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138-680: Signatories included Isaac Stevens , superintendent of Indian affairs and governor of Washington Territory, and representatives of the Quinault and Quileute, as well as the Hoh tribe, which was considered a subset of the Quileutes. The Quinault Indian Reservation was established under the terms of the treaty. Indian signatories included the Quinault Head Chief Taholah and Sub-chiefs Wah-kee-nah, Yer-ay-let'l, and Kne-she-guartsh,

276-447: A "stern taskmaster", whose unrelenting demands on his son pushed the young man to his breaking point. While working on the family farm, Stevens once nearly died of sunstroke . After Stevens' mother died in a carriage accident, his widowed father married a woman whom Stevens disliked. According to Stevens, he came close to suffering a mental breakdown in his youth. Stevens graduated from the male prep school Phillips Academy in 1833 and

414-515: A biography of his father, The Life of Isaac Ingalls Stevens (1900). Kent Richards' biography, Isaac I. Stevens: Young Man in a Hurry (1979), remains in print as of 2016. In 1962, he was inducted into the Hall of Great Westerners of the National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum . Grover Cleveland Stephen Grover Cleveland (March 18, 1837 – June 24, 1908)

552-658: A black man was met with outrage, but Cleveland claimed to have known Matthews personally. Although Cleveland had condemned the "outrages" against Chinese immigrants, he believed that Chinese immigrants were unwilling to assimilate into white society. Secretary of State Thomas F. Bayard negotiated an extension to the Chinese Exclusion Act , and Cleveland lobbied the Congress to pass the Scott Act , written by Congressman William Lawrence Scott , which prevented

690-570: A brutal winter campaign against the Yakama tribe , led by Chief Kamiakin . This, along with his unjustified execution of the Nisqually chieftain Leschi , led to widespread pleas to President Pierce to remove Stevens from his post. Two men were particularly vocal in their opposition to Stevens and his policies, territorial judge Edward Lander and influential private citizen Ezra Meeker . While Meeker

828-595: A conciliatory note, despite the opposition of New England 's Republican Senators. Cleveland also withdrew from Senate consideration of the Berlin Conference treaty which guaranteed an open door for U.S. interests in the Congo . Cleveland's military policy emphasized self-defense and modernization. In 1885 Cleveland appointed the Board of Fortifications under Secretary of War William C. Endicott to recommend

966-498: A general in the U.S. Army and an author. Together with P. B. Van Trump , he participated in the first documented ascent of Mount Rainier in Washington State. A combination of an increasingly violent thunderstorm and unrelenting Confederate fire had slowed the advance of the 79th New York Regiment to a crawl. Five successive regimental color bearers had died leading the line. When Stevens saw that yet another soldier who

1104-592: A job there as district secretary for the American Home Missionary Society . Despite his father's dedication to his missionary work, his income was insufficient for the large family. Financial conditions forced him to remove Grover from school and place him in a two-year mercantile apprenticeship in Fayetteville. The experience was valuable and brief, and the living conditions quite austere. Grover returned to Clinton and his schooling at

1242-467: A lifestyle of simplicity, taking residence in a plain boarding house . He devoted his growing income to the support of his mother and younger sisters. While his personal quarters were austere, Cleveland enjoyed an active social life and "the easy-going sociability of hotel-lobbies and saloons ". He shunned the circles of higher society of Buffalo in which his uncle-in-law's family traveled. From his earliest involvement in politics, Cleveland aligned with

1380-488: A new coastal fortification system for the United States. No improvements to U.S. coastal defenses had been made since the late 1870s. The Board's 1886 report recommended a massive $ 127 million construction program (equivalent to $ 4.3 billion in 2023) at 29 harbors and river estuaries , to include new breech-loading rifled guns, mortars, and naval minefields . The Board and the program are usually called

1518-607: A new and more significant issue. Stevens' proclamation of martial law in Pierce County stated: Whereas in the prosecution of the Indian war circumstances have existed affording such grave cause of suspicion, such that certain evil disposed persons of Pierce county have given aid and comfort to the enemy, as that they have been placed under arrest and ordered to be tried by a military commission; and whereas, efforts are now being made to withdraw, by civil process, these persons from

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1656-407: A new reservation elsewhere and requires the tribes to move there, or require the tribes to be consolidated with other tribes on another reservation, with all federal annuities also consolidated. The president could also cause the reservation to be subdivided into lots and assigned to individuals and families. Articles seven and nine dealt with the prohibition of alcohol and debts. Article eight required

1794-541: A percent, the electoral votes gave Cleveland a majority of 219–182. Following the electoral victory, the "Ma, Ma ..." attack phrase gained a classic riposte: "Gone to the White House. Ha! Ha! Ha!" Soon after taking office, Cleveland was faced with the task of filling all the government jobs for which the president had the power of appointment. These jobs were typically filled under the spoils system , but Cleveland announced that he would not fire any Republican who

1932-532: A period newspaper report, Stevens' body was recovered an hour after his death, his hands still clenched around the staff of the flag. He was buried in Island Cemetery in Newport, Rhode Island . Historians have generally viewed Stevens as a complicated figure. According to historian David Nicandri, the four years in which he ruled Washington "takes up a greater volume of concern and consciousness than

2070-523: A refutation buried in Cleveland's past. Aided by the sermons of Reverend George H. Ball , a minister from Buffalo, they made public the allegation that Cleveland had fathered a child while he was a lawyer there, and their rallies soon included the chant "Ma, Ma, where's my Pa?". When confronted with the scandal, Cleveland immediately instructed his supporters to "Above all, tell the truth." He admitted to paying child support in 1874 to Maria Crofts Halpin,

2208-671: A single word might be used to translate a number of different English words." The final treaty contained 13 articles. The first described the land being ceded to the United States, which was defined as bounded by the Pacific Ocean to the west, the southern boundary of the recent Makah cession to the north, which ran east to "the middle of the coast range of mountains" (meaning the Olympic Mountains ). The eastern cession boundary ran south "with said range" (the Olympics) to

2346-491: A split in the state Republican Party in 1882, the Democratic party was considered to be at an advantage; several men contended for that party's nomination. The two leading Democratic candidates were Roswell P. Flower and Henry Warner Slocum . Their factions deadlocked and the convention could not agree on a nominee. Cleveland, who came in third place on the first ballot, picked up support in subsequent votes and emerged as

