The Daifang Commandery was an administrative division established by the Chinese Han dynasty on the Korean Peninsula between 204 and 220. It was conquered by Goguryeo in 314.
123-630: Himiko ( 卑弥呼 , c. 170–247/248 AD ) , also known as the Shingi Waō ( 親魏倭王 , "Ruler of Wa, Friend of Wei") , was a shamaness -queen of Yamatai-koku in Wakoku ( 倭国 ) . Early Chinese dynastic histories chronicle tributary relations between Queen Himiko and the Cao Wei Kingdom (220–265) and record that the Yayoi period people chose her as ruler following decades of warfare among
246-622: A Chinese classic text dating to c. 297 . However, rather than Records of the Three Kingdoms , Japanese scholars use the term of Gishi Wajin Den ( 魏志倭人伝 , "Records of Wei : Account of Wajin ") , a Japanese abbreviation for the account of Wajin in the " Biographies of the Wuhuan , Xianbei , and Dongyi " ( 烏丸鮮卑東夷傳 ), Volume 30 of the "Book of Wei" ( 魏書 ) of the Records of
369-628: A ritual , and practices divination and healing . The word "shaman" probably originates from the Tungusic Evenki language of North Asia . According to Juha Janhunen, "the word is attested in all of the Tungusic idioms" such as Negidal , Lamut , Udehe / Orochi , Nanai , Ilcha, Orok , Manchu and Ulcha , and "nothing seems to contradict the assumption that the meaning 'shaman' also derives from Proto-Tungusic " and may have roots that extend back in time at least two millennia. The term
492-633: A warlord in Liaodong , separated the southern half from the Lelang commandery and established the Daifang commandery sometime between 204 and 220 to make administration more efficient. He controlled southern natives with Daifang instead of Lelang. In 238 under the order of Emperor Ming of Cao Wei , Sima Yi defeated the Gongsun family and annexed Liaodong, Lelang and Daifang to Wei. A dispute over
615-536: A Russian embassy to China; a translation of his book, published the same year, introduced the word shaman to English speakers. Anthropologist and archeologist Silvia Tomaskova argued that by the mid-1600s, many Europeans applied the Arabic term shaitan (meaning "devil") to the non-Christian practices and beliefs of Indigenous peoples beyond the Ural Mountains . She suggests that shaman may have entered
738-413: A comprehensive view in their mind which gives them certainty of knowledge . According to this view, the shaman uses (and the audience understands) multiple codes, expressing meanings in many ways: verbally, musically, artistically, and in dance. Meanings may be manifested in objects such as amulets . If the shaman knows the culture of their community well, and acts accordingly, their audience will know
861-575: A diadem. However, no one can be certain what Himiko wore. Himiko's legend has been used to market a variety of objects. Various small towns seek to use Himiko as their mascot, claiming their town as her birthplace, although the archaeological evidence supports regions in the Nara basin as her capital. Yoshinogari City and Sakurai City in Nara prefecture both employ images of Himiko to attract tourists, using images such as chibi Himiko-chan welcoming travelers to
984-413: A different term other than the one translated "shaman" is usually applied to a religious official leading sacrificial rites ("priest"), or to a raconteur ("sage") of traditional lore; there may be more of an overlap in functions (with that of a shaman), however, in the case of an interpreter of omens or of dreams. There are distinct types of shamans who perform more specialized functions. For example, among
1107-425: A friend of Wei. […Your envoys] have arrived here with your tribute, consisting of four male slaves and six female slaves, together with two pieces of cloth with designs, each twenty feet in length. You live very far away across the sea; yet you have sent an embassy with tribute. Your loyalty and filial piety we appreciate exceedingly. We confer upon you, therefore, the title "Queen of Wa Friendly to Wei," together with
1230-617: A king from Kumaso sent emissaries who masqueraded as Jingū's officials to the Wei court, thus leading Wei to mistake them for representatives of Himiko. Farris states that "Motoori's usurpation hypothesis ( gisen setsu ) carried great weight for the next century." Rather than being linked with Yamataikoku (regardless of wherever Yamataikoku was), Himiko may have been instead linked with Nakoku ( 奴國 , "the Na state of Wa") (which Tsunoda located in near present-day Hakata in northern Kyūshū ), whereto
1353-575: A palace, which was surrounded by walls and stockades protected by armed guards; their discipline was extremely strict. Neither of the two oldest Japanese histories – the c. 712 Kojiki nor c. 720 Nihon Shoki – mentions Queen Himiko. The circumstances under which these books were written is a matter of unending debate, and even if Himiko were known to the authors, they may have purposefully decided not to include her. However, they include three imperial-family shamans identified with her: Yamatototohimomosohime-no-Mikoto (ja) ,
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#17327723930271476-479: A shaman (and by extension the earliest undisputed evidence of shamans and shamanic practices) dates back to the early Upper Paleolithic era (c. 30,000 BP) in what is now the Czech Republic. Sanskrit scholar and comparative mythologist Michael Witzel proposes that all of the world's mythologies, and also the concepts and practices of shamans, can be traced to the migrations of two prehistoric populations:
1599-448: A shaman is exposed to significant personal risk as shamanic plant materials can be toxic or fatal if misused. Spells are commonly used in an attempt to protect against these dangers, and the use of more dangerous plants is often very highly ritualized. Generally, shamans traverse the axis mundi and enter the "spirit world" by effecting a transition of consciousness, entering into an ecstatic trance, either autohypnotically or through
1722-447: A shaman may include either guiding to their proper abode the souls of the dead (which may be guided either one-at-a-time or in a group, depending on the culture), and the curing of ailments. The ailments may be either purely physical afflictions—such as disease, which are claimed to be cured by gifting, flattering, threatening, or wrestling the disease-spirit (sometimes trying all these, sequentially), and which may be completed by displaying
1845-559: A single concept. Billy-Ray Belcourt, an author and award-winning scholar from the Driftpile Cree Nation in Canada, argues that using language with the intention of simplifying culture that is diverse, such as Shamanism, as it is prevalent in communities around the world and is made up of many complex components, works to conceal the complexities of the social and political violence that Indigenous communities have experienced at
