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41-455: The Quitu occupied an area dominated by mountains, settling largely in the valleys. About 800 CE, they created three-level, 20-meter deep tombs as part of funerary centers on the plateau. The bodies were accompanied by highly refined grave goods of textiles, shells and metals, as well as drink and food for the afterlife. These tombs were discovered in the Florida neighborhood of Quito, and in 2010

82-569: A political boss , similar to a caudillo , exercising power in a system of caciquism . The Taíno word kasike descends from the Taíno word kassiquan , which means "to keep house". In 1555 the word first entered the English language, defined as "prince". In Taíno culture, the kasike rank was hereditary and sometimes established through democratic means. As the Taínos were mostly

123-450: A "pacific" form of "civilized caciquismo", such as Mexico's Porfirio Díaz (r. 1876–1911). Argentine writer Fernando N.A. Cuevillas views caciquismo as being "nothing more than a special brand of tyrant". In Spain, caciquismo appeared in the late 19th-century and early 20th-century Spain . Writer Ramón Akal González views Galicia in northwest of Spain, as having remained in a continual state of strangulated growth over centuries as

164-546: A festive people, and rattles were a way for women to make music as they walked. Excavations of tombs show the Quitu believed in an afterlife. Grave goods, including drink and food, were buried with them for their use in the afterlife. Essentially the Quitu were an agricultural people, seen as a "pueblo alegre y festivo" (happy and festive people). They are not known for any association with the Peruvian town of Iquitos , east of

205-416: A peaceable culture the kasike 's importance in the tribe was determined by the size of his clan rather than his skills in warfare. The Taíno kasikes also enjoyed several privileges that marked them as the elite class of Taíno society: they lived in a larger rectangular hut in the center of the village, rather than the peripheral circular huts of other villagers, and they had reserved places from which to view

246-627: A result of caciquismo and nepotism. "Galicia still suffers from this anachronistic caste of caciques." Spanish strongman El Caudillo Francisco Franco (1892-1975) was born in Ferrol in Galicia. In the Philippines, the term cacique democracy was coined by Benedict Anderson . It has been used to describe the political system where in many parts of the country local leaders remain very strong, with almost warlord-type powers. The Philippines

287-601: A roughly 10-month-long voyage of exploration into the Pacific around 1470, under the reign of his father, reportedly visiting islands he called Nina Chumpi ("fire belt") and Hawa Chumpi ("outer belt", also spelled Avachumpi, Hahua chumpi ). The voyage is mentioned in the History of the Incas by Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa , as well as in the works of Martín de Murúa and Miguel Cabello de Balboa . Pedro Sarmiento described

328-589: A special fondness for the city of Quito , which he rebuilt with architects from Cuzco . During this time his father Pachacuti reorganized the kingdom of Cuzco into the Tawantinsuyu , the "region of four provinces". Topa Inca led extensive military conquests to extend the Inca empire across much of Southern America. He became Sapa Inca (sole ruler) in his turn upon his father's death in 1471, ruling until his own death in 1493. He conquered Chimor , which occupied

369-525: A young age. Topa Inca launched multiple large-scale expeditions to the north during his period as Auqui, subduing regions such as Hatun Xauxa, the Bombon Plateau, and Huaylas . Cities and sites the army he commanded besieged and captured at this time include Curamba, Huaylla-Pucara, Canta, and, most importantly, Chan Chan . He extended the realm along the Andes through modern Ecuador , and developed

410-602: Is a Spanish transliteration of the Taíno word kasike . Cacique was initially translated as "king" or "prince" for the Spanish. In the colonial era, the conquistadors and the administrators who followed them used the word generically to refer to any leader of practically any indigenous group they encountered in the Western Hemisphere . In Hispanic and Lusophone countries, the term has also come to mean

451-500: The areítos (ceremonial dances) and ceremonial ball game . Most importantly, the kasike 's word was law and they exercised this power to oversee a sophisticated government, finely involved with all aspects of social existence. The Spanish transliterated kasike and used the term (cacique) to refer to the local leader of essentially any indigenous group in Spanish America . Caribbean caciques who did not initially oppose

