The Khitan people ( Khitan small script : ; Chinese : 契丹 ; pinyin : Qìdān ) were a Turko-Mongolian historical nomadic people from Northeast Asia who, from the 4th century, inhabited an area corresponding to parts of modern Mongolia , Northeast China and the Russian Far East .
163-682: A queue or cue is a hairstyle worn by the Jurchen and Manchu peoples of Manchuria , and was later required to be worn by male subjects of Qing China . Hair on top of the scalp is grown long and is often braided , while the front portion of the head is shaved. The distinctive hairstyle led to its wearers being targeted during anti-Chinese riots in Australia and the United States . The edict that Han Chinese men and others under Manchu rule give up their traditional hairstyles and wear
326-522: A British unwillingness to challenge long-held Indian traditions, no matter how detrimental they were to the country. British author Demetrius Charles Boulger in 1899 proposed that Britain form and head an alliance of "Philo-Chinese Powers" in setting up a new government for China based in Shanghai and Nanking as two capitals along the River Yangtze , to counter the interests of other powers in
489-558: A Jin vassal (tributary). However the Goryeo king retained his position as "Son of Heaven" within Goryeo. By incorporating Jurchen history into that of Goryeo and emphasizing the Jin emperors as bastard offspring of Goryeo, and placing the Jin within the template of a "northern dynasty", the imposition of Jin suzerainty became more acceptable. Wanyan Aguda , chief of the Wanyan tribe, unified
652-591: A Jurchen burial ground in Partizansky District of Primorye in Russia. Fifteen graves dating to the 12th or 13th century were found, consisting of the grave of a chieftain placed in the centre, with the graves of 14 servants nearby. All the graves contained pots with ashes, prompting the scientists to conclude that the Jurchens cremated the corpses of their dead. The grave of the chieftain also contained
815-496: A Khitan nobleman died, burnt offerings were sacrificed at the full and new moons. The body was exposed for three years in the mountains, after which the bones would be cremated. The Khitan believed that the souls of the dead rested at a place called the Black Mountain, near Rehe Province . Khitan tents always faced east, and they revered the sun, but the moon did not have a large role in their religion. They also practiced
978-876: A Tuoba grave. Han Chinese also made the peoples they conquered undo their queues. To show submission to the Han Chinese of the Sui dynasty , the people of Turfan ( Gaochang ) undid their queues, as did the Göktürks upon surrendering to the Tang dynasty . Hairstyles showed affiliation to a tribal confederation or dynasty. In the Western Wei cave 285 at the Mogao Caves in Dunhuang , Xianbei people are depicted with small queues hanging from their necks. After overthrowing
1141-454: A fiefdom. His men and Ming prince Zhu Shugui fiercely objected to shaving. In 1644, Beijing was sacked by a coalition of rebel forces led by Li Zicheng , a minor Ming dynasty official turned leader of a peasant revolt. The Chongzhen Emperor committed suicide when the city fell, marking the official end of the Ming dynasty. The Han Chinese Ming general Wu Sangui and his army then defected to
1304-602: A force of 30,000 to conquer ten villages. However by the rise of the Wanyan clan, the quality of Goryeo's army had degraded and it mostly consisted of infantry. There were several clashes with the Jurchens, usually resulting in Jurchen victory with their mounted cavalrymen. In 1104, the Wanyan Jurchens reached Chongju while pursuing tribes resisting them. Goryeo sent Lim Gan to confront the Jurchens, but his untrained army
1467-559: A form of divination where they went to war if the shoulder blade of a white sheep cracked while being heated ( scapulimancy ). Khitan women hunted, rode horses and practiced archery . They did not practice foot binding , which started becoming popular among the Han during the Song dynasty . The Khitan practiced polygamy and generally preferred marriage within the tribe, but it was not unknown for an Emperor to take wives from other groups, such as
1630-666: A major strategic error, formed an ill-fated alliance with the Turkic leader Qapaghan Qaghan to punish the Khitan for raiding Hebei province . Khitan territory was much closer to northern China proper than Turkic lands, and the Turks used it to launch their own raids into Hebei. Like the Tuyuhun and Tangut , the Khitan remained an intermediate power along the borderlands through the 7th and 8th centuries. The Khitans rose to prominence in
1793-676: A military invasion against the Later Jin in 944. In January 947, the Emperor of the Later Jin dynasty surrendered to the Khitans. The Khitan emperor left the conquered city of Kaifeng and unexpectedly died from an illness while travelling in May 947. Relations between Goryeo and the Khitans were hostile after the Khitans destroyed Balhae . Goryeo would not recognize the Liao dynasty and supported
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#17327718355081956-584: A month, resulting in tens of thousands of deaths. The third massacre left few survivors. The three massacres at Jiading District are some of the most infamous, with estimated death tolls in the tens or even hundreds of thousands. Jiangyin also held out against about 10,000 Qing troops for 83 days. When the city wall was finally breached on 9 October 1645, the Qing army, led by the Han Chinese Ming defector Liu Liangzuo (劉良佐), who had been ordered to "fill
2119-641: A power vacuum that developed in the wake of the Kyrgyz takeover of the Uyghur Khaganate, and the collapse of the Tang dynasty. Abaoji , who had been successful in uniting the Khitan tribes, founded the Liao dynasty in 907. The Liao territory included modern day northern and northeastern China, Mongolia, and parts of Central Asia and Siberia. Although transition to an imperial social and political organization
2282-452: A proficient understanding of them. Nomadic Khitans originally engaged in stockbreeding , fishing , and hunting . Looting Chinese villages and towns as well as neighboring tribes was also a helpful source of slaves , Chinese handicrafts, and food, especially in times of famine. Under the influence of China, and following the administrative need for a sedentary administration, the Khitans began to engage in farming, crop cultivation and
2445-558: A queue identical to those worn by the Manchus. Qing Manchu prince Dorgon initially canceled the order for all men in Ming territories south of the Great wall (post 1644 additions to the Qing) to shave. It was a Han official from Shandong, Sun Zhixie and Li Ruolin who voluntarily shaved their foreheads and demanded Qing Prince Dorgon impose the queue hairstyle on the entire population which led to
2608-466: A quiver with arrows and a bent sword. The archaeologists propose that the sword was purposely bent, to signify that the owner would no longer need it in earthly life. The researchers planned to return to Primorye to establish whether this was a singular burial or a part of the larger burial ground. Khitan people As a people descended from the proto-Mongols through the Xianbei , Khitans spoke
2771-654: A recognized minority ethnic group in Northeast China, are the genetic descendants of Khitans. The historical European name for China, Cathay , originates from the word Khitan. There is no consensus on the etymology of the name of Khitan. There are basically three speculations. Feng Jiasheng argues that it comes from the Yuwen chieftains' names. Zhao Zhenji thinks that the term originated from Xianbei and means "a place where Xianbei had resided". Japanese scholar Otagi Matsuo believes that Khitan's original name
2934-463: A sacrifice to the spirit of the animal they were hunting and wore a pelt from the same animal during the hunt. There were festivals to mark the catching of the first fish and wild goose, and annual sacrifices of animals to the sky, earth, ancestors, mountains, rivers, and others. Every male member of the Khitan would sacrifice a white horse, white sheep, and white goose during the Winter solstice . When
3097-648: A short queue (the French word for "tail") tied with a ribbon in the back, while the British military used the Ramillies wig, which featured a very long queue tied with two black ribbons, one at the neck and one at the tail end. The French army continued keeping queues until the French Consulate period, when Napoleon and other officers promoted close cropped hair, known as à la Titus . However, hair policy in
3260-731: A stele in front of it. The stele bore the heading "Record of Re-building Yongning Temple". The setting up of the Nurgan Command Post and the repeated declarations to offer blessings to this region by Yishiha and others were all recorded in this and the first steles. In the ninth year of the Ming Xuande emperor the Jurchens in Manchuria under Ming rule suffered from famine forcing them to sell their daughters into slavery and moving to Liaodong to beg for help and relief from