2484-821: Is the Washington State University dormitory Stevens Hall. The Washington chapter of the Sons of Union Veterans of the Civil War is known as Isaac Stevens Camp No. 1. In addition, Stevensville, Montana , Stevens County, Minnesota , and Idaho 's Stevens Peak, Upper Stevens Lake, and Lower Stevens Lake are named in tribute to Stevens. The United States Army previously maintained two military posts named after Stevens: Fort Stevens in Washington, D.C., and Fort Stevens in Oregon. Hazard Stevens wrote

2622-482: The 1884 presidential election , which he narrowly won against Republican James G. Blaine . In the 1888 election, he ran against Benjamin Harrison, winning the popular vote but losing the electoral college and therefore the election. After his loss, he returned to New York City and joined a law firm . In the 1892 election , Cleveland defeated Harrison in both the popular vote and electoral college, restoring him to

2760-460: The Battle of Bunker Hill , and was the son of an immigrant from Guernsey . On his mother's side, Cleveland was descended from Anglo-Irish Protestants and German Quakers from Philadelphia. Cleveland was distantly related to General Moses Cleaveland , after whom the city of Cleveland , Ohio, was named. Cleveland, the fifth of nine children, was named Stephen Grover in honor of the first pastor of

2898-458: The Blue Room at the White House. Cleveland was 49 years old at the time; Frances was 21. He was the second president to wed while in office and remains the only president to marry in the White House. This marriage was unusual because Cleveland was the executor of Oscar Folsom's estate and had supervised Frances's upbringing after her father's death; nevertheless, the public took no exception to

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3036-649: The Bourbon Democrats , a pro-business movement opposed to high tariffs , free silver , inflation , imperialism , and subsidies to businesses, farmers, or veterans . His crusade for political reform and fiscal conservatism made him an icon for American conservatives of the time. Cleveland also won praise for honesty, self-reliance, integrity, and commitment to the principles of classical liberalism . His fight against political corruption, patronage, and bossism convinced many like-minded Republicans, called " Mugwumps ", to cross party lines and support him in

3174-609: The Democratic Party . He had a decided aversion to Republicans John Fremont and Abraham Lincoln , and the heads of the Rogers law firm were solid Democrats. In 1865, he ran for District Attorney , losing narrowly to his friend and roommate, Lyman K. Bass , the Republican nominee. In 1870, with the help of friend Oscar Folsom, Cleveland secured the Democratic nomination for sheriff of Erie County, New York . He won

3312-553: The Navy and canceled construction contracts that had resulted in inferior ships. Cleveland angered railroad investors by ordering an investigation of Western lands they held by government grant. Secretary of the Interior Lucius Q. C. Lamar charged that the rights of way for this land must be returned to the public because the railroads failed to extend their lines according to agreements. The lands were forfeited, resulting in

3450-632: The Pension Bureau , Congress should not attempt to override that decision. When Congress, pressured by the Grand Army of the Republic , passed a bill granting pensions for disabilities not caused by military service, Cleveland also vetoed that. In his first term alone, Cleveland used the veto 414 times, which was more than four times more often than any previous president had used it. In 1887, Cleveland issued his most well-known veto, that of

3588-672: The Territory of Washington from 1853 to 1857, and later as its delegate to the United States House of Representatives . During the American Civil War , he held several commands in the Union Army . He was killed at the Battle of Chantilly , while at the head of his men and carrying the fallen colors of one of his regiments against Confederate positions. According to one account, at the hour of his death Stevens

3726-539: The Texas Seed Bill . After a drought had ruined crops in several Texas counties, Congress appropriated $ 100,000 (equivalent to $ 3,391,111 in 2023) to purchase seed grain for farmers there. Cleveland vetoed the expenditure. In his veto message, he espoused a theory of limited government: I can find no warrant for such an appropriation in the Constitution, and I do not believe that the power and duty of

3864-591: The Treaty of Medicine Creek , Treaty of Hellgate , Treaty of Neah Bay , Treaty of Point Elliott , Point No Point Treaty , and Quinault Treaty . During this time, the Governor imposed martial law to better impose his will on the Indians and whites who opposed his views. The consequent political and legal battles would soon overshadow the Indian war. Stevens did not hesitate to use his troops for vengeance, and waged

4002-527: The Treaty of Medicine Creek , Treaty of Hellgate , Treaty of Neah Bay , Treaty of Point Elliott , and the Point No Point Treaty . The Quinault Treaty continued Isaac Stevens policy of consolidating tribes, often requiring tribes to move far from their homeland to a reservation to be occupied by several unrelated tribes. While not taking this policy as far as the Treaty of Point No Point did,

4140-409: The U.S. Constitution , which guaranteed voting rights to African Americans. Though Cleveland appointed no black Americans to patronage jobs, he allowed Frederick Douglass to continue in his post as recorder of deeds in Washington, D.C., and appointed another black man ( James Campbell Matthews , a former New York judge) to replace Douglass upon his resignation. His decision to replace Douglass with

4278-555: The United States Congress ) (2 vols., Washington, 1855–1860). Stevens was a controversial governor in his time. Historians consider him even more controversial, for his role in compelling the Native American tribes of Washington Territory by intimidation and force, into signing treaties that ceded most of their lands and rights to Stevens' government, likely forging some of the signatures. These included

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4416-516: The Yakama War broke out as Native Americans resisted European encroachment, he prosecuted it mercilessly. His decision to rule by martial law , jail judges who opposed him, and raise a de facto personal army led to his conviction for contempt of court, for which he famously pardoned himself, and a rebuke from the President of the United States . Nonetheless, his uncompromising decisiveness in

4554-472: The contested election of 1876 . After Tilden declined a nomination due to his poor health, his supporters shifted to several other contenders. Cleveland was among the leaders in early support, and Thomas F. Bayard of Delaware , Allen G. Thurman of Ohio , Samuel Freeman Miller of Iowa , and Benjamin Butler of Massachusetts also had considerable followings, along with various favorite sons . Each of

4692-573: The " Baby Ruth " candy bar was named after her. Cleveland also claimed paternity of a child with Maria Crofts Halpin, Oscar Folsom Cleveland, who was born in 1874. During his first term, Cleveland successfully nominated two justices to the Supreme Court of the United States . The first, Lucius Q. C. Lamar, was a former Mississippi senator who served in Cleveland's Cabinet as Interior Secretary. When William Burnham Woods died, Cleveland nominated Lamar to his seat in late 1887. Lamar's nomination