1968-487: A specialist can influence important but uncontrollable outcomes. Citing work on the psychology of magic and superstition , Singh argues that humans search for ways of influencing uncertain events, such as healing illness, controlling rain, or attracting animals. As specialists compete to help their clients control these outcomes, they drive the evolution of psychologically compelling magic, producing traditions adapted to people's cognitive biases. Shamanism, Singh argues,
2091-403: A spirit can be summoned it must teach the shaman its song. The use of totemic items such as rocks with special powers and an animating spirit is common. Such practices are presumably very ancient. Plato wrote in his Phaedrus that the "first prophecies were the words of an oak", and that those who lived at that time found it rewarding enough to "listen to an oak or a stone, so long as it
2214-408: A supposedly extracted token of the disease-spirit (displaying this, even if "fraudulent", is supposed to impress the disease-spirit that it has been, or is in the process of being, defeated so that it will retreat and stay out of the patient's body), or else mental (including psychosomatic) afflictions—such as persistent terror, which is likewise believed to be cured by similar methods. In most languages
2337-400: A transcription of a supposed Old Japanese form *Pimeko , said to be an early term meaning "high born woman; princess," and to derive from Old Japanese Pime [or Pi 1 me 1 ] (also sometimes Pimë [ Fi 1 me 2 ]), a laudatory title for women going with Piko [ Fi 1 ko 1 ] for men. Later Fime comes to mean "princess," but this meaning is anachronistic for
2460-485: A wise, old ruler; Himiko the cute and energetic shaman; or Himiko as a seductive sorceress. She is associated with several ritual objects including the dotaku – two large bronze bells ritually used at the end of the Yayoi period – as well as the sakaki branch and Chinese bronze mirrors. The Wei Zhi described Himiko's shamanism as guidao , or Japanese kido , a type of Daoist folk religion. As such, Himiko
2583-479: A world-view behind them. Analogously to the way grammar arranges words to express meanings and convey a world, also this formed a cognitive map). Shaman's lore is rooted in the folklore of the community, which provides a "mythological mental map." Juha Pentikäinen uses the concept "grammar of mind." Armin Geertz coined and introduced the hermeneutics , or "ethnohermeneutics", interpretation. Hoppál extended
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#17327723930272706-489: Is "the greatest debate over the ancient history of Japan." A prevailing view among scholars is that she may be buried at Hashihaka Kofun in Nara Prefecture . The shaman Queen Himiko is recorded in various ancient histories, dating back to 3rd-century China, 8th-century Japan, and 12th-century Korea. The first historical records of Himiko are found in the Records of the Three Kingdoms ( Sanguo Zhi , 三國志 ),
2829-482: Is a land wanting in backbone. Is it worth while raising an army to attack it? There is a better land than this, a land of treasure, which may be compared to the aspect of a beautiful woman – the land of Mukatsu [meaning 'opposite'; 'across'], dazzling to the eyes. In that land there are gold and silver and bright colours in plenty. It is called the Land of Silla of the coverlet of paper-mulberry. If thou worshippest me aright,
2952-404: Is certainly a good chance that the first portion does correspond to a form related to Old Japanese Pime . Beyond that, it is at present impossible to go. Hime (Old Japanese Pi 1 me 1 ), ( 姫 , "young noblewoman; princess"), explains Miller, etymologically derives from hi ( Fi 1 ) ( 日 , "sun") and me ( me 1 ) ( 女 , "woman"). Tsunoda notes that "Pimiko
3075-425: Is clearly right. To-morrow morning I will enter thy toilet-case and stay there. I pray thee be not alarmed at my form." Yamato-toto-hi-momo-so-bime no Mikoto wondered secretly in her heart at this. Waiting until daybreak, she looked into her toilet-case. There was there a beautiful little snake, of the length and thickness of the cord of a garment. Thereupon she was frightened, and uttered an exclamation. The Great God
3198-511: Is from an archaic Japanese title, himeko , meaning 'princess'"; that is, hime with the female name suffix -ko ( 子 , "child"), viz. the uncommon given name Himeko. Other Amaterasu-related etymological proposals for the Japanese name Himiko involve hi ( 日 , "sun") and miko ( 覡 or 巫女 , "female shaman, shamaness; shrine maiden; priestess"); or their combination hime-miko , "princess-priestess". Bentley considers
3321-438: Is hereditary. The King of Great Wa [Yamato] resides in the country of Yamadai. During the reigns of Huan-di (147–168) and Ling-di (168–189), the country of Wa was in a state of great confusion, war and conflict raging on all sides. For a number of years, there was no ruler. Then a woman named Himiko appeared. Remaining unmarried, she occupied herself with magic and sorcery and bewitched the populace. Thereupon they placed her on
3444-518: Is known as the "neurotheological theory". According to Winkelman, shamanism develops reliably in human societies because it provides valuable benefits to the practitioner, their group, and individual clients. In particular, the trance states induced by dancing, hallucinogens, and other triggers are hypothesized to have an "integrative" effect on cognition, allowing communication among mental systems that specialize in theory of mind , social intelligence, and natural history. With this cognitive integration,
3567-407: Is no record of pure shamanistic societies (although their existence is not impossible). Norwegian social anthropologist Hakan Rydving has likewise argued for the abandonment of the terms "shaman" and "shamanism" as "scientific illusions." Dulam Bumochir has affirmed the above critiques of "shamanism" as a Western construct created for comparative purposes and, in an extensive article, has documented
3690-443: Is sometimes negatively associated with black magic or demons. Ruling in the transitional period between the Yayoi and Kofun eras, depictions of Himiko often display her wearing clothing originating from a variety of time periods, often embodied masculine elements. A queen during the late Yayoi, Himiko likely wore a one-piece, wide-sleeved kosode under a vest and sash. She is also often depicted wearing magatama beads and
3813-539: Is the Nihon Shoki , quoting the Wei Zhi three times. In 239, "the queen [ 女王 ] of Wa" sent envoys to Wei; in 240, they returned "charged with an Imperial rescript and a seal and ribbon;" and in 243, "the ruler [ 王 "king"] of Wa again sent high officers as envoys with tribute". Yamato Totohi Momoso himemiko ( 倭迹迹日百襲媛命 ) , the shaman aunt of Emperor Sujin, supposedly committed suicide after learning her husband