3423-647: A year, Kaifeng fell to the Mongols in 1233. Emperor Aizong fled to Caizhou for shelter, but Caizhou also fell to the Mongols in 1234, marking the end of the Jin dynasty. Chinese chroniclers of the Ming dynasty distinguished three different groups of Jurchens: the Wild Jurchens ( 野人女真 ; yěrén Nǚzhēn ) of what became Outer Manchuria , the Haixi Jurchens ( 海西女真 ) of modern Heilongjiang Province and
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#17327718355083586-465: Is also a Native American hairstyle, as described in the book House Made of Dawn by N. Scott Momaday . In the 18th century, European soldiers styled their traditionally long hair into a queue called the "soldier's queue." The 18th century custom of tying periwigs (which normally reached down the back and chest) behind the neck began among soldiers and hunters, as seen as early as 1678 in a depiction of King Louis XIV hunting with his hair tied back. By
3749-514: Is demonstrated by the fact that Chinese citizens in Hong Kong collectively changed to short haircuts. Cantonese outlaw bandit pirates in the Guangdong maritime frontier with Vietnam in the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries wore their hair long in defiance of the Qing laws which mandated cutting. Many people were violating the Qing laws on hair at the end of the dynasty. Some Chinese chose to wear
3912-414: Is no evidence that guest prostitution of unmarried Jurchen girls to Khitan men was resented by the Jurchens. It was only when the Khitans forced aristocratic Jurchen families to give up their beautiful wives as guest prostitutes to Khitan messengers that the Jurchens became resentful. This suggests that in Jurchen upper classes, only a husband had the right to his married wife while among lower class Jurchens,
4075-404: Is no evidence that guest prostitution of unmarried Jurchen girls to Khitan men was resented by the Jurchens. It was only when the Khitans forced aristocratic Jurchen families to give up their wives as guest prostitutes to Khitan messengers that the Jurchens became resentful. This suggests that in Jurchen upper classes, only a husband had the right to his married wife while among lower class Jurchens,
4238-560: Is probably quite a lot of propaganda in the inscriptions, but they give a detailed record of the Ming court's efforts to assert suzerainty over the Jurchen. When Yishiha visited Nurgan for the 3rd time in 1413, he built a temple called Yongning Temple at Telin and erected the Yongning Temple Stele in front of it. Yishiha paid his 10th visit to Nurgan in 1432, during which he rebuilt the Yongning Temple and re-erected
4401-557: Is the same." Later, Nurhaci indicated that the bond with the Mongols was not based on any real shared culture, but rather on pragmatic reasons of "mutual opportunism". He said to the Mongols, "You Mongols raise livestock, eat meat and wear pelts. My people till the fields and live on grain. We two are not one country and we have different languages". During the Ming dynasty , the Jurchens lived in sub-clans ( mukun or hala mukun ) of ancient clans ( hala ). Not all clan members were blood related, and division and integration of different clans
4564-499: Is traditionally explained as an effect of the Chinese naming taboo , with the character 真 being removed after the 1031 enthronement of Zhigu, Emperor Xingzong of Liao , because it appeared in the sinified form of his personal name. Aisin-Gioro Ulhicun , however, argues that this was a later folk etymology and the original reason was uncertainty among dialects regarding the name's final -n (Nussin, Naisin). The form Niuche
4727-687: The Classic of Mountains and Seas and the Book of Wei are possibly cognates. It was the source of Fra Mauro 's Zorça and Marco Polo 's Ciorcia , reflecting the Persian form of their name. Vajda considers that the Jurchens' name probably derives from the Tungusic words for " reindeer people" and is cognate with the names of the Orochs (urakka, uroot, urhot) of Khabarovsk Province and
4890-454: The Classic of Filial Piety , Confucius said: We are given our body, skin and hair from our parents; which we ought not to damage. This idea is the quintessence of filial duty. ( 身體髮膚，受之父母，不敢毀傷，孝之始也。 ) As a result of this ideology, both men and women wound their hair into a bun (a topknot ) or other various hairstyles. Han Chinese did not object to wearing the queue braid on the back of
5053-635: The Green Standard Army in Sichuan and Zhejiang . They adopted Qing clothing and adopt the queue hairstyle, effectively becoming naturalized subjects of the Qing dynasty affording them protection against Vietnamese demands for extradition. Some Lê loyalists were also sent to Central Asia in Urumqi . Modern descendants of the Lê monarch can be traced to southern Vietnam and Urumqi , Xinjiang. The queue
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5216-664: The Jianzhou Jurchens of modern Jilin Province . They led a pastoral-agrarian lifestyle, hunting, fishing, and engaging in limited agriculture. In 1388, the Hongwu Emperor dispatched a mission to establish contact with the Odoli, Huligai and T'owen tribes. The issue of controlling the Jurchens was a point of contention between Joseon Korea and the early Ming. The Yongle Emperor (r. 1402–1424) found allies among
5379-828: The Jurchen invasion , many Khitans followed Yelü Dashi 's group westward to establish the Qara Khitai or Western Liao dynasty, in Central Asia , which lasted nearly a century before falling to the Mongol Empire in 1218. Other regimes founded by the Khitans included the Northern Liao , Eastern Liao and Later Liao in China, as well as the Qutlugh-Khanid dynasty in Persia. The modern-day Daur people ,
5542-511: The Khitan people and Mongols , they took pride in feats of strength, horsemanship, archery, and hunting. Both Mongols and Jurchens used the title Khan for the leaders of a political entity, whether "emperor" or "chief". A particularly powerful chief was called beile ("prince, nobleman"), corresponding with the Mongolian beki and Turkic baig or bey . Also like the Mongols and
5705-524: The Later Jin , was founded by a Jianzhou commander, Nurhaci (r. 1616–26), who unified most Jurchen tribes, incorporated their entire population into hereditary military regiments known as the Eight Banners , and patronized the creation of an alphabet for their language based on the Mongolian script. The term Manchu , already in official use by the Later Jin at that time, was in 1635 decreed to be
5868-480: The Nanai people who were conquered by the Qing. The Amur peoples already wore the queue on the back of their heads but did not shave the front until the Qing subjected them and ordered them to shave. The term "shaved-head people" was used to describe the Nanai people by Ulch people . The Queue Order ( simplified Chinese : 剃发令 ; traditional Chinese : 剃髮令 ; pinyin : tìfàlìng ), or tonsure decree ,
6031-618: The Oroks of Sakhalin . ("Horse Tungus" and "Reindeer Tungus" are still the primary divisions among the Tungusic cultures.) Janhunen argues that these records already reflect the Classical Mongolian plural form of the name, recorded in the Secret History as J̌ürčät (Jyrkät), and further reconstructed as * Jörcid , The modern Mongolian form is Зүрчид (Zürčid, Suurseita)) whose medial -r- does not appear in
6194-623: The Qing was "Cut the hair and keep the head, (or) keep the hair and cut the head" ( Chinese : 留髮不留頭，留頭不留髮 ; pinyin : liú fà bù liú tóu, liú tóu bù liú fà ). People who resisted the order were met with deadly force. Han rebels in Shandong tortured the Qing official who suggested the queue order to Dorgon to death and killed his relatives. The imposition of this order was not uniform; it took up to 10 years of martial enforcement for all of China to be brought into compliance, and while it
6357-745: The Songhua River and Amur River . His fleet sailed down the Songhua into the Amur, and set up the Nurgan Command at Telin near the mouth of the Amur River. These missions are not well recorded in the Ming histories, but there exist two stone steles erected by Yishiha at the site of the Yongning Temple, a Guanyin temple commissioned by him at Telin. The inscriptions on the steles are in four languages: Chinese, Jurchen, Mongol, and Tibetan. There
6520-411: The West Eurasian paternal haplogroup J2 . All three specimens carried maternal haplogroups associated with Northeast Asia , including haplogroups A24 , D4 and haplogroup Y1 . During the Khitan and Mongol empires, a male bias for East-Asian related ancestry is observed in the eastern steppe region. Two studies found evidence of Khitan mtDNA ancestry in modern-day people of the Daur ethnicity. This
6683-440: The Xianbei , and some scholars believe they may have been a mixed group who also included former members of the Xiongnu tribal confederation. The Khitan shaved their heads, leaving hair on their temples which grew down to the chest, in a similar fashion to the related Kumo Xi , Shiwei , and Xianbei whom they are believed to be descended from. During their early history the Khitan were composed of eight tribes. Their territory