4830-712: The Congressional elections that year , and the forces of protectionism increased their numbers in the Congress, but Cleveland continued to advocate tariff reform. As the surplus grew, Cleveland and the reformers called for a tariff for revenue only. His message to Congress in 1887 (quoted at right) highlighted the injustice of taking more money from the people than the government needed to pay its operating expenses. Republicans, as well as protectionist northern Democrats like Samuel J. Randall , believed that American industries would fail without high tariffs, and they continued to fight reform efforts. Roger Q. Mills , chairman of

4968-541: The Democrats' strongest asset. William C. Hudson created Cleveland's contextual campaign slogan "A public office is a public trust." Reform-minded Republicans called " Mugwumps " denounced Blaine as corrupt and flocked to Cleveland. The Mugwumps, including such men as Carl Schurz and Henry Ward Beecher , were more concerned with morality than with party, and felt Cleveland was a kindred soul who would promote civil service reform and fight for efficiency in government. At

5106-726: The Endicott Board and the Endicott Program. Most of the Board's recommendations were implemented, and by 1910, 27 locations were defended by over 70 forts. Many of the weapons remained in place until scrapped in World War II as they were replaced with new defenses. Endicott also proposed to Congress a system of examinations for Army officer promotions. For the Navy, the Cleveland administration, spearheaded by Secretary of

5244-824: The Fayetteville Academy and the Clinton Grammar School (not the Clinton Liberal Institute). After his father died in 1853, he again left school to help support his family. Later that year, Cleveland's brother William was hired as a teacher at the New York Institute for the Blind in New York City, and William obtained a place for Cleveland as an assistant teacher. Cleveland returned home to Holland Patent at

5382-511: The First Presbyterian Church of Caldwell, where his father was pastor at the time. He became known as Grover in his adult life. In 1841, the Cleveland family moved to Fayetteville, New York , where Grover spent much of his childhood. Neighbors later described him as "full of fun and inclined to play pranks", and fond of outdoor sports. In 1850, Cleveland's father Richard moved his family to Clinton, New York , accepting

5520-578: The House Ways and Means Committee, proposed a bill to reduce the tariff from about 47% to about 40%. After significant exertions by Cleveland and his allies, the bill passed the House. The Republican Senate failed to come to an agreement with the Democratic House, and the bill died in the conference committee . Dispute over the tariff persisted into the 1888 presidential election. Cleveland

5658-535: The Irish were mainly a Democratic constituency in the 19th century, Blaine's mother was Irish Catholic, and he had been supportive of the Irish National Land League while he was Secretary of State. The Irish, a significant group in three of the swing states , did appear inclined to support Blaine until a Republican, Samuel D. Burchard , gave a speech pivotal for the Democrats, denouncing them as

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5796-492: The Mexican–American War. Stevens was rewarded by President Pierce on March 17, 1853 by being named governor of the newly created Washington Territory . (The position also included the title of Superintendent of Indian Affairs for that region). Stevens chose to add one more duty as he traveled west to the territory he would govern: the government was calling for a surveyor to map an appropriate railroad route across

5934-490: The Navy William Collins Whitney , moved towards modernization, although no ships were constructed that could match the best European warships. Although completion of the four steel-hulled warships begun under the previous administration was delayed due to a corruption investigation and subsequent bankruptcy of their building yard, these ships were completed in a timely manner in naval shipyards once

6072-566: The New England coast from 1841 until 1849. He was given command of the U.S. Coast Survey office in Washington, D.C., working closely with the Survey's superintendent Alexander D. Bache . Stevens served in that role until March 1853. Stevens was a firm supporter of former brigadier general Franklin Pierce 's candidacy for President of the United States in 1852, as both men had served in

6210-581: The Olympic Mountains separating the Pacific, Juan de Fuca, and Hood Canal drainage basins. The phrase "thence southerly with said range of mountains to their intersection with the dividing ridge between the Chehalis and Quiniatl [sic] Rivers; thence westerly with said ridge to the Pacific coast" required further assumptions. The Fish and Wildlife project assumed the "southerly" line was to follow

6348-564: The Providence Asylum. Halpin was only kept at the asylum for five days because she was deemed not to be insane. Cleveland later provided financial support for her to begin her own business outside of Buffalo. Although lacking irrefutable evidence that Cleveland was the father, the child became a campaign issue for the Republican Party in Cleveland's first presidential campaign, where they smeared him by claiming that he

6486-562: The Quileute Head Chief How-yat'l and Sub-chiefs Kal-lape, Tah-ah-ha-wht'l, along with other tribal delegates. The Quinault Treaty was one of the last of several signed during Washington Territory's first decade. Acquiring land cession from the Native Americans was one of Isaac Stevens' primary goals as the first governor of the territory. Other similar cession treaties Stevens negotiated in the 1850s include

6624-755: The Quinault Treaty resulted in the establishment of the Quinault Reservation in the Quinault homeland but required the Quileute and Hoh to move there, although few did. The treaty negotiations were conducted in Chinook Jargon , which, according to Paul Prucha, was "a lingua franca along the Pacific Northwest coast but hardly an effective tool for sensitive negotiations, for it had a vocabulary of only about 500 words, and

6762-471: The Territory". Hunting, gathering, and the pasturing of horses were also protected with certain provision. In article four the United States promised to pay $ 25,000 for the land cession, to be paid over a number of years. Article five provides an additional $ 2,500 to enable tribes to remove and settle upon the reservation. Article six described how the president could any future time and "as he deems fit" make

6900-474: The White House. As his second administration began, the Panic of 1893 sparked a severe national depression. Many voters blamed the Democrats, opening the way for a Republican landslide in 1894 and for the agrarian and Silverite seizure of the Democratic Party in 1896. An anti-imperialist , Cleveland opposed the push to annex Hawaii , launched an investigation into the 1893 coup against Queen Liliʻuokalani , and called for her to be restored. Cleveland

7038-422: The banner of Saint Andrew's Cross , Stevens was struck in the temple by a bullet and died instantly. He was buried in Newport, Rhode Island , at Island Cemetery . In March 1863, he was posthumously promoted to major general , backdated to July 18, 1862. Stevens had married. His son, Hazard Stevens , had become a career officer and was also injured in the Battle of Chantilly. He survived and eventually became

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7176-405: The bonds of a common brotherhood. One of the most volatile issues of the 1880s was whether the currency should be backed by gold and silver , or by gold alone . The issue cut across party lines, with Western Republicans and Southern Democrats joining in the call for the free coinage of silver, and both parties' representatives in the northeast holding firm for the gold standard . Because silver