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3936-617: Is the Emperor grieved at the disordered state of the country? If he duly did us reverent worship it would assuredly become pacified of itself." The Emperor inquired, saying: "What God is it that thus instructs me?" The answer was: "I am the God who dwells within the borders of the land of Yamato, and my name is Oho-mono-nushi no Kami." While imperial worship of this god (from Mount Miwa ) was "without effect", Yamato-totohi-momoso later married him. After this Yamato-toto-hi-momo-so-bime no Mikoto became
4059-729: Is the culmination of this cultural evolutionary process—a psychologically appealing method for controlling uncertainty. For example, some shamanic practices exploit our intuitions about humanness: Practitioners use trance and dramatic initiations to seemingly become entities distinct from normal humans and thus more apparently capable of interacting with the invisible forces believed to oversee important outcomes. Influential cognitive and anthropological scientists, such as Pascal Boyer and Nicholas Humphrey , have endorsed Singh's approach, although other researchers have criticized Singh's dismissal of individual- and group-level benefits. Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff relates these concepts to developments in
4182-444: Is usually to direct spirits or spiritual energies into the physical world for the purpose of healing, divination , or to aid human beings in some other way. Beliefs and practices categorized as "shamanic" have attracted the interest of scholars from a variety of disciplines, including anthropologists, archeologists, historians, religious studies scholars, philosophers and psychologists. Hundreds of books and academic papers on
4305-554: The Nihon Shoki ("Chronicles of Japan", which quotes the Wei Zhi ) disregard Himiko, unless she was the subtext behind their accounts of Empress Jingū , Yamatohime-no-mikoto , or Yamato-toto-hi-momo-so-hime-no-Mikoto. None of these three legendary Japanese royal shamans adequately corresponds with the Chinese chronology and description of Himiko. Assuming the Wei Zhi account that Himiko died around 248, if one accepts
4428-695: The Wei Zhi described her as an important ruler in 3rd-century Japan, early Japanese historians purposely avoided naming Himiko, even when the Nihon Shoki quoted the Wei Zhi about envoys from Wa. The three Chinese characters 卑彌呼 ( simplified : 卑弥呼 ) transcribing the Wa regent's name are read himiko or hibiko in Modern Japanese and bēimíhū or bìmíhū in Modern Standard Chinese . However, these contemporary readings differ considerably from how 'Himiko'
4551-520: The Wei Zhi writing Yamatai ( 邪馬臺 ) as Yamaichi ( 邪馬壹 ). Two other Chinese dynastic histories mentioned Himiko. While both clearly incorporated the Wei Zhi reports, they made some changes, such as specifying the "some seventy or eighty years" of Wa wars occurred between 146 and 189, during the reigns of Han Emperors Huan and Ling . The c. 432 Book of Later Han ( Hou Han Shu 後漢書 ) says "the King of Great Wa resides in
4674-578: The Baekje word *pye , 'west', the honorific prefix *me and *hɔ , 'heir', and thus interprets 卑彌呼 as 'the honorific heir of the west'. Identifying Himiko/Pimiko of Wa is straightforward within the history of China , but problematic within the history of Japan . The 3rd-century Chinese Wei Zhi (" Records of Wei ") provides details about shaman Queen Himiko and her communications with Emperors Cao Rui and Cao Fang . The 8th-century Japanese Kojiki ("Records of Ancient Matters") and
4797-529: The Inuit the angakkuq (shamans) fetch the souls of game from remote places, or soul travel to ask for game from mythological beings like the Sea Woman . The way shamans get sustenance and take part in everyday life varies across cultures. In many Inuit groups, they provide services for the community and get a "due payment", and believe the payment is given to the helping spirits. An account states that
4920-750: The Japanese empresses , Meiji period historians removed her from the List of Emperors of Japan , leaving Empress Suiko ( r. 593–628 ) as the first historically verifiable female Japanese ruler. The oldest extant Korean history text, the Samguk Sagi ( 三國史記 , "Chronicles of the Three [Korean] Kingdoms ", completed in 1145), records that Queen Himiko sent an emissary to King Adalla of Silla in May 173. Researchers have struggled to reconcile Himiko/Pimiko between Chinese and Japanese historical sources. While
5043-494: The Kinki region of central Honshū and whether the Wei Zhi or the Nihon Shoki was historically more trustworthy. The Confucianist Arai accepted the Chinese history as more reliable, and first equated Himiko with Jingū and Yamatai with Yamato. The kokugaku scholar Motoori accepted the traditional Japanese myth-history as more reliable, and dismissed its Wei Zhi quotations as later accretions. He hypothesized that
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5166-539: The Kumaso territory of Takachiho , Hyūga Province in present-day Kyushu 's southeastern section. The Kumaso were also associated with Kunakoku ( 狗奴國 ) , ruled by Himiko's rival, king Himikuko. After the Meiji Restoration in 1868, Japanese historians adopted European historical scholarship, especially the source-based methodology of Leopold von Ranke . Naka Michiyo believed the Nihon Shoki chronology
5289-504: The Nanai people , a distinct kind of shaman acts as a psychopomp. Other specialized shamans may be distinguished according to the type of spirits, or realms of the spirit world, with which the shaman most commonly interacts. These roles vary among the Nenets , Enets , and Selkup shamans. The assistant of an Oroqen shaman (called jardalanin , or "second spirit") knows many things about
5412-646: The Sanskrit word श्रमण , śramaṇa , designating a wandering monastic or holy figure, has spread to many Central Asian languages along with Buddhism and could be the ultimate origin of the word shaman. The word has been reported in Gandhari as ṣamana , in Tocharian A as ṣāmaṃ , in Tocharian B as ṣamāne and in Chinese as 沙門 , shāmén . The term was adopted by Russians interacting with
5535-496: The Tucano people , a sophisticated system exists for environmental resources management and for avoiding resource depletion through overhunting. This system is conceptualized mythologically and symbolically by the belief that breaking hunting restrictions may cause illness. The shaman is able to "release" game animals, or their souls, from their hidden abodes. The Piaroa people have ecological concerns related to shamanism. Among
5658-426: The spiritual world or dimension. Most shamans have dreams or visions that convey certain messages. Shamans may claim to have or have acquired many spirit guides , who they believe guide and direct them in their travels in the spirit world. These spirit guides are always thought to be present within the shaman, although others are said to encounter them only when the shaman is in a trance . The spirit guide energizes