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6846-402: The power games between the Turks and the Sui and Tang dynasties. It is estimated the Khitans had only around 43,000 soldiers – a fraction of the Turkic Khaganates. In 605, the Khitans raided the Sui dynasty, but the Emperor Yang of Sui was able to convince the Turks to send 20,000 horsemen to aid Sui against the Khitans. In 628, under the leadership of tribal chief Dahe Moui,
7009-405: The " Qing Taizu Wu Huangdi Shilu " and the " Manzhou Shilu Tu " (Taizu Shilu Tu) were kept in the palace, forbidden from public view because they showed that the Manchu Aisin Gioro family had been ruled by the Ming dynasty. Our gurun (tribe, state) originally had the names Manju, Hada, Ula, Yehe, and Hoifa. Formerly ignorant persons have frequently called [us] jušen . The term jušen refers to
7172-479: The "privilege" of wearing a queue to show their steadfast loyalty to the Empire. High-ranking begs were granted this right. The purpose of the Queue Order was to demonstrate loyalty to the Qing, and refusing to shave one's hair came to symbolize revolutionary ideals, as seen during the White Lotus Rebellion . Because of this, the members of the Taiping Rebellion were sometimes called the Long hairs ( 長毛 ) or Hair rebels ( 髮逆 ). Han Chinese resistance to adopting
7335-433: The "seven Wuji tribes", which the Goguryeo people were not a part of. It seems by that point, the Jurchens saw only the Mohe tribes as a related people. Some western scholars consider the origin of Hanpu to be legendary in nature. Herbert Franke described the narrative provided in the History of Jin as an "ancestral legend" with a historical basis in that the Wanyan clan had absorbed immigrants from Goryeo and Balhae during
7498-445: The 10th century. Frederick W. Mote described it as a "tribal legend" that may have born the tribe's memories. The two brothers remaining in Goryeo and Balhae may represent ancestral ties to those two peoples while Hanpu's marriage may represent the tribe's transformation from a matrilineal to patrilineal society. Hongtaiji , the Qing dynasty emperor of the Aisin Gioro clan, claimed that their progenitor, Bukūri Yongšon (布庫里雍順),
7661-434: The 13th century, the Mongol invasions and conquests had a large impact on shifting ethnic identities in the region. Most people of the Eurasian Steppe did not retain their pre-Mongol identities after the conquests. The Khitans were scattered across Eurasia and assimilated into the Mongol Empire in the early 13th century. Fleeing from the Mongols , in 1216 the Khitans invaded Goryeo and won several battles, even reaching
7824-402: The 1730s, the queue had spread from the military and became widespread among civilians. A 1697 depiction of a royal guard during the wedding of the Duke of Burgundy shows the sporting of this hairstyle, which came to influence civilian fashions due to the frequent wars France engaged in during Louis' reign. The queue, either curled or covered with a silk bag (known as a bag wig), gradually replaced
7987-460: The 18th century also wore their hair in a queue. While not always braided, the hair was pulled back very tight into a single tail, wrapped around a piece of leather and tied down with a ribbon. The hair was often greased and powdered in a fashion similar to powdered wigs , or tarred in the case of sailors. It was said that the soldiers' hair was pulled back so tightly that they had difficulty closing their eyes afterwards. The use of white hair powder in
8150-476: The 18th century. The Jurchens were renamed Manchus in 1635 by Hong Taiji . Different Jurchen groups lived as hunter-gatherers, pastoralist semi-nomads, or sedentary agriculturists. Generally lacking a central authority, and having little communication with each other, many Jurchen groups fell under the influence of neighbouring dynasties, their chiefs paying tribute and holding nominal posts as effectively hereditary commanders of border guards. Han officials of
8313-404: The British Army was discontinued in 1796 and queues were ordered to be cut off four years later. They continued to be worn in the Royal Navy for a while longer, where they were known as " pigtails ". Officers wore pigtails until 1805 and other ranks continued to wear them until about 1820. In the Prussian Army and those of several other states within the Holy Roman Empire , the soldier's queue
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#17327718355088476-417: The Coo Mergen of Sibe barbarians and has nothing to do with our gurun . Our gurun establishes the name Manju. Its rule will be long and transmitted over many generations. Henceforth persons should call our gurun its original name, Manju, and not use the previous demeaning name. Jurchen culture shared many similarities with the hunter-gatherer lifestyle of Siberian-Manchurian tundra and coastal peoples. Like
8639-407: The French army was not uniform; some regiments such as the Imperial Guard foot grenadiers stuck to queues long afterwards, while the 2nd Line Infantry kept their queues as late as 1812. Short hair only became mandated at the end of the First Empire with the ordinance of 25 September 1815. Marshal Jean Lannes notably stood out due to his refusal to cut his queue. British soldiers and sailors during
8802-596: The Goryeo court in return. However the Jurchens who offered tribute were often the same ones who raided Goryeo's borders. In one instance, the Goryeo court discovered that a Jurchen leader who had brought tribute had been behind the recent raids on their territory. The frontier was largely outside of direct control and lavish gifts were doled out as a means of controlling the Jurchens. Sometimes Jurchens submitted to Goryeo and were given citizenship. Goryeo inhabitants were forbidden from trading with Jurchens. The tributary relations between Jurchens and Goryeo began to change under
8965-458: The Han Chinese who wore the queue, with Lindley calling the shaved part "a disfigurement". After Nguyễn Huệ defeated the Later Lê dynasty , high ranking Lê loyalists and the last Lê emperor Lê Chiêu Thống fled Vietnam for asylum in Qing China. They went to Beijing where Lê Chiêu Thống was appointed a Chinese mandarin of the fourth rank in the Han Yellow Bordered Banner , while lower ranking loyalists were sent to cultivate government land and join
9128-518: The Han, Koreans , and Turkic tribes . A 2015 study postulated that Khitan males may have belonged to haplogroups C3c or N1 , based on the distribution of these haplogroups in modern-day Eastern and Central Asian populations. A 2020 study published in Cell analyzed the DNA of 3 Khitan burials from Bulgan Province , located in Northern Mongolia . The Khitan burials were found to be of predominantly Northeast Asian origin, with less than 10% West Eurasian ancestry. The two male specimens belonged to
9291-433: The Heje ( Hezhen ) and other Amur valley Jurchen tribes had an oral version of the same tale. It also fits with Jurchen history since some ancestors of the Manchus originated north before the 14th-15th centuries in the Amur and only later moved south. By the 11th century, the Jurchens had become vassals of the Khitan rulers of the Liao dynasty . The Jurchens in the Yalu River region had been tributaries of Goryeo since
9454-401: The History of Ming because of this. The Yongzheng Emperor attempted to rewrite the historical record and claim that the Aisin Gioro were never subjects of past dynasties and empires trying to cast Nurhaci 's acceptance of Ming titles like Dragon Tiger General (longhu jiangjun 龍虎將軍) by claiming he accepted to "please Heaven". During the Qing dynasty, the two original editions of the books of
9617-469: The Japanese governor was killed. In total, 1,280 Japanese were taken prisoner, 374 Japanese were killed and 380 Japanese owned livestock were killed for food. Only 259 or 270 were returned by Koreans from the eight ships. The woman Uchikura no Ishime's report was copied down. One of the causes of the Jurchen rebellion and the fall of the Liao was the custom of raping married Jurchen women and Jurchen girls by Khitan envoys, which caused resentment from
9780-399: The Jin dynasty became increasingly involved in conflicts with the Mongols . By 1215, after losing much territory to the Mongols, the Jurchens moved their capital south from Zhongdu to Kaifeng . The Jin emperor Wanyan Yongji 's daughter, Jurchen Princess Qiguo was married to Mongol leader Genghis Khan in exchange for relieving the Mongol siege upon Zhongdu . After a siege lasting about
9943-419: The Jin was founded, the Jurchens called Goryeo their "parent country" or "father and mother" country. This was because it had traditionally been part of their system of tributary relations, its rhetoric, advanced culture, as well as the idea that it was "bastard offspring of Koryŏ". The Jin also believed that they shared a common ancestry with the Balhae people in the Liao dynasty . The Jin went on to conquer