7314-410: The cession boundaries. The line between the Quinault and Makah cession was assumed to extend from current day Cape Alava due east to a watershed divide separating streams flowing north to the Strait of Juan de Fuca and streams flowing to the Pacific. The phrases "to the middle of the coast range of mountains" and "to the summit of the coast-range of mountains" were assumed to mean the dividing crest of

7452-421: The clergy and military. He was a cousin of brothers Moses Tyler Stevens and Charles Abbot Stevens . As a young man, he was noted for his intelligence, particularly his mathematical acuity. His diminutive stature – in adulthood he stood 5 ft 3 in (1.60 m) tall – has been attributed to a possible congenital gland malfunction. Stevens resented his father, described by historian Kent Richards as

7590-419: The completion of the apprentice contract. In 1853, missionary work began to take a toll on Richard's health. He took a new work assignment in Holland Patent, New York (near Utica ) and moved his family once again. Shortly after, Richard Cleveland died from a gastric ulcer . Grover was said to have learned about his father's death from a boy selling newspapers. Cleveland received his elementary education at

7728-440: The compromise choice. With Republicans still divided heading into the general election , Cleveland emerged the victor, receiving 535,318 votes to Republican nominee Charles J. Folger 's 342,464. Cleveland's margin of victory was, at the time, the largest in a contested New York election. The Democrats also picked up seats in both houses of the New York State Legislature . Cleveland brought his opposition to needless spending to

7866-416: The culmination of a most bare-faced, impudent, and shameless scheme to betray the interests of the people, and to worse than squander the public money." The Council reversed itself and awarded the contract to the lowest bidder. Cleveland also asked the state legislature to form a Commission to develop a plan to improve the sewer system in Buffalo at a much lower cost than previously proposed locally; this plan

8004-404: The defending Louisianans to fall back into the woods. Stevens led his men over the abandoned Confederate ramparts, pursuing the retreating Confederate forces into the forest. At that moment, a Confederate bullet struck Stevens in the head, killing him instantly. As he collapsed, his body twisted, wrapping itself in the flag that he was still carrying and staining it with his blood. According to

8142-439: The election by a 303-vote margin and took office on January 1, 1871, at age 33. While this new career took him away from the practice of law, it was rewarding in other ways: the fees were said to yield up to $ 40,000, equivalent to $ 1,017,333 in 2023, over the two-year term. Cleveland's service as sheriff was unremarkable. Biographer Rexford Tugwell described the time in office as a waste for Cleveland politically. Cleveland

8280-402: The end of 1854, where an elder in his church offered to pay for his college education if he promised to become a minister. Cleveland declined, and in 1855 he decided to move west. He stopped first in Buffalo, New York , where his uncle-in-law Lewis F. Allen , gave him a clerical job. Allen was an important man in Buffalo, and he introduced his nephew-in-law to influential men there, including

8418-456: The end of his second term, he was severely unpopular, even among Democrats. After leaving the White House, Cleveland served as a trustee of Princeton University and continued to voice his political views. He died in 1908. Today, Cleveland is praised for honesty, integrity, adherence to his morals, defying party boundaries, and effective leadership and is typically ranked in the middle to upper tier of U.S. presidents. Stephen Grover Cleveland

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8556-482: The enemy (in many cases because they had married into local tribes) and placing them in the military's custody. Governor Stevens declared martial law in Pierce County in order to conduct a military trial of those settlers. He next declared martial law in Thurston County. But only the territorial legislature had the authority to declare martial law, and representatives fought Stevens' effort to abrogate their authority. A bitter political and legal battle ensued. Stevens

8694-473: The entire balance of the territorial officialdom up until the time Washington becomes a state in 1889". Accounts of Stevens' tenure have been highly polarized. Writing in 1972, Richards observed that nearly all accounts of his tenure have either "condemned" or "uncritically applauded" him. Ezra Meeker , a historian, settler, and contemporary opponent of Stevens, described him as one who would "take no counsel, nor brook opposition to his will". In March 1863, at

8832-439: The face of crisis was both applauded by his supporters and noted by historians. Isaac Stevens was the father of Hazard Stevens , the hero of the Battle of Suffolk and one of the first men to summit Mount Rainier . Stevens was born in North Andover, Massachusetts , to Isaac Stevens and Hannah Stevens (née Cummings), a descendant of early Puritan settlers from a gentry family that had produced several distinguished members of

8970-415: The famous Olympia ), one armored cruiser , and one monitor were also ordered, along with the experimental cruiser Vesuvius . Under Cleveland, gains in civil rights for African Americans were limited. Cleveland, like a growing number of Northerners and nearly all white Southerners, saw Reconstruction as a failed experiment, and was reluctant to use federal power to enforce the 15th Amendment of

9108-474: The first 15 months of his administration. Unlike the previous bachelor president James Buchanan , Cleveland did not remain a bachelor for long. In 1885, the daughter of Cleveland's friend Oscar Folsom visited him in Washington. Frances Folsom was a student at Wells College . When she returned to school, President Cleveland received her mother's permission to correspond with her, and they were soon engaged to be married. The wedding occurred on June 2, 1886, in

9246-474: The future when Stevens left Washington State for good in 1857. In January 1856, Governor Stevens declared to the territorial House of Representatives in Olympia that "war shall be prosecuted until the last hostile Indian is exterminated", although there is uncertainty among historians about whether this was a call for genocide or instead for war crimes against certain "hostile Indians". In April 1856, Governor Stevens removed settlers whom he believed to be aiding

9384-412: The general government ought to be extended to the relief of individual suffering which is in no manner properly related to the public service or benefit. A prevalent tendency to disregard the limited mission of this power and duty should, I think, be steadfastly resisted, to the end that the lesson should be constantly enforced that, though the people support the government, the government should not support

9522-412: The governor's office. He promptly sent the legislature eight vetoes in his first two months in office. The first to attract attention was his veto of a bill to reduce the fares on New York City elevated trains to five cents. The bill had broad support because the trains' owner, Jay Gould , was unpopular, and his fare increases were widely denounced. Cleveland saw the bill as unjust—Gould had taken over