5781-555: The " Gondwana " type (of circa 65,000 years ago) and the " Laurasian " type (of circa 40,000 years ago). In November 2008, researchers from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem announced the discovery of a 12,000-year-old site in Israel that is perceived as one of the earliest-known shaman burials. The elderly woman had been arranged on her side, with her legs apart and folded inward at the knee. Ten large stones were placed on
5904-482: The 18th-century writings of Tibetan Buddhist monks in Mongolia and later "probably influenced the formation of European discourse on Shamanism". Shamanism is a system of religious practice. Historically, it is often associated with Indigenous and tribal societies , and involves belief that shamans, with a connection to the otherworld , have the power to heal the sick, communicate with spirits, and escort souls of
6027-588: The 2nd- and 3rd-century era of Queen Himiko was between late Yayoi period and early Kofun period . Kofun ( 古墳 , "old tumulus") refers to characteristic keyhole-shaped burial mounds, and the Wei Zhi noting "a great mound was raised, more than a hundred paces in diameter" for Pimiko's tomb, may well be the earliest written record of a kofun . Several archeological excavations of Yayoi and Kofun sites in kinki region, have revealed Chinese-style bronze mirrors, called shinju-kyo ( 神獣鏡 , "mirror decorated with gods and animals") . Many scholars who support
6150-611: The Japanese conquest of Korea, the Mongolian conquest of Japan (Namio Egami's "horserider theory" (ja) ), the imperial system originating with tandem rule by a female shaman and male monarch, the " patriarchal revolution" replacing female deities and priestesses with male counterparts, or a shamanic advisor to the federation of Wa chieftains who "must have looked like a ruling queen to Chinese envoys". Depictions of Himiko in Japanese popular media take one of three archetypes: Himiko as
6273-665: The Kinki theory associate these shinju-kyo with the "one hundred bronze mirrors" that the Wei Zhi records Emperor Cao Rui presented to Queen Himiko, while other scholars oppose it. The Hashihaka Kofun in Sakurai, Nara was given a recent boost by radio-carbon dating circa 240–60. The early Chinese records of Himiko/Pimiko and her Yamatai polity remain something of a Rorschach test . To different interpreters, this early Japanese shaman queen can appear as evidence of communalism (Marxists), Jōmon priestess rulers ( Feminist history ),
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#17327723930276396-605: The Three Kingdoms ( 三国志 ). This section is the first description of Himiko (Pimiko) and Yamatai: The Japanese people of Wa [ 倭人 ] dwell in the middle of the ocean on the mountainous islands southeast of [the prefecture of] Tai-fang . They formerly comprised more than one hundred communities. During the Han dynasty , [Wa envoys] appeared at the Court; today, thirty of their communities maintain intercourse [with us] through envoys and scribes. This early history describes how Himiko came to
6519-404: The associated beliefs. He or she accompanies the rituals and interprets the behaviors of the shaman. Despite these functions, the jardalanin is not a shaman. For this interpretative assistant, it would be unwelcome to fall into a trance. As the primary teacher of tribal symbolism, the shaman may have a leading role in this ecological management, actively restricting hunting and fishing. Among
6642-466: The aunt of Emperor Sujin (legendary 10th Japanese emperor, reigned 97–30 BC) and daughter of Emperor Kōrei ; Yamatohime-no-mikoto , the daughter of Emperor Suinin (legendary 11th, reigned 29 BC–70 AD); and Empress Jingū (reigned c. 209–269 AD), the wife of Emperor Chūai (legendary 14th emperor, reigned 192–200 AD). These dates, however, are not historically verified. One remarkable exception to early Japanese histories overlooking Himiko
6765-655: The basis of the Wei chih account of early Japan. There never was an Old Japanese *Pimeko ; furthermore, the Middle Chinese spirant χ of the transcription suggests that the final element of the unknown original term did not correspond to Old Japanese -ko [ -ko 1 ], which is rendered elsewhere – in Piko [ Fi 1 ko 1 ], for example – with Middle Chinese -k- as one would expect. The final element of this transcription, then, remains obscure, though there
6888-683: The calling of a shaman can be found in the case history of Chuonnasuan , who was one of the last shamans among the Tungus peoples in Northeast China . The wounded healer is an archetype for a shamanic trial and journey. This process is important to young shamans. They undergo a type of sickness that pushes them to the brink of death. This is said to happen for two reasons: Shamans may employ varying materials in spiritual practice in different cultures. Shamans have been conceptualized as those who are able to gain knowledge and power to heal in
7011-514: The community, including the spirits of the deceased. Shamans believe they can communicate with both living and dead to alleviate unrest, unsettled issues, and to deliver gifts to the spirits. Shamans perform a variety of functions depending upon their respective cultures; healing, leading a sacrifice , preserving traditions by storytelling and songs, fortune-telling , and acting as a psychopomp ("guide of souls"). A single shaman may fulfill several of these functions. The responsibilities of
7134-603: The consonant /h/ and whose modern /h/ evolves from historical /p/), the accepted modern reading of 'Himiko' would regularly correspond to Old Japanese *Pimeko . However, Roy Andrew Miller says *Pimeko is a lexicographic error deriving from the Wei Zhi transcriptions. Most perplexing of the entire list is the name of the queen of the Yeh-ma-t'ai community, Pi-mi-hu , Middle Chinese pjiḙ-mjiḙ-χuo . This has traditionally been explained and understood in Japan as
7257-617: The control of southern natives caused their revolt. The armies of Lelang and Daifang eventually stifled it. Daifang Commandery was inherited by the Jin dynasty . Due to the bitter civil War of the Eight Princes , Jin became unable to control the Korean peninsula at the beginning of the 4th century. Zhang Tong (張統) broke away from Jin in Lelang and Daifang. After Luoyang , the capital of Jin,
7380-534: The country of Yamadai", rather than the Queen: The Wa dwell on mountainous islands southeast of Han [Korea] in the middle of the ocean, forming more than one hundred communities. From the time of the overthrow of Chaoxian [northern Korea] by Emperor Wu (BC 140–87), nearly thirty of these communities have held intercourse with the Han [dynasty] court by envoys or scribes. Each community has its king, whose office