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#173277183550810106-424: The Jurchen and the Koreans. This relationship between the Jurchens and Koreans was ended by the Ming which envisioned the Jurchens as a form of protective border to the north. In 1403, Ahacu, chieftain of Huligai, paid tribute to the Yongle Emperor . Soon after, Mentemu , chieftain of Odoli clan of the Jianzhou Jurchens , defected from paying tribute to Korea, becoming a tributary to China instead. Yi Seong-gye ,
10269-413: The Jurchen hairstyle by shaving the front of their heads and to adopt Jurchen dress, but the order was lifted. Some Han rebels impersonated Jurchen by wearing their hair in the Jurchen "pigtail" to strike fear within the Jurchen population. The queue was a specifically male hairstyle worn by the Manchu from central Manchuria and later imposed on the Han Chinese during the Qing dynasty . The hair on
10432-430: The Jurchens first entered Chinese records in 748, they inhabited the forests and river valleys of the land which is now divided between China 's Heilongjiang Province and Russia 's Primorsky Krai province . In earlier records, this area was known as the home of the Sushen ( c. 1100 BC), the Yilou (around AD 200), the Wuji ( c. 500 ), and the Mohe ( c. 700 ). Scholarship since
10595-419: The Jurchens were "swarthy like Spaniards." Sin Chung-il, a Korean emissary who in 1595 had visited the Jurchen living north-west of the Yalu River , notes that during his visit to Fe Ala all those who served Nurhaci were uniform in their dress and hairstyle. They all shaved a portion of their scalp and kept the remaining hair in a long plaited braid . All men wore leather boots, breeches, and tunics. When
10758-473: The Jurchens. The custom of having sex with unmarried girls by Khitan was itself not a problem, since the practice of guest prostitution - giving female companions, food and shelter to guests - was common among Jurchens. Unmarried daughters of Jurchen families of lower and middle classes in Jurchen villages were provided to Khitan messengers for sex, as recorded by Hong Hao. Song envoys among the Jin were similarly entertained by singing girls in Guide, Henan. There
10921-463: The Khitan language, known as the large script and the small script . These were functionally independent and appear to have been used simultaneously in the Liao dynasty. They were in use for some time after the fall of that dynasty. Examples of the scripts appeared most often on epitaphs and monuments , although other fragments sometimes surface. The Khitan scripts have not been fully deciphered and more research and discoveries will be necessary for
11084-438: The Khitan submitted to the Tang dynasty, as they had earlier submitted to the Eastern Turks. The Khagan of the Eastern Turks, Jiali Khan , offered to exchange the rebel Liang Shidu for the Khitans, but Emperor Taizong would not agree to the exchange. During the reign of Empress Wu , nearly one century later, the Second Turkic Khaganate raided along northern China's borderlands. The Tang Empress, in what scholars consider
11247-460: The Khitans supported Shi Jing Tang ' s rebellion against the Later Tang Emperor Li Cong Ke. Shi Jing Tang became emperor of the Later Jin dynasty and, in exchange for their support, the Khitans gained sixteen new prefectures . The Later Jin dynasty remained a vassal of the Khitans until the death of Shi Jing Tang in 942, but when the new emperor ascended, he indicated that he would not honor his predecessor's arrangement. The Khitans launched
11410-414: The Khitans was itself not a problem, since the practice of guest prostitution – giving female companions, food and shelter to guests – was common among Jurchens. Unmarried daughters of Jurchen families of lower and middle classes in Jurchen villages were provided to Khitan messengers for sex, as recorded by Hong Hao. Song envoys among the Jin were similarly entertained by singing girls in Guide, Henan. There
11573-430: The Liao dynasty and the Song dynasty for the next 120 years. During the reign of the Emperor Daozong of Liao , corruption was a major problem and prompted dissatisfaction among many people, including the Jurchens. The Liao dynasty eventually fell to the Jin dynasty of the Jurchen in 1125, who defeated and absorbed the Khitans to their military benefit. The Khitans considered the Khamag Mongols as their last hope when
11736-473: The Liao dynasty in 1125 and capture the Song capital of Kaifeng in 1127 ( Jingkang incident ). The Jin also put pressure on Goryeo and demanded that Goryeo become their subject. While many in Goryeo were against this, Yi Cha-gyöm was in power at the time and judged peaceful relations with the Jin to be beneficial to his own political power. He accepted the Jin demands and in 1126, the king of Goryeo declared himself
11899-439: The Liao dynasty was invaded by the Jin, Song dynasty and Western Xia Empires. To defend against the Jurchens and Khitans, a Long Wall was built by Goryeo in 1033–1034, along with many border forts. One of the causes of the Jurchen rebellion and the fall of the Liao was the custom of raping married Jurchen women by Khitan envoys, which caused resentment from the Jurchens. The custom of having sex with unmarried girls by
12062-470: The Liao emperor switched between Han and Khitan clothing. Khitan officials used gold ornamented ribbons to found their hair locks around their foreheads, covering their heads with felt hats according to the Ye Longli's (Yeh Lung-li) Qidan Guozhi (Ch'i-tan kuo-chih). Khitan wore the long side fringes and shaved pates. Tomb murals of Khitan hairstyle show only some hair remaining near the neck and forehead with
12225-514: The Manchu hairstyle within ten days would be executed. The intellectual Lu Xun summed up the Chinese reaction to the implementation of the mandatory Manchu hairstyle by stating, "In fact, the Chinese people in those days revolted not because the country was on the verge of ruin, but because they had to wear queues." In 1683 Zheng Keshuang surrendered and wore a queue. The queue became a symbol of
12388-460: The Manchu queue. While some, such as Zhang Xun , still did so as a tradition, most of them abandoned it after the last Emperor of China , Puyi , cut his queue in 1922. The Nanais at first fought against the Nurhaci and the Manchus, led by their own Nanai Hurka chief Sosoku before surrendering to Hongtaiji in 1631. Mandatory shaving of the front of all male heads was imposed on Amur peoples like
12551-484: The Ming dynasty and the Jurchen became vassals to the Ming emperors. The name given to the Jurchen land by the Ming dynasty was Nurgan . Later, a Korean army led by Yi-Il and Yi Sun-sin would expel them from Korea. In 1409, the Ming government created the Nurgan Command Post ( 奴兒干都司 ) at Telin (present-day Tyr, Russia , about 100 km upstream from Nikolayevsk-on-Amur in the Russian Far East ) in
12714-617: The Ming dynasty (1368–1644) classified them into three groups, reflecting relative proximity to the Ming: Many "Yeren Jurchens", like the Nivkh (speaking a language isolate ), Negidai , Nanai , Oroqen and many Evenks , are today considered distinct ethnic groups. The Jurchens are chiefly known for producing the Jin (1115–1234) and Qing (1644–1912) conquest dynasties on the Chinese territory. The latter dynasty, originally calling itself
12877-638: The Ming dynasty government. Over a period of 30 years from 1586, Nurhaci , a chieftain of the Jianzhou Jurchens , united the Jurchen tribes. In 1635, his son and successor, Hong Taiji , renamed his people the Manchus as a clear break from their past as Chinese vassals. During the Ming dynasty, the Koreans of Joseon referred to the Jurchen-inhabited lands north of the Korean peninsula, above
13040-555: The Ming, what can be their true intentions?" In the edict, Dorgon specifically emphasized the fact that Manchus and the Qing Emperor himself all wore the queue and shaved their foreheads, so that by following the queue order, Han Chinese would look like the Manchus and the Emperor. This invoked the Confucian notion that the people were like the sons of the emperor, and should be similar in their appearance. The slogan adopted by
13203-529: The Mohe practiced slavery. Horses were rare in the region they inhabited until the 10th century under the domination of the Khitans . The Mohe rode reindeer. There is no dated evidence of the Jurchens before the time of Wugunai (1021-74), when the Jurchens began to coalesce into a nation-like federation. According to tradition passed down via oral transmission, Wugunai was the 6th generation descendant of Hanpu ,
13366-560: The Mongol Yuan dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang , the first Ming emperor passed a law on mandatory hairstyle on 24 September 1392 mandating that all males grow their hair long and making it illegal for them to shave part of their foreheads while leaving strands of hair, which was the Mongol hairstyle. The penalty for both the barber and the person who was shaved and his sons was castration if they cut their hair and their families were to be sent to