9660-424: The hanging, Cleveland executed Morrissey himself. He hanged another murderer, John Gaffney , on February 14, 1873. After his term as sheriff ended, Cleveland returned to his law practice, opening a firm with his friends Lyman K. Bass and Wilson S. Bissell . Bass was later replaced by George J. Sicard . Elected to Congress in 1872, Bass did not spend much time at the firm, but Cleveland and Bissell soon rose to

9798-485: The idea of cultural assimilation, pushing for the passage of the Dawes Act , which would allow lands held in trust by the federal government for the tribes to instead be distributed to individual tribe members. While a conference of Native leaders endorsed the act, in practice the majority of Native Americans disapproved of it. Cleveland believed the Dawes Act would lift Native Americans out of poverty and encourage their assimilation into white society. It ultimately weakened

9936-643: The investigation was over. Sixteen additional steel-hulled warships were ordered by the end of 1888; these ships later proved vital in the Spanish–American War of 1898, and many served in World War I. These ships included the "second-class battleships " Maine and Texas , designed to match modern armored ships recently acquired by South American countries from Europe, such as the Brazilian battleship Riachuelo . Eleven protected cruisers (including

10074-531: The limited number of men at his disposal. He determined that the white population should be concentrated at specific strongly protected points. For that reason, the volunteers under Stevens' command built a series of forts and blockhouses along the Snoqualmie , White, and Nisqually rivers. Once completed, Stevens ordered the settler population to leave their claims and take temporary residence in these safer areas. Once Stevens proclaimed martial law, he raised

10212-468: The line ran through the Olympics, resulted in confusion and legal problems which continue to the present day. The second article of the treaty described how the reservation would be established and that the tribes would be required to move there. Article three promised the tribes the right of fishing "in all usual and accustomed grounds and stations is secured to said Indians in common with all citizens of

10350-433: The main drainage divide between the Pacific and Hood Canal. This interpretation of the treaty is just one of many possible and holds no legal weight. The Fish and Wildlife Department writes, "These boundaries are clearly the product of much conjecture and assumption." Isaac Stevens Isaac Ingalls Stevens (March 25, 1818 – September 1, 1862) was an American military officer and politician who served as governor of

10488-518: The match. At 21 years, Frances Folsom Cleveland was and remains the youngest First Lady in history, and soon became popular for her warm personality. The Clevelands had five children: Ruth (1891–1904), Esther (1893–1980), Marion (1895–1977), Richard (1897–1974), and Francis (1903–1995). British philosopher Philippa Foot (1920–2010) was their granddaughter. Ruth contracted diphtheria on January 2, 1904, and died five days after her diagnosis. The Curtiss Candy Company would later assert that

10626-473: The most damaging correspondence, Blaine had written "Burn this letter", giving Democrats the last line to their rallying cry: "Blaine, Blaine, James G. Blaine, the continental liar from the state of Maine, 'Burn this letter! ' " Regarding Cleveland, commentator Jeff Jacoby notes that, "Not since George Washington had a candidate for President been so renowned for his rectitude." But the Republicans found

10764-595: The municipal legislation they cooperated on gained Cleveland national recognition. In June 1884, the Republican Party convened their national convention in Chicago , selecting former U.S. House Speaker James G. Blaine of Maine as their nominee for president. Blaine's nomination alienated many Republicans, including the Mugwumps , who viewed Blaine as ambitious and immoral. The Republican standard-bearer

10902-559: The name of Oscar Folsom, or any one else, with that boy, for that purpose is simply infamous and false." The electoral votes of closely contested New York, New Jersey, Indiana, and Connecticut would determine the election. In New York, the Tammany Democrats decided that they would gain more from supporting a Democrat they disliked than a Republican who would do nothing for them. Blaine hoped that he would have more support from Irish Americans than Republicans typically did; while

11040-510: The nature of his enemies made him still more friends. Cleveland led on the first ballot, with 392 votes out of 820. On the second ballot, Tammany threw its support behind Butler, but the rest of the delegates shifted to Cleveland, who won. Thomas A. Hendricks of Indiana was selected as his running mate. Corruption in politics was the central issue in 1884; Blaine had over the span of his career been involved in several questionable deals. Cleveland's reputation as an opponent of corruption proved

11178-404: The northern United States , hoping that a transcontinental railroad would open up Asian markets. With Stevens' engineering experience (and likely the favor of Pierce yet again, as well as Secretary of War Jefferson Davis ), he won the bid. His party, which included George Suckley , John Mullan and Fred Burr, son of David H. Burr , spent most of 1853 moving slowly across the prairie, surveying

11316-555: The old allegations that Blaine had corruptly influenced legislation in favor of the Little Rock and Fort Smith Railroad and the Union Pacific Railway , later profiting on the sale of bonds he owned in both companies. Although the stories of Blaine's favors to the railroads had made the rounds eight years earlier, this time Blaine's correspondence was discovered, making his earlier denials less plausible. On some of

11454-410: The only factual related evidence was that on Christmas Day, a party of Indians had visited McLeod's cabin and had forced him to give them food. Gibbs and Goldsborough declared that: The sole object of the proclamation was to get half a dozen obscure individuals into his absolute control, and to demonstrate that he, Isaac I. Stevens, could, on the field offered by a small Territory, enact, at second hand,

11592-578: The other candidates had hindrances to his nomination: Bayard had spoken in favor of secession in 1861, making him unacceptable to Northerners; Butler, conversely, was reviled throughout the Southern United States for his actions during the Civil War ; Thurman was generally well-liked, but was growing old and infirm, and his views on the silver question were uncertain. Cleveland, too, had detractors—Tammany remained opposed to him—but

11730-472: The part of Napoleon . The territorial organic act designated the governor as "commander-in-chief of the militia thereof," but there were not a regularly constituted militia. Stevens assumed his powers from his control of local volunteer troops, which had been organized to meet the necessities of the situation. These had not been authorized either by the federal government or by the territorial legislature. Stevens' position as Superintendent of Indian Affairs for

11868-479: The partners in the law firm of Rogers, Bowen, and Rogers. Millard Fillmore , the 13th president of the United States, had previously worked for the partnership. Cleveland later took a clerkship with the firm, began to read the law with them, and was admitted to the New York bar in 1859. Cleveland worked for the Rogers firm for three years before leaving in 1862 to start his own practice. In January 1863, he

12006-446: The party of "Rum, Romanism , and Rebellion". The Democrats spread the word of this implied anti-Catholic insult on the eve of the election. They also blistered Blaine for attending a banquet with some of New York City's wealthiest men. After the votes were counted, Cleveland narrowly won all four of the swing states, including New York by 1,200 votes. While the popular vote total was close, with Cleveland winning by just one-quarter of