7503-503: The dead to the afterlife . The origins of Shamanism stem from indigenous peoples of far northern Europe and Siberia. Despite structural implications of colonialism and imperialism that have limited the ability of Indigenous peoples to practice traditional spiritualities, many communities are undergoing resurgence through self-determination and the reclamation of dynamic traditions. Other groups have been able to avoid some of these structural impediments by virtue of their isolation, such as
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#17327723930277626-437: The death of her husband Emperor Chūai ( c. 200 ) until the accession of her son Emperor Ōjin (legendary 15th emperor, r. 270–310 ). The Kojiki and Nihon Shoki have similar accounts. Emperor Chūai wanted to invade Kumaso , and while he was consulting with his ministers, Jingū conveyed a shamanistic message that he should invade Silla instead. Compare these: Her Augustness Princess Okinaga-tarashi,
7749-531: The decoration of the gold seal with purple ribbon. The latter, properly encased, is to be sent to you through the Governor. We expect you, O Queen, to rule your people in peace and to endeavor to be devoted and obedient. Finally, the "Records of Wei" records that in 247 when a new governor arrived at Daifang Commandery in Korea, Queen Himiko officially complained of hostilities with Himikuko ( 卑弥弓呼 , or Pimikuko) ,
7872-472: The dubious Japanese traditional dating, then she was closer to the 3rd-century AD Empress Jingū than to the 1st-century BC Yamato-hime-no-mikoto and Yamato-toto-hi-momo-so-hime. On the other hand, if one accepts the postdating adjustments prior to the 4th century, then Himiko was closer to these Yamato-named shamans. Neither the Kojiki nor the Nihon Shoki mentions Himiko or any of the salient topics that she
7995-409: The earlier texts. […] The difficulty concerns the supposed Old Japanese word *Fimeko . Even though such a form has found its way into a few modern Japanese dictionaries (for example even Kindaiichi's otherwise generally reliable Jikai ), it is in fact simply one of the ghost words of Japanese lexicography; when it does appear in modern lexical sources, it is a "made-up" form listed there solely on
8118-464: The fact that they exist outside of what is defined as shamanism and even play similar roles in nonshamanic cultures, for example chanting in the Abrahamic religions . She argues that these expression are unique to each culture that uses them and that such practices cannot be generalized easily, accurately, or usefully into a global religion of shamanism. Because of this, Kehoe is also highly critical of
8241-410: The following: Shamanism is based on the premise that the visible world is pervaded by invisible forces or spirits which affect the lives of the living. Although the causes of disease lie in the spiritual realm, inspired by malicious spirits, both spiritual and physical methods are used to heal. Commonly, a shaman "enters the body" of the patient to confront the spiritual infirmity and heals by banishing
8364-422: The future emperor, and returned to rule Yamato. The Nihon Shoki adds that since Jingū wanted to learn which gods had cursed Chūai, she constructed a shamanic "palace of worship", "discharged in person the office of priest", and heard the gods reveal themselves as coming from Ise (Amaterasu) and Mukatsu (an unnamed Korean divinity). Although the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki myth-histories called Jingū first of
8487-401: The gifts and payments that a shaman receives are given by his partner spirit. Since it obliges the shaman to use his gift and to work regularly in this capacity, the spirit rewards him with the goods that it receives. These goods, however, are only "welcome addenda". They are not enough to enable a full-time shaman. Shamans live like any other member of the group, as a hunter or housewife. Due to
8610-407: The hands of settlers. Belcourt argues that language used to imply “simplicity” in regards to Indigenous culture, is a tool used to belittle Indigenous cultures, as it views Indigenous communities solely as a result of a history embroiled in violence, that leaves Indigenous communities only capable of simplicity and plainness. Anthropologist Mihály Hoppál [ de ] also discusses whether
8733-408: The head, pelvis, and arms. Among her unusual grave goods were 50 complete tortoise shells, a human foot, and certain body parts from animals such as a cow tail and eagle wings. Other animal remains came from a boar, leopard, and two martens. "It seems that the woman … was perceived as being in a close relationship with these animal spirits", researchers noted. The grave was one of at least 28 graves at
8856-500: The high-priestess of the temple of the Great Deity of Ise)". The Nihon Shoki likewise records "Yamato-hime no Mikoto" and provides more details. The Emperor assigned Yamato-hime to find a permanent location for Amaterasu's shrine, and after wandering for years, the sun-goddess instructed her to build it at Ise "where she first descended from Heaven". Empress Consort Jingū (or Jingō ( 神功 ) ) supposedly served as regent after
8979-484: The human soul caused by foreign elements. Shamans operate primarily within the spiritual world, which, they believe, in turn affects the human world. The restoration of balance is said to result in the elimination of the ailment. The anthropologist Alice Kehoe criticizes the term "shaman" in her book Shamans and Religion: An Anthropological Exploration in Critical Thinking . Part of this criticism involves
9102-485: The human world and the spirit worlds. Shamans are said to treat ailments and illnesses by mending the soul. Alleviating traumas affecting the soul or spirit are believed to restore the physical body of the individual to balance and wholeness. Shamans also claim to enter supernatural realms or dimensions to obtain solutions to problems afflicting the community. Shamans claim to visit other worlds or dimensions to bring guidance to misguided souls and to ameliorate illnesses of
9225-490: The hunt; or entertainment ( Inuit throat singing ). Shamans often claim to have been called through dreams or signs. However, some say their powers are inherited. In traditional societies shamanic training varies in length, but generally takes years. Turner and colleagues mention a phenomenon called "shamanistic initiatory crisis", a rite of passage for shamans-to-be, commonly involving physical illness or psychological crisis. The significant role of initiatory illnesses in
9348-504: The hypothesis that shamanism is an ancient, unchanged, and surviving religion from the Paleolithic period. The term has been criticized for its perceived colonial roots, and as a tool to perpetuate perceived contemporary linguistic colonialism. By Western scholars, the term "shamanism" is used to refer to a variety of different cultures and practices around the world, which can vary dramatically and may not be accurately represented by