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492-557: The Inca conquered the territory or the Spanish explorers arrived in the early 16th century to conquer the city. The Quitu traded with the Yumbo , a tribe that lived northwest of this area. The Yumbo had networks that reached from the Andes west to the coast. The Quitu grave goods showed that they had acquired valuable Spondylus shells. These were harvested by the Manta people in what are now

533-567: The 20th century, this was filled in and developed for an airport serving Quito.) Around 1470 they were conquered by Topa Inca Yupanqui , who at the time was a general of his father Pachacuti . Later, under the reign of Huayna Capac , they revolted alongside the Cayambis, the Caranquis , the Pastos and the other ethnic groups of the far north. However the revolt was put down by the Inca. In

574-585: The Dominican Republic. The Spanish had more success when they drafted the leaders of the far more hierarchically organized indigenous civilizations of Central Mexico. These Central Mexican caciques served as more effective, and loyal, intermediaries in the new system of colonial rule. The hierarchy and nomenclature of indigenous leadership usually survived within a given community and the Spaniards' designation of caciques did not usually correspond to

615-565: The Museum of Florida opened to display many of their treasures. The Quitu lived in an area surrounded by mountains, especially the massif formed by the Guagua and Ruco Pichincha volcanoes. The mountains were sacred to them. They established their burial or funeral centers on the plateau, and had most of their villages in the valleys. When they occupied this area, they used the Iñaquito lagoon. (In

656-795: The Quitu were conquered by said kingdom of Quito around 980 CE. He also referred to this people as Scyris, and said they may have been related to the Inca. He cited three lost documents as his sources, the existence of which has not been confirmed: "Las dos líneas de los Incas y de los Scyris, señores del Cuzco, y del Quito," by Fray Marcos de Niza, a Franciscan who accompanied Sebastián Benalcázar's conquest of Quito in 1533; "Las antigüedades del Perú," by Melchor Bravo de Saravia, an oidor (judge) of Lima; and "Guerras civiles del Inca Atahualpa con su hermano Atoco, llamado comúnmente Huáscar-Inca," by Jacinto Collahuaso, an eighteenth-century cacique of Ibarra (north of Quito). Several historians such as Jacinto Jijón y Caamaño and Alfredo Pareja Diezcanseco contest that

697-621: The Scyris existed and that they were related to the Inca. To some the kingdom of Quito is a legendary, pre-Hispanic kingdom to which people could refer for dreams of former glory. There is no archeological evidence indicating any kind of cultural and political unity, the sites found rather hinting at regional states. Topa Inca Yupanqui Topa Inca Yupanqui or Túpac Inca Yupanqui ( Quechua : Tupa Inka Yupanki ~ Thupaq Inka Yupanki ), also Topa Inga Yupangui , erroneously translated as "noble Inca accountant" (before 1471 – 1493)

738-492: The Spanish became middlemen, serving as the interface between their communities and the Spanish. Their cooperation was frequently provisional. Most of the early caciques eventually revolted, resulting in their deaths in battle or by execution. Two of the most famous of these early colonial-era caciques are Hatuey from what is now Cuba and Enriquillo on the island of Hispaniola. Both are now respective national heroes in Cuba and

779-541: The best and most fertile territories. Despite their entrepreneurial focus, cacicas also wielded considerable authority, acknowledged by native communities, the Spanish Crown , and the Catholic Church . Their status rivaled high-ranking Spanish men, with privileges like special treatment at religious ceremonies and even distinguished burial sites. This recognition extended beyond their ancestors, surpassing

820-602: The coastal provinces of Manabí and Santa Elena. The shells were highly valued by Native Americans and exported throughout the trading networks of South America, as they have been found in Argentina, Chile, Peru, Colombia and even present-day Mexico. Based on their use of these shells associated with religious rituals, the Quitu were among the many peoples who gave them sacred meaning. The people made art and used wooden instruments for their music. The Museum of Florida has been developed here to display and interpret artifacts from