12144-447: The people. The friendliness and charity of our countrymen can always be relied upon to relieve their fellow-citizens in misfortune. This has been repeatedly and quite lately demonstrated. Federal aid in such cases encourages the expectation of paternal care on the part of the government and weakens the sturdiness of our national character, while it prevents the indulgence among our people of that kindly sentiment and conduct which strengthens

12282-436: The purview of the said commission. Therefore, as the war is now being actively prosecuted through- out nearly the whole of the said county, and great injury to the public, and the plans of the campaign be frustrated, if the alleged designs of these persons be not arrested, I, Isaac I. Stevens, Governor of the Territory of Washington, do hereby proclaim Martial Law over the said county of Pierce, and do by these presents suspend for

12420-571: The railroads when they were failing and had made the system solvent again. Cleveland believed that altering Gould's franchise would violate the Contract Clause of the federal Constitution . Despite the initial popularity of the fare-reduction bill, the newspapers praised Cleveland's veto. Theodore Roosevelt , then a member of the Assembly , had reluctantly voted for the bill with the intention of holding railroad barons accountable. After

12558-531: The re-election of Thomas F. Grady , their point man in the State Senate. Cleveland also steadfastly opposed other Tammany nominees, as well as bills passed as a result of their deal-making. The loss of Tammany's support was offset by the support of Theodore Roosevelt and other reform-minded Republicans, who helped Cleveland pass several laws to reform municipal governments. Cleveland closely worked with Roosevelt, who served as assembly minority leader in 1883;

12696-729: The request of President Abraham Lincoln , the United States Senate posthumously advanced Stevens to the rank of Major General . According to George Cullum's Biographical Register of the Officers and Graduates of the United States Military Academy "at the very hour of his death, the President and Secretary of War were considering the advisability of placing Stevens in command of the Army in which he

12834-412: The return of Chinese immigrants who left the United States. The Scott Act easily passed both houses of Congress, and Cleveland signed it into law on October 1, 1888. Cleveland viewed Native Americans as wards of the state , saying in his first inaugural address that "[t]his guardianship involves, on our part, efforts for the improvement of their condition and enforcement of their rights." He encouraged

12972-864: The return of approximately 81,000,000 acres (330,000 km ). Cleveland was the first Democratic president subject to the Tenure of Office Act which originated in 1867; the act purported to require the Senate to approve the dismissal of any presidential appointee who was originally subject to its advice and consent. Cleveland objected to the act in principle and his steadfast refusal to abide by it prompted its fall into disfavor and led to its ultimate repeal in 1887. As Congress and its Republican-led Senate sent Cleveland legislation he opposed, he often resorted to using his veto power. He vetoed hundreds of private pension bills for American Civil War veterans, believing that if their pensions requests had already been rejected by

13110-581: The ridge dividing the drainage basins of the Chehalis River and the Quinault River . From there the line ran west along the watershed ridge to the Pacific Ocean. This somewhat vague definition was further confused by the way the Makah cession boundary had been defined as extending south to the lands occupied by the Quileute. This circular definition , along with the unclear phrases about where

13248-600: The same time that the Democrats gained support from the Mugwumps, they lost some blue-collar workers to the Greenback-Labor party , led by ex-Democrat Benjamin Butler. In general, Cleveland abided by the precedent of minimizing presidential campaign travel and speechmaking; Blaine became one of the first to break with that tradition. The campaign focused on the candidates' moral standards, as each side cast aspersions on their opponents. Cleveland's supporters rehashed

13386-416: The tariff was that of most Democrats: that the tariff ought to be reduced. Republicans generally favored a high tariff to protect American industries. American tariffs had been high since the Civil War, and by the 1880s the tariff brought in so much revenue that the government was running a surplus. In 1886, a bill to reduce the tariff was narrowly defeated in the House. The tariff issue was emphasized in

13524-533: The territory had a broad administrative responsibility but possessed no direct military power. On May 24, 1856, following a legal opinion rendered by Judge Chenoweth, ruling that Stevens had no legal power to declare martial law, Governor Stevens rescinded his proclamation in Pierce and Thurston counties. After the Civil War began in 1861, and following the Union defeat at the First Battle of Bull Run , Stevens

13662-603: The time being and till further notice, the functions of all civil officers in said county. On May 11, 1856, attorneys George Gibbs and H. A. Goldsborough sent a letter to the Secretary of State denying that the war situation throughout the territory, and especially in Pierce County, was as grave as Governor Stevens had declared at the time of proclaiming martial law. They said that Stevens' allegations made against Charles Wren, John McLeod, John McField, Lyon A. Smith, and Henry Smith, were based wholly on suspicion. They asserted that

13800-460: The top of Buffalo's legal community. Up to that point, Cleveland's political career had been honorable and unexceptional. As biographer Allan Nevins wrote, "Probably no man in the country, on March 4, 1881, had less thought than this limited, simple, sturdy attorney of Buffalo that four years later he would be standing in Washington and taking the oath as President of the United States." It

13938-553: The top of his class at West Point before embarking on a successful military career. He was a controversial and polarizing figure as governor of the Washington Territory, where he was both praised and condemned. He was described by one historian as the subject of more reflection and study than almost the rest of the territory's 19th-century history combined. Stevens' marathon diplomacy with Native American tribes sought to avoid military conflict in Washington; however, when

14076-541: The tribal governments and allowed individual Indians to sell land and keep the money. In the month before Cleveland's 1885 inauguration, President Arthur opened four million acres of Winnebago and Crow Creek Indian lands in the Dakota Territory to white settlement by executive order. Tens of thousands of settlers gathered at the border of these lands and prepared to take possession of them. Cleveland believed Arthur's order to be in violation of treaties with

14214-421: The tribes to "acknowledge their dependence on the United States", and briefly outlined how crimes would be dealt with. In article ten the United States promised to establish and support for 20 years an agricultural and industrial school, free to the children of the tribes and located at the territorial central Puget Sound agency. A physician was also to be provided, also at the central agency. Article eleven required

14352-430: The tribes to free any slaves they held. Article thirteen forbid the tribes from trading "at Vancouver's Island or elsewhere outside the dominion of the United States", nor to allow "foreign Indians" to live in the reservation. The last article said that the terms of the treaty would take effect upon ratification by the President and the Senate. Most of the Quileute and Hoh refused to move to the Quinault Reservation once it