9471-594: The indigenous peoples in Siberia . It is found in the memoirs of the exiled Russian churchman Avvakum . It was brought to Western Europe twenty years later by the Dutch statesman Nicolaes Witsen , who reported his stay and journeys among the Tungusic- and Samoyedic -speaking Indigenous peoples of Siberia in his book Noord en Oost Tataryen (1692). Adam Brand , a merchant from Lübeck , published in 1698 his account of
9594-508: The infectious spirit. Many shamans have expert knowledge of medicinal plants native to their area, and an herbal treatment is often prescribed. In many places shamans learn directly from the plants, harnessing their effects and healing properties, after obtaining permission from the indwelling or patron spirits. In the Peruvian Amazon Basin, shamans and curanderos use medicine songs called icaros to evoke spirits. Before
9717-472: The king of Kuna (ja) ( 狗奴 , literally "dog slave"), one of the other Wa states. The governor dispatched "Chang Chêng, acting Secretary of the Border Guard" with a "proclamation advising reconciliation", and subsequently: When Himiko passed away, a great mound was raised, more than a hundred paces in diameter. Over a hundred male and female attendants followed her to the grave. Then a king was placed on
9840-489: The kings of Wa . Early Japanese histories do not mention Himiko, but historians associate her with legendary figures such as Empress Consort Jingū , who is said to have served as regent from 201 to 269. Scholarly debates over the identity of Himiko and the location of her domain, Yamatai, have raged since the late Edo period , with opinions divided between northern Kyūshū or traditional Yamato Province in present-day Kinki . The "Yamatai controversy", writes Keiji Imamura,
9963-457: The land will assuredly yield submission freely, and the edge of thy sword shall not be all stained with blood." The Emperor thought the gods were lying, said he had only seen ocean to the West, and then died, either immediately ( Kojiki ) or after invading Kumaso ( Nihon Shoki ). Jingū allegedly discovered she was pregnant, personally planned and led a successful conquest of Silla, gave birth to
10086-435: The local variations and emphasizes that shamanism is not a religion of sacred dogmas , but linked to the everyday life in a practical way. Following similar thoughts, he also conjectures a contemporary paradigm shift. Piers Vitebsky also mentions that, despite really astonishing similarities, there is no unity in shamanism. The various, fragmented shamanistic practices and beliefs coexist with other beliefs everywhere. There
10209-528: The modern bēimíhū ( 卑彌呼 ) is simpler than its presumed 3rd-century late Old Chinese or early Middle Chinese pronunciation. Compare the following reconstructions of the name in Archaic Chinese or Middle Chinese ( Bernhard Karlgren , Li Fanggui , and William H. Baxter), Early Middle Chinese (Edwin G. Pulleyblank), and, historically closest, Late Han Chinese (Axel Schuessler). In terms of Japanese phonology (which historically did not have
10332-541: The nomadic Tuvan (with an estimated population of 3000 people surviving from this tribe). Tuva is one of the most isolated Asiatic tribes in Russia where the art of shamanism has been preserved until today due to its isolated existence, allowing it to be free from the influences of other major religions. There are many variations of shamanism throughout the world, but several common beliefs are shared by all forms of shamanism. Common beliefs identified by Eliade (1972) are
10455-602: The notion of cultural appropriation . This includes criticism of New Age and modern Western forms of shamanism, which, according to Kehoe, misrepresent or dilute Indigenous practices. Kehoe also believes that the term reinforces racist ideas such as the noble savage . Kehoe is highly critical of Mircea Eliade 's work on shamanism as an invention synthesized from various sources unsupported by more direct research. To Kehoe, citing practices such as drumming , trance, chanting , entheogen and hallucinogen use, spirit communication , and healing as definitive of shamanism ignores
10578-498: The popularity of ayahuasca tourism in South America, there are practitioners in areas frequented by backpackers who make a living from leading ceremonies. Furthermore, due to the predominant number of female shamans over males, shamanism was and continues to be an integral part of women’s economic liberation. Shamanism often serves as an economic resource due to the requirement of payment for service. This economic revenue
10701-416: The region. Himiko has appeared in various manga issues and comics . Himiko is a character who appears occasionally in anime and video games . Sanrio has created a Himiko-inspired keychain . Shaman Shamanism is a spiritual practice that involves a practitioner ( shaman ) interacting with the spirit world through altered states of consciousness , such as trance . The goal of this
10824-588: The reigns of the Emperors Huan and Ling, that country was in great disorder, and there was no ruler for a period of years. [Then] a woman named Himiko attracted the populace by means of the practice of magic. The country became unified and made her queen. A younger brother assisted Himiko in the administration of the country. Queen [Himiko] kept one thousands maids in attendance. Her person was seldom seen. She had only two men [attendants]. They served her food and drink and acted as intermediaries. The Queen lived in
10947-434: The role of Mongols themselves, particularly "the partnership of scholars and shamans in the reconstruction of shamanism" in post-1990/post-communist Mongolia. This process has also been documented by Swiss anthropologist Judith Hangartner in her landmark study of Darhad shamans in Mongolia. Historian Karena Kollmar-Polenz argues that the social construction and reification of shamanism as a religious "other" actually began with
11070-525: The ruler, there were few who saw her. She had one thousand women as attendants, but only one man. He served her food and drink and acted as a medium of communication. She resided in a palace surrounded by towers and stockades, with armed guards in a state of constant vigilance. The "Records of Wei" also records envoys travelling between the Wa and Wei courts. Himiko's emissaries first visited the court of Wei emperor Cao Rui in 238, and he replied: Herein we address Himiko, Queen of Wa, whom we now officially call
11193-407: The shaman can better predict the movement of animals, resolve group conflicts, plan migrations, and provide other useful services. The neurotheological theory contrasts with the "by-product" or "subjective" model of shamanism developed by Harvard anthropologist Manvir Singh. According to Singh, shamanism is a cultural technology that adapts to (or hacks) our psychological biases to convince us that
