campaigning against foreigners wearing shoes in pagoda grounds, with Buddhist monks at

10450-467: The same plate. Dowries are typically unheard of, and arranged marriage is not a custom of the common Burmese. Weddings are traditionally avoided during the Buddhist lent , which lasts three months from July to October. Generally speaking, Buddhist monks are not present to conduct the wedding and solemnise the marriage, as they are forbidden to officiate a marriage, which is considered a worldly affair ( lokiya ). However, they may be invited to bless

10560-434: The same time, but never gained a foothold outside the geographically isolated seaboard running from modern-day Bangladesh southward to Irrawaddy Delta (modern Rakhine State , formerly Arakan, an independent kingdom until the eighteenth century). The colonial period saw a huge influx of Muslim Indians into Yangon and other cities, and the majority of Yangon's many mosques owe their origins to these immigrants. Christianity

10670-737: The same year had been transformed into a united front comprising the Patriotic Burmese Forces, the Communists and the Socialists , and renamed the Anti-Fascist People's Freedom League (AFPFL). Had the British Governor of Burma , Reginald Dorman-Smith , still in exile in Simla , and General William Slim gotten their way, the BNA would have been declared illegal and dissolved. Aung San would have been arrested as

10780-447: The second half of 1942. After the change in leadership, Aung Sun tried to push for what he considered the true mission of the army, which was not just a military group composed of the Thakins, but an army of "true patriots irrespective of political creed or race and dedicated to national independence". After a year of occupation , on 1 August 1943, the newly created State of Burma was granted nominal independence by Japan and became

10890-426: The villages. At the same time, thousands of Indian labourers migrated to Burma and, because of their willingness to work for less money, quickly displaced Burmese farmers, who instead began to take part in crime. All this, combined with Burma's exclusion from British proposals for limited self-government in Indian provinces (of which Burma was part of at the time), led to one of the earliest political nationalist groups,

11000-407: The volunteers who joined the BIA were however not officially recruited, but rather officials or even criminal gangs who took to calling themselves BIA to further their own activities. The Japanese provided few weapons to the BIA, but they armed themselves from abandoned or captured British weapons. With the help of a propaganda campaign from the BIA, Suzuki was welcomed by the Burmese people since word

11110-492: The war, after tense negotiations, it was decided that the PBF would be integrated into a new Burma Army under British control, but many veterans would continue under old leadership in the paramilitary People's Volunteer Organisation (PVO) in the unstable situation of post-war Burma. British rule in Burma began in 1824 after which the British steadily tightened its grip on the country and implemented significant changes to Burmese government and economy compared to Burma under

11220-439: The year such as Thingyan , beginning and end of Buddhist Lent , and usually parents before one leaves on a journey. Elders are served first at meals, and in their absence a spoonful of rice is put aside first in the pot as a token of respect ( ဦးချ u cha ) before serving the meal. Young people would avoid sitting on a higher level than the elders or passing in front of them unless unavoidable, and then only treading softly with

11330-516: Was a pro-Japanese and revolutionary army that fought for the end of British rule in Burma by assisting the Japanese in their conquest of the country in 1942 during World War II . It was the first post-colonial army in Burmese history. The BIA was formed from a group known as the Thirty Comrades under the auspices of the Imperial Japanese Army after training the Burmese nationalists in 1941. The BIA's attempts at establishing

11440-518: Was brought to Burma by European missionaries in the 1800s. It made little headway among Buddhists, but has been widely adopted by non-Buddhists such as the Chin , Karen , and Kachin . The Roman Catholic Church , Myanmar Baptist Convention and the Assemblies of God of Burma are the largest Christian denominations in Burma. Burma is home to the second largest population of Baptists in the world, after

11550-483: Was held by the II Battalion of the Japanese 215th Regiment, commanded by Major Misao Sato, and 1,300 men belonging to the BIA under Bo Yan Naing, one of the Thirty Comrades. Two Japanese liaison officers named Hirayama and Ikeda accompanied the BIA. With Anstice's force and the Indian troops attacking Shwedaung from two sides, the roadblocks were soon cleared, but a lucky shot from a Japanese anti-tank gun knocked out

11660-664: Was in direct response to the actions of Archibald Cochrane , future Governor of Burma , who had kept his shoes on while touring Shwemawdaw Pagoda in Pegu (now Bago) in 1917, much to the indignation of locals. In recent years, foreigners have been successfully prosecuted and punished for refusing to remove their footwear at Burmese religious sites. In August 2017, a Russian tourist was arrested and sentenced to seven months of jail time and hard labor for repeatedly refusing to remove her shoes upon entering pagoda grounds throughout Bagan, as she had violated local customs, per Section 13(1) of

11770-490: Was killed in an attack by anti-Japanese resistance. One action in which the BIA played a major part was at Shwedaung, near Prome , in Southern Burma. On 29 March 1942, a detachment from the British 7th Armoured Brigade commanded by Brigadier John Henry Anstice was retreating from nearby Paungde . Another detachment of two Indian battalions was sent to clear Shwedaung, which lay on Anstice's line of retreat and

11880-465: Was largely circumscribed by wartime agreements with Japan. The Imperial Japanese Army maintained a large presence and continued to act arbitrarily, despite Japan no longer having official control over Burma. The resulting hardships and Japanese militaristic attitudes turned the majority Burman population against the Japanese. The insensitive attitude of the Japanese Army extended to the BNA. Even

11990-472: Was spread that " Bo Mo Gyo " (Suzuki) was a decedent of the Prince of Myingun, a Burmese prince in the direct line of succession to the Burmese throne who had been exiled after a failed rebellion to Saigon , where he died in 1923. Propaganda claiming that Bo Mo Gyo was to lead the resistance into restoring the throne soon spread throughout Burma, which helped to provide a format for the Burmese villagers to accept

12100-483: Was the first major step of the towards Burmese independence without colonial powers involved, even though this result never genuinely occurred under the BIA or its successors. The army’s formation helped to create strong ties between the military and the government which are still present within Burmese society today. In addition, the BIA did achieve results in its need to unite the Burmese as a single nation instead of many different smaller states . Many scholars attribute

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