13529-507: The Nine Fortresses were handed back to the Jurchens. In 1108, Yun Kwan was removed from office and the Nine Fortresses were turned over to the Wanyan clan. It is plausible that the Jurchens and Goryeo had some sort of implicit understanding where the Jurchens would cease their attacks while Goryeo took advantage of the conflict between the Jurchens and Khitans to gain territory. According to Breuker, Goryeo never really had control of
13692-941: The Northern Song dynasty's capital, Bianjing , in 1127. Their armies pushed the Song all the way south to the Yangtze River and eventually settled on a border with the Southern Song dynasty along the Huai River . Poor Jurchen families in the southern Routes (Daming and Shandong) Battalion and Company households tried to live the lifestyle of wealthy Jurchen families and avoid doing farming work by selling their own Jurchen daughters into slavery and renting their land to Han tenants. The Wealthy Jurchens feasted and drank and wore damask and silk. The History of Jin (Jinshi) says that Emperor Shizong of Jin took note and attempted to halt these things in 1181. After 1189,
13855-401: The Qing and allowed them through Shanhai pass. They then seized control of Beijing, overthrowing Li's short-lived Shun dynasty . They then forced Han Chinese to adopt the queue as a sign of submission. A year later, after the Qing armies reached South China , on 21 July 1645, the regent Dorgon issued an edict ordering all Han men to shave their foreheads and braid the rest of their hair into
14018-523: The Qing dynasty and a custom except among Buddhist monastics . Some revolutionists, supporters of the Hundred Days' Reform or students who studied abroad cut their braids. The Xinhai Revolution in 1911 led to a complete change in hairstyle almost overnight. The queue became unpopular as it became associated with a fallen government ; this is depicted in Lu Xun 's short story Storm in a Teacup and
14181-616: The Qing dynasty of China, after Ming dynasty forces in Liaodong defected to his side. The Ming general of Fushun , Li Yongfang, defected to Nurhaci after Nurhaci promised him rewards, titles, and Nurhaci's own granddaughter in marriage. Other Han Chinese generals in Liaodong proceeded to defect with their armies to Nurhaci and were given women from the Aisin Gioro family in marriage. Once firmly in power, Nurhaci commanded all men in
14344-407: The Qing forced on the common Han population. The Qing required people serving as officials to wear Manchu clothing , but allowed other Han civilians to continue wearing Hanfu (Han clothing). Nevertheless, most Han civilian men voluntarily adopted Manchu clothing like Changshan of their own free will. Throughout the Qing dynasty Han women continued to wear Han clothing. However, the shaving policy
14507-823: The Qing period traces the origin of the Jurchens to the "Wanyen tribe of the Mohos" around Mt Xiaobai, or to the Heishui or Blackwater Mohe , and some sources stress the continuity between these earlier peoples with the Jurchen but this remains conjectural. The tentative ancestors of the Jurchens, the Tungusic Mohe tribes, were people of the multi-ethnic kingdom of Balhae . The Mohe enjoyed eating pork, practiced pig farming extensively, and were mainly sedentary. They used both pig and dog skins for coats. They were predominantly farmers and grew soybean, wheat, millet , and rice in addition to hunting. Like all Tungus people ,
14670-406: The Turks, the Jurchens did not observe primogeniture . According to tradition, any capable son or nephew could be chosen to become leader. Unlike the Mongols, the Jurchens were a sedentary and agrarian society. They farmed grain and millet as their primary cereal crops, grew flax and raised oxen, pigs, sheep, and horses. "At the most", the Jurchen could only be described as "semi-nomadic" while
14833-404: The Wanyan, he was already 60 years old and accepted as a "wise man". He succeeded in settling a dispute between two families without resorting to violence, and as a reward, was betrothed to a worthy unmarried maiden also 60 years old. The marriage was blessed with the gift of a dark ox, which was revered in Jurchen culture, and from this union came one daughter and three sons. With this, Hanpu became
14996-455: The Xianbei wore braids, since they were called "braided" by the southern Chinese. However, their hairstyle is hidden in depictions due to a hood they wore. The Liu Song dynasty 's records called them "braided caitiff", suolu , while Southern Qi 's history said they wore their "hair hanging down the back" ( pifa ), and called them suotou , "braided". A braid of hair was found at Zhalairuoer in
15159-473: The Yangtze valley and it would have no allegiance to the Qing, and as such they in his idea would forgo the queue and be made to grow their hair long as a symbolic measure to "increasing the confidence of the Chinese in the advent of a new era". Boulger stated he could not discern from the Chinese he spoke to on whether the queue was invented by Nurhaci to impose on the Chinese as a symbol of loyalty or whether it
15322-801: The Yongle period, 178 commanderies were set up in Manchuria. Later on, horse markets were established in the northern border towns of Liaodong . Increased contact with the Chinese gave Jurchens the more complex and sophisticated organizational structures. The Koreans dealt with the Jurchen military through appeals to material benefits and launching punitive expeditions. To appease them the Joseon court handed out titles and degrees, trading with them, and sought to acculturate them by having Korean women marry Jurchens and integrating them into Korean culture. These measures were unsuccessful and fighting continued between
15485-417: The areas he conquered to adopt the Manchu hairstyle. The Manchu hairstyle signified all ethnic groups submission to Qing rule, and also aided the Manchu identification of those Han who refused to accept Qing dynasty domination. The hairstyle was compulsory for all males and the penalty for non-compliance was execution for treason . After the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1912, the Chinese no longer had to wear
15648-480: The back of his hair. It was only later that westernized revolutionaries began to view the braid as backwards and advocated adopting short-haired western styles. Han rebels against the Qing like the Taiping retained their queue braids on the back but rebelled by growing hair on the front of their heads. This caused the Qing government to view shaving the front of the head as the primary sign of loyalty rather than wearing
15811-632: The borders for exile. This helped eradicate the partially shaved Mongol hairstyles. The Tangut people of the Western Xia may have inherited hairstyle influences from the Tuoba. It resembled a monk's hairstyle but was not exactly like their tonsure, it left the face to be framed on the sides and forehead by a fringe of hair by shaving the head top and leaving it bald. This made sure the Tibetans and Song Chinese could be told apart from shaved Tanguts. It
15974-582: The braid in the Manchu hairstyle, was originally applied by the Han dynasty to the Xiongnu. Jurchen people wore a queue like the Manchu, the Khitan people wore theirs in Tartar style and during the Tang dynasty , tribes in the west wore braids. The Xianbei and Wuhuan were said to shave their heads, while Xiongnu had queues. Other evidence from Chinese histories indicate that the Tuoba or Tabgach groups of
16137-403: The braid on the back, which did not violate Han customs and traditional Han did not object to. Koxinga criticized the Qing hairstyle by referring to the shaven pate looking like a fly. Koxinga and his men objected to shaving when the Qing demanded they shave in exchange for recognizing Koxinga as a feudatory. The Qing demanded that Zheng Jing and his men on Taiwan shave to receive recognition as
16300-471: The braids occasionally with a forehead fringe with some shaving off all the forehead. Some Han men adopted and mixed or combined Han clothing with Khitan clothing with Khitan boots and Han clothes or wearing Khitan clothes. Han women on the other hand did not adopt Khitan dress and continued wearing Han dress. Jurchen men, like their Manchu descendants, wore their hair in queues. In 1126, the Jurchen ordered male Han within their conquered territories to adopt
16463-769: The braids on the back unless they wore wigs with fake queues. According to Jonathan Neaman Lipman the Qing dynasty required Salars to wear the queue. During the Qing Salar men shaved their hair bald while when they went to journey in public they put on artificial queues. Uyghur men shaved their hair bald during the Qing. Uyghur males at the present still shave their heads bald in the summer. Chen Cheng observed that Muslim Turks in 14th–15th century Turfan and Kumul shaved their heads while non-Muslim Turks grew long hair. However, after Jahangir Khoja invaded Kashgar , Turkistani Muslim begs and officials in Xinjiang eagerly fought for