11316-415: The shamans, enabling them to enter the spiritual dimension. Shamans claim to heal within the communities and the spiritual dimension by returning lost parts of the human soul from wherever they have gone. Shamans also claim to cleanse excess negative energies, which are said to confuse or pollute the soul. Shamans act as mediators in their cultures. Shamans claim to communicate with the spirits on behalf of
11439-549: The site, located in a cave in lower Galilee and belonging to the Natufian culture , but is said to be unlike any other among the Epipaleolithic Natufians or in the Paleolithic period. A debated etymology of the word "shaman" is "one who knows", implying, among other things, that the shaman is an expert in keeping together the multiple codes of the society, and that to be effective, shamans must maintain
11562-634: The subject have been produced, with a peer-reviewed academic journal being devoted to the study of shamanism. The Modern English word shamanism derives from the Russian word шаман , šamán , which itself comes from the word samān from a Tungusic language – possibly from the southwestern dialect of the Evenki spoken by the Sym Evenki peoples, or from the Manchu language . The etymology of
11685-427: The term "shamanism" is appropriate. He notes that for many readers, "-ism" implies a particular dogma, like Buddhism, Catholicism or Judaism. He recommends using the term "shamanhood" or "shamanship" (a term used in old Russian and German ethnographic reports at the beginning of the 20th century) for stressing the diversity and the specific features of the discussed cultures. He believes that this places more stress on
11808-456: The term in a very broad sense. The term was used to describe unrelated magicoreligious practices found within the ethnic religions of other parts of Asia, Africa, Australasia and even completely unrelated parts of the Americas, as they believed these practices to be similar to one another. While the term has been incorrectly applied by cultural outsiders to many Indigenous spiritual practices,
11931-441: The term to include not only the interpretation of oral and written texts, but that of "visual texts as well (including motions, gestures and more complex rituals, and ceremonies performed, for instance, by shamans)". Revealing the animistic views in shamanism, but also their relevance to the contemporary world, where ecological problems have validated paradigms of balance and protection. Daifang Commandery Gongsun Kang ,
12054-477: The term which appeared to be in use: According to the Oxford English Dictionary , a shaman ( / ˈ ʃ ɑː m ə n / SHAH -mən , / ˈ ʃ æ m ə n / SHAM -ən or / ˈ ʃ eɪ m ə n / SHAY -mən ) is someone who is regarded as having access to, and influence in, the world of benevolent and malevolent spirits , who typically enters into a trance state during
12177-453: The throne, but the people would not obey him. Assassination and murder followed; more than one thousand were thus slain. A relative of Himiko named Iyo [ 壹與 ], a girl of thirteen, was [then] made queen and order was restored. Chêng issued a proclamation to the effect that Iyo was the ruler. Commentators take this 'Iyo' ( 壹與 , with 壹 , "one", an old variant of 一 ) as a miscopy of Toyo ( 臺與 , with 臺 "platform; terrace") paralleling
12300-429: The throne. She kept one thousand female attendants, but few people saw her. There was only one man who was in charge of her wardrobe and meals and acted as the medium of communication. She resided in a palace surrounded by towers and stockades with the protection of armed guards. The laws and customs were strict and stern. The 636 Book of Sui ( Sui Shu , 隋書 ) changes the number of Himiko's male attendants: During
12423-420: The throne: The country formerly had a man as ruler. For some seventy or eighty years after that there were disturbances and warfare. Thereupon the people agreed upon a woman for their ruler. Her name was Himiko [ 卑弥呼 ]. She occupied herself with magic and sorcery, bewitching the people. Though mature in age, she remained unmarried. She had a younger brother who assisted her in ruling the country. After she became
12546-459: The use of entheogens or ritual performances. The methods employed are diverse, and are often used together. Just like shamanism itself, music and songs related to it in various cultures are diverse. In several instances, songs related to shamanism are intended to imitate natural sounds , via onomatopoeia . Sound mimesis in various cultures may serve other functions not necessarily related to shamanism: practical goals such as luring game in
12669-419: The used symbols and meanings and therefore trust the shamanic worker. There are also semiotic , theoretical approaches to shamanism, and examples of "mutually opposing symbols" in academic studies of Siberian lore, distinguishing a "white" shaman who contacts sky spirits for good aims by day, from a "black" shaman who contacts evil spirits for bad aims by night. (Series of such opposing symbols referred to
12792-487: The various Tungus dialects as a corruption of this term, and then been told to Christian missionaries , explorers, soldiers and colonial administrators with whom the people had increasing contact for centuries. A female shaman is sometimes called a shamanka , which is not an actual Tungus term but simply shaman plus the Russian suffix -ka (for feminine nouns). There is no single agreed-upon definition for
12915-527: The ways that modern science (systems theory, ecology, new approaches in anthropology and archeology) treats causality in a less linear fashion. He also suggests a cooperation of modern science and Indigenous lore. Shamanic practices may originate as early as the Paleolithic , predating all organized religions, and certainly as early as the Neolithic period. The earliest known undisputed burial of
13038-414: The wife of Oho-mono-nushi no Kami. This God, however, was never seen in the day-time, but at night. Yamato-toto-hi-momo-so-bime no Mikoto said to her husband: "As my Lord is never seen in the day-time, I am unable to view his august countenance distinctly; I beseech him therefore to delay a while, that in the morning I may look upon the majesty of his beauty." The Great God answered and said: "What thou sayest
13161-405: The word "shamanism" among anthropologists. Thomas Downson suggests three shared elements of shamanism: practitioners consistently alter consciousness, the community regards altering consciousness as an important ritual practice, and the knowledge about the practice is controlled. The English historian Ronald Hutton noted that by the dawn of the 21st century, there were four separate definitions of
13284-424: The word is sometimes connected to the Tungus root sā- , meaning "to know". However, Finnish ethnolinguist Juha Janhunen questions this connection on linguistic grounds: "The possibility cannot be completely rejected, but neither should it be accepted without reservation since the assumed derivational relationship is phonologically irregular (note especially the vowel quantities)." Mircea Eliade noted that