14490-431: The tribes, and rescinded it on April 17 of that year, ordering the settlers out of the territory. Cleveland sent in eighteen companies of Army troops to enforce the treaties and ordered General Philip Sheridan , at the time Commanding General of the U.S. Army, to investigate the matter. Cleveland was 47 years old when he entered the White House as a bachelor. His sister Rose Cleveland joined him, acting as hostess for

14628-451: The veto, Roosevelt and other legislators reversed their position, and Cleveland's veto was sustained. Cleveland's defiance of political corruption won him popular acclaim. Yet it also brought the enmity of New York City's influential Tammany Hall organization and its boss, John Kelly . Tammany Hall and Kelly had disapproved of Cleveland's nomination for governor, and their resistance intensified after Cleveland openly opposed and prevented

14766-529: The votes of disaffected Republicans by nominating a more honest candidate. Party leaders approached Cleveland, who agreed to run for Mayor of Buffalo provided the party's slate of candidates for other offices was to his liking. More notorious politicians were left off the Democratic ticket and he accepted the nomination. Cleveland was elected mayor that November with 15,120 votes, while his Republican opponent Milton Earl Beebe received 11,528 votes. He took office on January 2, 1882. Cleveland's term as mayor

14904-478: The war. As a lawyer, Cleveland became known for his single-minded concentration and dedication to hard work. In 1866, he successfully defended some participants in the Fenian raid , working on a pro bono basis (free of charge). In 1868, Cleveland attracted professional attention for his winning defense of a libel suit against the editor of Buffalo's Commercial Advertiser . During this time, Cleveland assumed

15042-718: The way to Washington Territory. There Stevens met George McClellan 's party, which had surveyed the line between the Puget Sound and the Spokane River . He took up his post at Olympia as governor in November that year. As a result of his expedition, Stevens wrote a third book, Report of Explorations for a Route for the Pacific Railroad near the 47th and 49th Parallels of North Latitude, from St. Paul, Minnesota, to Puget Sound , (commissioned and published by

15180-416: The woman who asserted he had fathered her son Oscar Folsom Cleveland and he assumed responsibility. Shortly before the 1884 election , the Republican media published an affidavit from Halpin in which she stated that until she met Cleveland, her "life was pure and spotless", and "there is not, and never was, a doubt as to the paternity of our child, and the attempt of Grover Cleveland, or his friends, to couple

15318-477: Was "immoral" and for allegedly acting cruelly by not raising the child himself. In the 1870s, the municipal government in Buffalo had grown increasingly corrupt, with Democratic and Republican political machines cooperating to share the spoils of political office. When the Republicans nominated a slate of particularly disreputable machine politicians for the 1881 election, Democrats saw an opportunity to gain

15456-471: Was a committed non-interventionist who had campaigned in opposition to expansion and imperialism. He refused to promote the previous administration's Nicaragua canal treaty, and generally was less of an expansionist in foreign relations. Cleveland's Secretary of State, Thomas F. Bayard, negotiated with Joseph Chamberlain of the United Kingdom over fishing rights in the waters off Canada, and struck

15594-472: Was a formidable policymaker but also garnered criticism. He intervened in the 1894 Pullman Strike to keep the railroads moving, angering Illinois Democrats and labor unions nationwide; his support of the gold standard and opposition to free silver alienated the agrarian wing of the Democrats. Critics complained that Cleveland had little imagination and seemed overwhelmed by the nation's economic disasters— depressions and strikes —in his second term. By

15732-415: Was a retention of the status quo , and a postponement of the resolution of the free-silver issue. Another contentious financial issue at the time was the protective tariff . These tariffs had been implemented as a temporary measure during the civil war to protect American industrial interests but remained in place after the war. While it had not been a central point in his campaign, Cleveland's opinion on

15870-617: Was accepted to the United States Military Academy at West Point. He graduated in 1839 at the top of his class. Stevens was the adjutant of the Corps of Engineers during the Mexican–American War , seeing action at the siege of Vera Cruz and at Cerro Gordo , Contreras , and Churubusco . In the latter fight, he caught the attention of his superiors, who rewarded him with the brevet rank of captain . He

16008-531: Was again cited and breveted for gallantry at the Battle of Chapultepec , this time to the rank of major . Stevens participated in combat at Molino del Rey , and the Battle for Mexico City , where he was severely wounded. He later wrote a book on his adventures, Campaigns of the Rio Grande and Mexico, with Notices of the Recent Work of Major Ripley (New York, 1851). He superintended fortifications on

16146-506: Was appointed assistant district attorney of Erie County, New York . With the American Civil War raging, Congress passed the Conscription Act of 1863 , requiring able-bodied men to serve in the army if called upon, or else to hire a substitute. Cleveland chose the latter course, paying $ 150, equivalent to $ 3,712 in 2023, to George Benninsky, a thirty-two-year-old Polish immigrant, to serve in his place. Benninsky survived

16284-403: Was aware of graft in the sheriff's office during his tenure and chose not to confront it. A notable incident of his term took place on September 6, 1872, when Patrick Morrissey was executed. He had been convicted of murdering his mother. As sheriff, Cleveland was responsible for either personally carrying out the execution or paying a deputy $ 10 to perform the task. In spite of reservations about

16422-475: Was being considered by President Abraham Lincoln for appointment to command the Army of Virginia . He was posthumously advanced to the rank of Major General. Several schools, towns, counties, and lakes are named in his honor. Descended from early American settlers in New England, Stevens – a man who stood just 5 ft 3 in (1.60 m) tall – overcame a troubled childhood and personal setbacks to graduate at

16560-579: Was born on March 18, 1837, in Caldwell, New Jersey , to Ann (née Neal) and Richard Falley Cleveland . Cleveland's father was a Congregational and Presbyterian minister who was originally from Connecticut . His mother was from Baltimore and was the daughter of a bookseller. On his father's side, Cleveland was descended from English ancestors, the first of the family having emigrated to Massachusetts from Cleveland , England, in 1635. His father's maternal grandfather , Richard Falley Jr. , fought at

16698-441: Was carrying the regimental flag had been shot, he raced from his position in the rear, through the panicked body of his men, to wrench the flag from the wounded man's grasp. According to witnesses, the injured color bearer - knowing the regimental flag would be a target - yelled at Stevens "for God's sake, General, don't take the colors!" Stevens ignored the man's appeal and seized the colors, at which point his own son, Hazard, who