861-568: The early 21st century a large Quitu funerary and ceremonial area was excavated in Quito. Archeologist Holguer Jara said this delay protected their artifacts for centuries from grave robbers, who are known to have depleted many other cultures of their valuable archeological remains, especially artifacts made of gold. In 2010, an area of numerous 20-meter deep, three-level Quitu tombs was discovered in Quito, dating to about 800CE. The tombs had three levels, with multiple burials on each level: four bodies on

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902-427: The expedition as follows: Historians and anthropologists such as María Rostworowski , Waldemar Espinoza, José Antonio del Busto Duthurburu and Jean Hervé Daude, believe that the two islands mentioned by the chroniclers are Mangareva and Easter Island , where oral traditions have claimed that a group of long-eared hanau eepe came to the island from an unknown land. Some historians, however, are skeptical that

943-612: The final Inca, Túpac Amaru . At independence in 1825, Simón Bolívar abolished noble titles, but the power and prestige of the kurakas were already in decline following the Great Rebellion. Kuraka rebellions had been waged since the beginning of the Spanish colonial rule, and decades after Túpac Amaru II 's 1781 uprising other insurrections such as the Túpac Katari or the Mateo Pumakawa uprisings were often

984-598: The first major engagements of the South American Wars of Independence. Cacicas played significant roles as female leaders and entrepreneurs within indigenous Mexican communities. These women held titles independently, distinct from their husbands, and did not lose their status if they married outside their rank. Cacicas possessed financial insight, engaging in business transactions like property dealings and managing financial networks. They owned valuable assets including land, homes, and livestock, often securing

1025-445: The hereditary or likely candidate from a given system of indigenous leadership. As a consequence, elite indigenous men willing to cooperate with the colonial rulers replaced their rivals who had better hereditary or traditional claims on leadership. The Spanish recognized indigenous nobles as a European-style nobility, within the newly established colonial system and a cacique's status among the colonizers (along with that of his family)

1066-526: The lowest, and six on each of the next two levels. Both men and women were buried in a squatting position, wrapped in cloth and with decorated ponchos, some featuring refined, carved Spondylus shells, which were acquired by Quitu trade from the Manta culture along the Pacific coast. The Quitu are believed to have endured as a people during a period regional states, known as the late intermediate, long before

1107-601: The mountains and in the Amazonian basin. In the 21st century archeological evidence had been found associated with this people. This however does not confirm the existence of the semi-legendary kingdom of Quito and is only archeological evidence for an independent Quitu culture with no united political entity in the region. According to the Spanish Jesuit missionary and historian Juan de Velasco , in his book, Historia del Reino de Quito en la América meridional (1789),

1148-773: The northern coast of what is now Peru , the largest remaining rival to the Incas. He conquered the province of Antisuyu and subdued the Qulla people . He imposed rules and taxes, creating two Suyuyoc Apu (Governor Generals), one in Jauja and the other in Tiahuanaco . The fortress Saksaywaman , established by Pachacuti on the high plateau above Cusco, was constructed throughout Topa Inca Yupanqui's reign. Topa Inca died about 1493 in Chincheros , leaving two legitimate sons, and 90 illegitimate sons and daughters. Chuqui Ocllo, one of

1189-571: The power of local political bosses , the caciques. In the post-independence period in Mexico, the term retained its meaning of "indigenous" leaders, but also took on a more general usage of a "local" or "regional" leader as well. Some scholars make a distinction between caudillos ( political strongmen ) and their rule, caudillismo , and caciques and caciquismo . One Argentine intellectual, Carlos Octavio Bunge viewed caciquismo as emerging from anarchy and political disruption and then evolving into

1230-537: The public jail; the caciques' names were to be listed among the nobles in official registers; and "all these privileges are to apply equally to the caciques' wives and widows." With Mexican independence in 1821, the last of the special privileges of colonial-era caciques were finally abolished. In contrast to the rest of the Spanish Colonial Americas, in the Andean region the local term kuraka

1271-423: The rank of notable figures such as Isabel Moctezuma and her lineage. The multifaceted roles of cacicas highlight their integral contributions to Mexican society under Spanish rule, demonstrating their adeptness in economic enterprise, societal leadership, and cultural influence across indigenous communities. An extension of the term cacique, caciquismo ("boss rule") can refer to a political system dominated by