16626-457: The building of cities. Unlike the Chinese and Balhae farmers, who cultivated wheat and sorghum millet , the Khitan farmers cultivated panicled millet. The ruling class of the Liao dynasty still undertook hunting campaigns in late summer in the tradition of their ancestors. After the fall of the Liao dynasty, the Khitans returned to a more nomadic life. The Khitans practiced shamanism in which animals played an important role. Hunters offered
16789-399: The capital city Kaesong . A third and final invasion in 1018 was repelled by Goryeo's forces, bringing an end to 30 years of war between the rivals. The Liao dynasty proved to be a significant power north of the Chinese plain , continuously moving south and west, gaining control over former Chinese and Turk-Uyghur territories. In 1005 Chanyuan Treaty was signed, and peace remained between
16952-549: The chief of the Wanyan and his descendants became formal members of the Wanyan clan. Because Hanpu arrived from Goryeo, some South Korean scholars have claimed that Hanpu hailed from Goryeo. According to Alexander Kim, this cannot be easily identified as him being Korean because many Balhae people lived in Goryeo at that time. Later when Aguda appealed to the Balhae people in the Liao dynasty for support by emphasizing their common origin, he only mentioned those who descended from
17115-454: The city with corpses before you sheathe your swords," massacred the entire population, killing between 74,000 and 100,000 people. Han Chinese soldiers in 1645 under Han General Hong Chengchou forced the queue on the people of Jiangnan , while Han people were initially paid silver to wear the queue in Fuzhou when it was first implemented. The queue was the only aspect of Manchu culture that
17278-473: The crown of their heads. The Han Chinese men living in the Liao dynasty were not required to wear the shaved Khitan hairstyle which Khitan men wore to distinguish their ethnicity, unlike the Qing dynasty which mandated wearing of the Manchu hairstyle for men. Khitan men left only two separate patches of hair on each of the forehead's sides in front of each ear in tresses while they shaved the top of their head. Khitan wore felt hats, fur clothes and woolen cloth and
17441-475: The descendants of the Ta family of Balhae. They love to be sedentary and sow, and they are skilled in spinning and weaving. As for food, clothing and utensils, they are the same as (those used by) the Chinese. (Those living) south of Changbai Mountain are apt to be soothed and governed." In 1126, the Jurchens initially ordered male Han Chinese within their conquered territories to adopt the Jurchen hairstyle by shaving
17604-456: The earlier Jin 晋 dynasties named after the region around Shanxi and Henan provinces. The name of the Jurchen dynasty in Chinese — meaning " gold "—is derived from the "Gold River" ( Jurchen : antʃu-un ; Manchu : Aisin ) in their ancestral homeland. The Jurchens who settled into urban communities eventually intermarried with other ethnicities in China. The Jin rulers themselves came to follow Confucian norms. The Jin dynasty captured
17767-592: The ethnonym derived from Khitay as applied to them by the Uyghurs to be pejorative and the Chinese government has tried to ban its use. According to the History of Liao compiled in the 14th century, a "sacred man" ( shen-ren ) on a white horse had eight sons with a "heavenly woman" ( tiannü ) who rode in a cart pulled by a grey ox. The man came from the Tu River (Lao Ha river in modern-day Jilin , Manchuria ) and
17930-420: The first ruler of Joseon, asked the Ming dynasty to send Mentemu back but was refused. The Yongle Emperor was determined to wrest the Jurchens out of Korean influence and have China dominate them instead. The Koreans tried to persuade Mentemu to reject the Ming dynasty's overtures but were unsuccessful. The Jurchen tribes presented tribute to the Ming dynasty in succession. They were divided in 384 guards by
18093-479: The fledgling Song dynasty , which had formed south of the Khitans' territory. Though the Khitans would have preferred to attack China, they invaded Goryeo in 993. Khitan forces failed to advance beyond the Chongchon River and were persuaded to withdraw, though Khitan dissatisfaction with Goryeo's conquest of the Jurchen prompted a second invasion in 1010. This time the Khitans, led by their emperor, sacked
18256-575: The founder of the Wanyan clan, who therefore must have lived around the year 900. Hanpu originally came from the Heishui Mohe tribe of Balhae. According to the History of Jin , when he came to the Wanyan tribe, it was for the repayment of a murder and a form of compensation. He had two brothers, one who stayed in Goryeo and the other in Balhae when he left. By the time he arrived and settled among
18419-456: The front of the head was shaved off above the temples every ten days and the remainder of the hair was braided into a long braid. The Manchu hairstyle was forcefully introduced to Han Chinese and other ethnicities like the Nanai in the early 17th century during the transition from Ming to Qing . Nurhaci of the Aisin Gioro clan declared the establishment of the Later Jin dynasty, later becoming
18582-437: The front of their heads and adopting Jurchen dress, but the order was later lifted. Jurchens were impersonated by Han rebels who wore their hair in the Jurchen queue to strike fear within their population. During the Qing dynasty , the Manchus, who descended from the Jurchens, similarly made Han Chinese men shave the front of their head and wear the rest of their hair in a queue , or soncoho ( ᠰᠣᠨᠴᠣᡥᠣ ) ( 辮子 ; biànzi ),
18745-557: The gates of the capital, but were defeated by Goryeo General Kim Chwi-ryeo who pushed them back north to Pyongan , where the remaining Khitans were finished off by Goryeo forces in 1219. The Khitan language is now extinct. Some scholars believe that Khitan is Proto-Mongolic , while others have suggested that it is a Para-Mongolic language. Khitan has loanwords borrowed from the Turkic Old Uyghur language and Koreanic languages . There were two writing systems for
18908-567: The geopolitical situation shifted, Goryeo unleashed a series of military campaigns in the early 12th century to regain control of its borderlands. Goryeo had already been in conflict with the Jurchens before. In 984, Goryeo failed to control the Yalu River basin due to conflict with the Jurchens. In 1056, Goryeo repelled the Eastern Jurchens and afterward destroyed their stronghold of over 20 villages. In 1080, Munjong of Goryeo led
19071-435: The head as they traditionally wore all their hair long, but fiercely objected to shaving the forehead so the Qing government exclusively focused on forcing people to shave the forehead rather than wear the braid. Han rebels in the first half of the Qing who objected to Qing hairstyle wore the braid but defied orders to shave the front of the head. One person was executed for refusing to shave the front but he had willingly braided
19234-659: The last Tang emperor and founded the Later Liang dynasty. The Shatuo Turks, who had been allied with the Khitans since 905, defeated the Later Liang and founded the Later Tang dynasty in 923, but by 926 the former allies had grown apart. In 934 Yelü Bei , Abaoji's son, wrote to his brother Emperor Taizong of Liao from the Later Tang court: " Li Cong Ke has slain his liege-lord , why not attack him?" In 936,
19397-430: The later Jurchen Jucen or Jušen (Jussin)( Jurchen : [REDACTED] ) or Manchu Jushen (Jussin). In Manchu, this word was more often used to describe the serfs —though not slaves —of the free Manchu people, who were themselves mostly the former Jurchens. To describe the historical people who founded the Jin dynasty, they reborrowed the Mongolian name as Jurcit (Jyrkät). According to William of Rubruck ,
19560-445: The main army and was made up of cavalry, infantry, and a Hangmagun ("Subdue Demon Corps"). In December 1107, Yun Kwan and O Yŏnch’on set out with 170,000 soldiers to conquer the Jurchens. The army won against the Jurchens and built Nine Fortresses over a wide area on the frontier encompassing Jurchen tribal lands, and erected a monument to mark the boundary. However due to unceasing Jurchen attacks, diplomatic appeals, and court intrigue,
19723-430: The majority of them were sedentary. Jurchen similarities and differences with the Mongols were emphasized to various degrees by Nurhaci out of political expediency. Nurhaci once said to the Mongols that "the languages of the Chinese and Koreans are different, but their clothing and way of life is the same. It is the same with us Manchus ( Jušen ) and Mongols. Our languages are different, but our clothing and way of life
19886-483: The now-extinct Khitan language , a Para-Mongolic language related to the Mongolic languages . The Khitan people founded and led the Liao dynasty (916–1125), which dominated a vast area of Siberia, Mongolia and Northern China . The Khitans of the Liao dynasty used two independent writing systems for their language: Khitan small script and Khitan large script . After the fall of the Liao dynasty in 1125 following