16836-689: Was commissioned in the army again. He was appointed as colonel of the 79th New York Volunteers , known as the "Cameron Highlanders." He was promoted to a brigadier general on September 28, 1861, and fought at Port Royal . He led the Second Brigade of the Expeditionary Forces sent to attack the Sea Islands off the coast of South Carolina . He led a division at the Battle of Secessionville , where he led an attack on Fort Lamar, in which 25% of his men were casualties. Stevens

16974-419: Was doing his job well, and would not appoint anyone solely on the basis of party service. He also used his appointment powers to reduce the number of federal employees, as many departments had become bloated with political time-servers. Later in his term, as his fellow Democrats chafed at being excluded from the spoils, Cleveland began to replace more of the partisan Republican officeholders with Democrats; this

17112-553: Was during this period that Cleveland began courting a widow, Maria Halpin . She later accused him of raping her. It is unclear if Halpin was actually raped by Cleveland as some early reports stated or if their relationship was consensual. In March 1876, Cleveland accused Halpin of being an alcoholic and had her child removed from her custody. The child was taken to the Protestant Orphan Asylum, and Cleveland paid for his stay there. Cleveland had Halpin admitted to

17250-585: Was especially the case with policymaking positions. While some of his decisions were influenced by party concerns, more of Cleveland's appointments were decided by merit alone than was the case in his predecessors' administrations. Cleveland also reformed other parts of the government. In 1887, he signed an act creating the Interstate Commerce Commission . He and Secretary of the Navy William C. Whitney undertook to modernize

17388-568: Was established. Both received small reservations of their own. The Hoh Reservation was established by President Grover Cleveland by Executive Order on 11 September 1893. The reservation is only 443 acres (1.79 km), but includes about a mile of the Pacific coastline south of the mouth of the Hoh River . In mapping Indian land cession the Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife had to make some guesses and assumptions about

17526-625: Was forced to repeal the declaration and fight subsequent calls for his removal. His decision to use martial law was the result of his determination to enforce a blockhouse policy in the war against the Indians of the Puget Sound region. Indian raids on scattered settlements and an intimidating attack on the city of Seattle in February 1856 resulted in Governor Stevens concluding that he needed to concentrate on defensive measures, given

17664-462: Was further weakened when the Conkling faction and President Chester Arthur refused to give Blaine their strong support. Democratic party leaders believed the Republicans' choice gave them an opportunity to win the White House for the first time since 1856 if the right candidate could be found. Among the Democrats, Samuel J. Tilden was the initial front-runner, having been the party's nominee in

17802-440: Was ignored, Lander was arrested by Stevens' forces due to his opposition. Pierce refused to remove Stevens from his position, but eventually sent word to the governor expressing his disapproval. Any opposition eventually died down, as most white settlers in Washington Territory felt that Stevens was on "their side", while they considered Meeker to be too sympathetic to Native Americans. As a result of this public perception, Stevens

17940-449: Was inaugurated. Angered Westerners and Southerners advocated for cheap money to help their poorer constituents. In reply, one of the foremost silverites, Richard P. Bland , introduced a bill in 1886 that would require the government to coin unlimited amounts of silver, inflating the then-deflating currency. While Bland's bill was defeated, so was a bill the administration favored that would repeal any silver coinage requirement. The result

18078-479: Was popular enough to be elected as the territory's delegate to the United States Congress in 1857 and 1858. The tensions between whites and Native Americans would be left for others to resolve. Stevens is often charged with responsibility for the later conflicts in eastern Washington and Idaho , especially the war fought by the United States against Chief Joseph and the Nez Perce , These events were decades in

18216-536: Was serving in the regiment, was shot and injured by a Confederate volley. Hazard Stevens cried out to his father for help, to which the general replied, "I can't attend to you now, Hazard. Corporal Thompson, see to my boy". Stevens turned to his men and yelled, "Follow your General!" Facing the Confederate line and waving the recovered regimental colors, Stevens proceeded to charge the Confederate positions, his men following in close order. The renewed advance forced

18354-450: Was serving". A marker at Ox Hill Battlefield Park , site of the Battle of Chantilly , commemorates the approximate place where Stevens fell while leading his men. In Washington, Stevens County is named in his honor, as is Lake Stevens . Several Washington public schools, including Seattle's Isaac I. Stevens Elementary School, Port Angeles' Stevens Middle School, and Pasco's Isaac Stevens Middle School, are also named in his honor, as

18492-685: Was spent fighting the entrenched interests of the party machines. Among the acts that established his reputation was a veto of the street-cleaning bill passed by the Common Council . The street-cleaning contract had been the subject of competitive bidding, and the Council selected the highest bidder at $ 422,000, rather than the lowest at $ 100,000 less, because of the political connections of the bidder. While this sort of bipartisan graft had previously been tolerated in Buffalo, Mayor Cleveland would have none of it. His veto message said, "I regard it as

18630-399: Was successfully adopted. For this, and other actions safeguarding public funds, Cleveland began to gain a reputation beyond Erie County as a leader willing to purge government corruption. New York Democratic party officials started to consider Cleveland a possible nominee for governor. Daniel Manning , a party insider who admired Cleveland's record, was instrumental in his candidacy. With

18768-486: Was the 22nd and 24th president of the United States , serving from 1885 to 1889 and from 1893 to 1897. He was the first Democrat to win the presidency after the Civil War . He was also the first president to serve nonconsecutive terms. Cleveland was elected mayor of Buffalo in 1881 and governor of New York in 1882. While governor, he closely cooperated with state assembly minority leader Theodore Roosevelt to pass reform measures, winning national attention. He led

18906-556: Was transferred with his IX Corps division to Virginia to serve under Major General John Pope in the Northern Virginia Campaign and the Second Battle of Bull Run . He was killed in action at the Battle of Chantilly on September 1, 1862, after picking up the fallen regimental colors of his old regiment, shouting "Highlanders, my Highlanders, follow your general!" Charging with his troops while carrying

19044-564: Was worth less than its legal equivalent in gold, taxpayers paid their government bills in silver, while international creditors demanded payment in gold, resulting in a depletion of the nation's gold supply. Cleveland and Treasury Secretary Daniel Manning stood firmly on the side of the gold standard, and tried to reduce the amount of silver that the government was required to coin under the Bland–Allison Act of 1878. Cleveland unsuccessfully appealed to Congress to repeal this law before he

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