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1312-504: The restoration of its privileges, the following expectations were listed: "that, the cacique should be seated separately from commoners at public functions; he was excused from serving in town government; he was exempted from tribute and other exactions; he was excused from Sunday worship and payments of the half real; his servants were not liable for community labor; he was exempt from incarceration for debt and his property from sequestration; he could be imprisoned for serious crime but not in

1353-498: The right to carry swords or firearms and to ride horses or mules. Some caciques had entailed estates called cacicazgos . The records of many of these Mexican estates are held in the Mexican national archives in a section Vínculos ("entails"). The establishment of Spanish-style town government ( cabildos) served as a mechanism to supplant traditional rule. Spanish manipulation of cabildo elections placed compliant members of

1394-457: The tombs. It is named after the neighborhood in which the tombs were found. The museum includes constructed figures of a Quitu man and woman (the latter's face was created by forensic techniques from a skull excavated at the site.) The woman wears clothing as found in the tombs: "a poncho covered with small buttons carved from Spondylus shell and snails, as well as silverware such as earrings, pins, necklaces, hunting darts and rattles". The Quitu were

1435-476: The traditional, hereditary lineages on such cabildos town councils. By the late colonial era in central Mexico, the term cacique had lost any dynastic meaning, with one scholar noting that "cacique status could in some degree buttress a family's prestige, but it could no longer in itself be regarded as a rank of major authority." In a 1769 petition by a cacique family to the Viceroy of New Spain , appealing for

1476-693: The voyage ever took place. Cacique A cacique , sometimes spelled as cazique ( Latin American Spanish: [kaˈsike] ; Portuguese: [kɐˈsikɨ, kaˈsiki] ; feminine form: cacica ), was a tribal chieftain of the Taíno people, who were the Indigenous inhabitants of the Bahamas , the Greater Antilles , and the northern Lesser Antilles at the time of European contact with those places. The term

1517-470: The wives of Topa Yupanqui, convinced him that his son Capac Huari would succeed him, however, Topa Inca Yupanqoi changed his mind and decided on his son Titu Cusi Hualpa (who would later become emperor Huayna Capac ). This provoked anger in Chuqui Ocllo and she poisoned Topa Inca. She and her favorite son were both killed soon after Topa Inca's death. Topa Inca Yupanqui is also credited with leading

1558-593: Was a colony of Spain from the late sixteenth century until the Spanish–American War of 1898, when the United States assumed control. The U.S. administration subsequently introduced many commercial, political and administrative reforms. They were sometimes quite progressive and directed towards the modernization of government and commerce in the Philippines. However, the local traditional Filipino elites, being better educated and better connected than much of

1599-711: Was buttressed by their being permitted the Spanish noble honorifics don and doña . As colonial middlemen, caciques were often the first to introduce European material culture to their communities. This is seen in the Spanish-style houses they built, the Spanish furnishings that filled them and the European fashions they wore everywhere. They engaged in Spanish commercial enterprises such as sheep and cattle ranchers and sericulture . Many even owned enslaved Africans to operate these concerns. The caciques also acquired new privileges, unknown before contact. These included

1640-512: Was preferred to cacique. After conquering the Inca Empire the Spaniards administering the new Peruvian viceroyalty had allowed the kurakas or caciques to maintain their titles of nobility and perquisites of local rule so long as they swore fealty to the Spanish monarch. In 1781, the Tīpac Amaru rebellion was led by a kuraka who claimed to be a descendant of the Inca royal line, that of

1681-540: Was the tenth Sapa Inca (1471–93) of the Inca Empire , fifth of the Hanan dynasty. His father was Pachacuti , and his son was Huayna Capac . Topa Inca belonged to the Qhapaq Panaca (one of the clans of Inca nobles). His quya (principal wife) was his older sister, Mama Ocllo . His father appointed him to head the Inca army before his reign as emperor, granting him the title of Auqui , or crown prince, at

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