13407-462: The words “shaman” and “shamanism” do not accurately describe the variety and complexity that is Indigenous spirituality. Each nation and tribe has its own way of life, and uses terms in their own languages. Mircea Eliade writes, "A first definition of this complex phenomenon, and perhaps the least hazardous, will be: shamanism = 'technique of religious ecstasy '." Shamanism encompasses the premise that shamans are intermediaries or messengers between
13530-488: Was a despotic state with a generalized slave system" , while Mitsusada Inoue idealized Yamatai as a "balance of small states" with communal property and popular political expression. Following the late 1960s "Yamatai boom", when numerous Japanese historians, linguists, and archeologists published reevaluations of Himiko and Yamatai, the debate was joined by Japanese nationalists , mystery writers, and amateur scholars. In Japanese historical and archeological periodization ,
13653-444: Was a trickster snake-god. The Kojiki does not mention her, but the Nihon Shoki describes her as "the Emperor's aunt by the father's side, a shrewd and intelligent person, who could foresee the future". After a series of national calamities, the Emperor "assembled the 80 myriads of Deities" and inquired by divination . Yamato-totohi-momoso was inspired by Ōmononushi-nushi ("Great Deity of All Deities and Spirits"), to say: "Why
13776-468: Was ashamed, and changing suddenly into human form, spake to his wife, and said: "Thou didst not contain thyself, but hast caused me shame; I will in my turn put thee to shame." So treading the Great Void, he ascended to Mount Mimoro. Hereupon Yamato-toto-hi-momo-so-bime no Mikoto looked up and had remorse. She flopped down on a seat and with a chopstick stabbed herself in the pudenda so that she died. She
13899-589: Was at that time, divinely possessed […] charged him with this instruction and counsel: "There is a land to the Westward, and in that land is abundance of various treasures dazzling to the eye, from gold and silver downwards. I will now bestow this land upon thee." At this time a certain God inspired the Empress and instructed her, saying: "Why should the Emperor be troubled because the Kumaso do not yield submission? It
14022-571: Was buried at Oho-chi. Therefore the men of that time called her tomb the Hashi no haka [Chopstick Tomb]. The Hashihaka Kofun ( 箸墓 , "Chopstick Tomb" ) Kofun in Sakurai, Nara is associated with this legend. Yamatohime-no-mikoto ( 倭姫命 ) , the daughter of Emperor Suinin, supposedly founded the Ise Shrine to the sun-goddess Amaterasu . The Kojiki records her as the fourth of Suinin's five children, "Her Augustness Yamato-hime, (was
14145-548: Was inaccurate prior to the 4th century, and thus "Jingū became a fourth-century queen whose reign could not possibly have coincided with Himiko's." The sinologist Shiratori Kurakichi proposed the Nihon Shoki compilers were tempted to associate Jingū with the religious powers of Himiko. Naitō Torajirō argued that Himiko was the high priestess of the Ise shrine Yamato-hime-no-mikoto and that Wa armies obtained control of southern Korea: One scholar [Higo Kazuo] asserted that Himiko
14268-486: Was introduced to the west after Russian forces conquered the shamanistic Khanate of Kazan in 1552. The term "shamanism" was first applied by Western anthropologists as outside observers of the ancient religion of the Turks and Mongols , as well as those of the neighbouring Tungusic- and Samoyedic -speaking peoples. Upon observing more religious traditions around the world, some Western anthropologists began to also use
14391-528: Was occupied by the Xiongnu in 311, he went for help to Murong Hui , a Xianbei warlord, with his subjects in 314. Goguryeo under King Micheon annexed Lelang and Daifang soon after that. The Daifang Commandery was located around Hwanghae and its capital was Daifang County. However, the controversy over its location is not resolved yet. According to a Chinese official chronicle, the Book of Jin (晉書), it had
14514-462: Was pronounced in the 3rd century, both by speakers of the unknown Wa-language and by Chinese scribes who transcribed it. While transliteration into Chinese characters of foreign words is complex, the choice of these three particular characters is puzzling, with literal meanings 卑 "low; inferior; humble", 彌 ( 弥 ) "fill, cover; full; whole, complete", and 呼 "breathe out; exhale; cry out; call". In terms of historical Chinese phonology ,
14637-563: Was really Yamato-toto-momo-so-hime-no-mikoto, aunt of the legendary Emperor Sūjin on his father's side, because her supposed tomb at Hashihaka in Nara measured about a hundred paces in diameter, the measurement given for Himiko's grave. This theory gained adherents in the postwar period. Another [Shida Fudomaru] saw in Himiko an expression of women's political authority in early Japan. Some later Japanese historians reframed Himiko in terms of Marxist historiography . Masaaki Ueda argued that "Himiko's
14760-460: Was sent a golden royal seal, by Emperor Guangwu of the Han dynasty . Nakoku is said to have existed from the 1st century to the early 3rd century, and seems to have been independent or even a rival of the current Imperial House of Japan , supposedly in Yamato, Honshū. Even so, both the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki recorded that the current imperial dynasty, starting with Jimmu , originated from
14883-468: Was telling the truth". Belief in witchcraft and sorcery, known as brujería in Latin America, exists in many societies. Other societies assert all shamans have the power to both cure and kill. Those with shamanic knowledge usually enjoy great power and prestige in the community, but they may also be regarded suspiciously or fearfully as potentially harmful to others. By engaging in their work,
15006-571: Was unmarried, was chosen as ruler by the people, had a younger brother who helped rule (unless this refers to Jingū's son), or had numerous (figuratively "1,000") female attendants. William Wayne Farris reviews the history of scholarly debates over Himiko and her domain Yamatai. The Edo-period philosophers Arai Hakuseki and Motoori Norinaga began the controversies over whether Yamatai was located in Northern Kyushu or Yamato Province in
15129-536: Was vital for female shamans, especially those living during the Chosun Dynasty in Korea (A.D. 1392–1910). In a culture that disapproved of female economic autonomy, the practice of shamanism allowed women to advance themselves financially and independently, in a way that had not been possible for them before. There are two major frameworks among cognitive and evolutionary scientists for explaining shamanism. The first, proposed by anthropologist Michael Winkelman,
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