20049-417: The queue but not to shave their crown, while those people who cut the queue off and did not shave were considered revolutionary and others maintained the state-mandated combination of the queue and shaved crown. Neither Taoist priests nor Buddhist monks were required to wear the queue by the Qing; they continued to wear their traditional hairstyles, completely shaved heads for Buddhist monks, and long hair in
20212-420: The queue order. The Han Chinese were given 10 days to comply or face death. Though Dorgon admitted that followers of Confucianism might have grounds for objection, most Han officials cited the Ming dynasty's traditional System of Rites and Music as their reason for resistance. This led Dorgon to question their motives: "If officials say that people should not respect our Rites and Music, but rather follow those of
20375-507: The queue was widespread and bloody. The Chinese in the Liaodong Peninsula rebelled in 1622 and 1625 in response to the implementation of the mandatory hairstyle. The Manchus responded swiftly by killing the educated elite and instituting a stricter separation between Han Chinese and Manchus. In 1645, the enforcement of the queue order was taken a step further by the ruling Manchus when it was decreed that any man who did not adopt
20538-467: The queue, the Tifayifu , was met with resistance, although opinions about the queue did change over time. Han women were never required to wear their hair in the traditional women's Manchu style, liangbatou , although that too was a symbol of Manchu identity. The queue hairstyle predates the Manchus. The Chinese word for queue, bian , meant plaited hair or a cord. The term bian , when used to describe
20701-552: The region like the Russians due to what he believed was the imminent collapse of the Qing dynasty. The Yangtze valley was controlled by Qing officials such as Liu Kunyi and Zhang Zhidong , who were not under Beijing's influence and whom Boulger believed Britain could work with to stabilize China. He proposed that at Nanjing and Hankou a force of Chinese soldiers trained by the British be deployed and in Hong Kong , Weihaiwei and
20864-433: The region occupied by the Nine Fortresses in the first place and maintaining hegemony would have meant a prolonged conflict with militarily superior Jurchen troops that would prove very costly. The Nine Fortresses were exchanged for Poju ( Uiju ), a region the Jurchens later contested when Goryeo hesitated to recognize them as their suzerain. Later, Wuyashu's younger brother Aguda founded the Jin dynasty (1115–1234) . When
21027-527: The reign of Wang Geon , who called upon them during the wars of the Later Three Kingdoms period, but the Jurchens opportunistically switched allegiance between Liao and Goryeo multiple times. They offered tribute to both courts out of political necessity and the desire for material benefits. In 1019, Jurchen pirates raided Japan for slaves. The Jurchen pirates slaughtered Japanese men while seizing Japanese women as prisoners. Fujiwara Notada,
21190-410: The reign of Jurchen leader Wuyashu (r. 1103–1113) of the Wanyan clan. The Wanyan clan was intimately aware of the Jurchens who had submitted to Goryeo and used their power to break the clans' allegiance to Goryeo, unifying the Jurchens. The resulting conflict between the two powers led to Goryeo's withdrawal from Jurchen territory and acknowledgment of Jurchen control over the contested region. As
21353-399: The rest of the head shaved. Only at the temples were hair left while the crown was shaven. The absence of Khitan clothes and hairstyles on a painting of riders previously identified as Khitan has led to experts questioning their purported identity. Khitan men might have differentiate between classes by wearing different patterns on their small braids hanging off their shaved foreheads. They wore
21516-463: The rivers Yalu and Tumen as part of the "superior country" (sangguk) which they called Ming China. The Qing deliberately excluded references and information that showed the Jurchens (Manchus) as subservient to the Ming dynasty, when composing the History of Ming to hide their former subservient relationship. The Veritable Records of Ming were not used to source content on Jurchens during Ming rule in
21679-441: The short-lived Qara Khitai or Western Liao dynasty. After its fall, a small part under Buraq Hajib established a local dynasty in the southern Persian province of Kirman . These Khitans were absorbed by the local Turkic and Iranian populations, Islamized and left no influence behind them. As the Khitan language is still almost completely unintelligible, it is difficult to create a detailed history of their movements. During
21842-500: The sole acceptable name for that people. The name Jurchen is derived from a long line of other variations of the same name. The initial Khitan form of the name was said to be Lüzhen . The variant Nrjo-tsyin (now Chinese : 女真 Nüzhen , whence English Nurchen ) appeared in the 10th century under the Liao dynasty . The Jurchens were also interchangeably known as the Nrjo-drik (now Chinese : 女直 Nüzhi ). This
22005-603: The traditional Chinese topknot for Taoist priests. The Manchus' willingness to impose the queue and their dress style on the men of China was viewed as an example to emulate by some foreign observers. H. E. M. James , a British civil servant in India , wrote in 1887 that the British ought to act in a similarly decisive way when imposing their will in India. In his view, the British administration should have outlawed practises such as Sati much earlier than 1829, which James ascribed to
22168-415: The traditional Manchu hairstyle. Although their Mohe ancestors did not revere dogs, the Jurchens began to revere dogs around the time of the Ming dynasty and passed this tradition on to the Manchus. It was prohibited in Jurchen culture to use dog skin, and forbidden for Jurchens to harm, kill, or eat dogs. The Jurchens believed that the "utmost evil" was the usage of dog skin by Koreans. Pre-marital sex
22331-516: The unwieldy big wigs and remained important to men's fashion until the French Revolution . For civilian men, the tyewig (a wig tied into a queue) and the bag wig became widespread after the death of Louis XIV; wigs that did not feature a queue such as the bob wig were favoured by those who could not afford a long wig. The type of wig became an indicator of one's rank, occupation and political leanings. The French army plaited their wigs into
22494-465: The various Jurchen tribes against the Mongols. He bestowed titles and surnames to various Jurchen chiefs and expected them to send periodic tribute. One of the Yongle Emperor's consorts was a Jurchen princess, which resulted in some of the eunuchs serving him being of Jurchen origin. Chinese commanderies were established over tribal military units under their own hereditary tribal leaders. In
22657-594: The various Jurchen tribes in 1115 and declared himself emperor. In 1120 he seized Shangjing , also known as Linhuang Prefecture ( 臨潢府 ), the northern capital of the Liao dynasty. During the Jin–Song Wars , the Jurchens invaded the Northern Song dynasty and overran most of northern China. The Jurchens initially created the puppet regimes of Da Qi and Da Chu but later adopted a dynastic name and became known as " Jin " 金, which means "gold", not to be confused with
22820-455: The vicinity of Heilongjiang. The Jurchens came under the nominal administration of the Nurgan Command Post which lasted only 25 years and was abolished in 1434. Leaders of the Haixi and Jianzhou tribes did, however, accept the Ming titles. From 1411 to 1433, the Ming eunuch Yishiha (who himself was a Haixi Jurchen ) led ten large missions to win over the allegiance of the Jurchen tribes along
22983-410: The virginity of unmarried girls and sex with Khitan men did not impede their ability to marry later. The Jurchens and their Manchu descendants had Khitan linguistic and grammatical elements in their personal names like suffixes. Many Khitan names had a "ju" suffix. Following the fall of the Liao dynasty, a number of the Khitan nobility escaped the area westwards towards Western Regions , establishing
23146-475: The virginity of unmarried girls and sex with Khitan men did not impede their ability to marry later. The Jurchens and their Manchu descendants had Khitan linguistic and grammatical elements in their personal names like suffixes. Many Khitan names had a "ju" suffix. The Jurchens in the Yalu River region were tributaries of Goryeo since the reign of Taejo of Goryeo (r. 918-943), who called upon them during
23309-484: The wars of the Later Three Kingdoms period. Taejo relied heavily on a large Jurchen cavalry force to defeat Later Baekje . The Jurchens switched allegiances between Liao and Goryeo multiple times depending on which they deemed the most appropriate. The Liao and Goryeo competed to gain the allegiance of Jurchen settlers who effectively controlled much of the border area beyond Goryeo and Liao fortifications. These Jurchens offered tribute but expected to be rewarded richly by
23472-587: The woman from the Huang River (modern-day Xar Moron river in Inner Mongolia ). The pair met where the two rivers join, and the eight sons born of their union became eight tribes. The earliest written reference to the Khitan is from an official history of the Xianbei -led Northern Wei dynasty dating to the period of the Six Dynasties . Most scholars believe the Khitan tribe splintered from
23635-561: Was "Xidan", which means "the people who are similar to the Xi people " or "the people who inhabit among the Xi people". Due to the dominance of the Khitans during the Liao dynasty in Manchuria and Mongolia and later the Qara Khitai in Central Asia where they were seen as Chinese, the term "Khitai" came to mean "China" to people near them in Central Asia, Russia and northwestern China. The name
23798-594: Was a series of laws violently imposed by the Qing dynasty during the seventeenth century. It was also imposed on Taiwanese indigenous peoples in 1753, and Koreans who settled in northeast China in the late 19th century, though the Ryukyuan people of the Ryukyu Kingdom , a tributary of China , requested and were granted an exemption from the mandate. Traditionally, adult Han Chinese did not cut their hair for philosophical and cultural reasons. According to
23961-556: Was a significant change for the Khitans, the Khitan language , origin myth, shamanic religion and nomadic lifestyle endured. China was in chaos after the fall of the Tang dynasty in 907. Known as the Wudai Shiguo period , Five Dynasties ruled northern China in rapid succession with only nominal support from the Ten Kingdoms of southern China. The Tang dynasty had been supported by Shatuo Turks until Zhu Wen murdered
24124-468: Was an already established Manchu custom as no one seemed to know the origin of it from his or other sinologists' inquiries. English adventurer Augustus Frederick Lindley wrote that the beardless, youthful long haired Han Chinese rebels from Hunan in the Taiping armies who grew all their hair long while fighting against the Qing dynasty were among the most beautiful men in the world unlike, in his mind,
24287-701: Was between the present-day Xar Moron River and Chaoyang, Liaoning . The Khitan's territory bordered Goguryeo , the Central Plains , and the lands of the Eastern Turks. Between the 6th and 9th centuries, they were successively dominated by the Eastern Turkic Khaganate , the Uyghur Khaganate , and the Tang dynasty . The Khitans were less politically united than the Turkic tribes, but often found themselves involved in
24450-450: Was common. Jurchen households ( boo ) lived as families ( booigon ) consisting of five to seven blood-related family members and a number of slaves. Households formed squads ( tatan ) to engage in tasks related to hunting and food gathering and formed companies ( niru ) for larger activities, such as war. The Haixi Jurchens were "semi-agricultural, the Jianzhou Jurchens and Maolian ( 毛怜 ) Jurchens were sedentary, while hunting and fishing
24613-609: Was conceived from a virgin birth. According to the legend, three heavenly maidens, namely Enggulen (恩古倫), Jenggulen (正古倫) and Fekulen (佛庫倫), were bathing at a lake called Bulhūri Omo near the Changbai Mountains . A magpie dropped a piece of red fruit near Fekulen, who ate it. She then became pregnant with Bukūri Yongšon. However, another older version of the story by the Hurha (Hurka) tribe member Muksike recorded in 1635 contradicts Hongtaiji's version on location, claiming that it
24776-511: Was defeated, and the Jurchens took Chongju castle. Lim Gan was dismissed from office and reinstated, dying as a civil servant in 1112. The war effort was taken up by Yun Kwan , but the situation was unfavorable and he returned after making peace. Yun Kwan believed that the loss was due to their inferior cavalry and proposed to the king that an elite force known as the Byeolmuban (別武班; "Special Warfare Army") be created. it existed apart from
24939-401: Was eventually court-martialled in 1803 for failing to cut his hair. Works cited Jurchen people Jurchen ( Manchu : ᠵᡠᡧᡝᠨ Jušen , IPA: [dʒuʃən] ; Chinese : 女真 , Nǚzhēn [nỳ.ʈʂə́n] ) is a term used to collectively describe a number of East Asian Tungusic-speaking people. They lived in northeastern China, also known as Manchuria , before
25102-587: Was imposed by the Tangut emperor, Jingzong , threatening that their throats would be cut if they did not shave within three days. The emperor was the first one to shave. Unlike the tonsure of the Tangut Western Xia, the Jurchen hairstyle of wearing the queue combined with shaving the crown was not the invention of an emperor of the dynasty but was an established Jurchen hairstyle which showed who submitted to Jin rule. This Jurchen queue and shaving hairstyle
25265-400: Was in Heilongjiang province close to the Amur river where Bulhuri lake was located where the "heavenly maidens" took their bath. This was recorded in the Jiu Manzhou Dang and is much shorter and simpler in addition to being older. This is believed to be the original version and Hongtaiji changed it to the Changbai mountains. It shows that the Aisin Gioro clan originated in the Amur area and
25428-604: Was introduced to the West by Martino Martini in his 1654 work De bello tartarico historia , and it soon appeared, e.g., on the 1660 world map by Nicolas Sanson . Jurchen (Jyrkin) is an anglicization of Jurčen , an attempted reconstruction of this unattested original form of the native name, which has been transcribed into Middle Chinese as Trjuwk-li-tsyin ( 竹 里 真 ) and into Khitan small script as Julisen (sulaisin). The ethnonyms Sushen ( Old Chinese : */siwk-[d]i[n]-s/) and Jizhen ( 稷真 , Old Chinese: */tsək-ti[n]/) recorded in geographical works like
25591-509: Was mandatory under the reign of Frederick William I of Prussia . An artificial or "patent" queue was issued to recruits whose hair was too short to plait. The style was abolished in the Prussian Army in 1807. In the United States Army , the order to remove all queues was issued on 30 April 1801 by Major General James Wilkinson . The order was highly unpopular with both officers and men, leading to several desertions and threats of resignation. One senior officer, Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Butler ,
25754-527: Was not enforced in the Tusi autonomous chiefdoms in Southwestern China where many minorities lived. There was one Han Chinese Tusi, the Chiefdom of Kokang populated by Han Kokang people . The Qing dynasty required all subjects of all ethnicities to shave their foreheads and wear the queue braid including Muslims like Hui people and Salar people but some Turkic Muslim ethnicities like Uyghur and Salar people already shaved their entire heads as part of their culture and were bald so they were not able to wear
25917-503: Was not enforced on the Han Chinese in the Jin after an initial attempt to do so which was a rebuke to Jurchen values. The Jin at first attempted to impose Jurchen hairstyle and clothes on the Han population during the Jin but the order was taken back. They also banned intermarriage. Manchu Jurchen men had queues, while Mongol men swept their hair behind their ears and plaited them, Turk men wore loose hair and Xiongnu men braided their hair. Khitan males grew hair from their temples but shaved
26080-444: Was probably accepted in lower class Jurchen society since the practice of guest prostitution - providing visitors with sex - did not impede their ability to marry later. The Jurchens also allowed marriage with in-laws, a practice considered taboo in Chinese society. Abduction marriages were common. Until recently, it was uncertain what kind of burial rites existed among the Jurchens. In July 2012, Russian archaeologists discovered
26243-407: Was the Qing who imposed the queue hairstyle on the general population, they did not always personally execute those who did not obey. It was Han Chinese defectors who carried out massacres against people refusing to wear the queue. Li Chengdong , a Han Chinese general who had served the Ming but defected to the Qing, ordered troops to carry out three separate massacres in the city of Jiading within
26406-451: Was the way of life of the "Wild Jurchens". Hunting, horseback archery, horsemanship, livestock raising, and sedentary agriculture were all practiced by Jianzhou Jurchens. The Jurchen way of life (economy) was described as agricultural. They farmed crops and raised animals . Jurchens practiced slash-and-burn agriculture in the areas north of Shenyang . "建州毛憐則渤海大氏遺孽，樂住種，善緝紡，飲食服用，皆如華人，自長白山迤南，可拊而治也。 The (people of) Jianzhou and Mao Lian are
26569-400: Was then introduced to medieval Europe via Islamic and Russian sources, and became " Cathay ". In the modern era, words related to Khitay are still used as a name for China by Turkic peoples, such as the Uyghurs in China's Xinjiang region and the Kazakhs of Kazakhstan and areas adjoining it, and by some Slavic peoples, such as the Russians and Bulgarians . The Han Chinese consider
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