Qun ( Chinese : 裙 ; pinyin : qún ; Jyutping : kwan4 ; lit. 'skirt'), referred as chang ( Chinese : 裳 ; pinyin : cháng ) prior to the Han dynasty , chang ( Chinese : 常 ) and xiachang ( Chinese : 下常 ), and sometimes referred as an apron , is a generic term which refers to the Chinese skirts used in Hanfu , especially those worn as part of ruqun , and in Xifu .
156-519: The qun and its predecessor, the chang , along with the upper garment called yi and the trousers called ku , are all indigenous clothing of the Zhongyuan , which conformed to the fashion style of the Chinese civilization in ancient times. Both the qun and the chang , were both typically in the form of a wrap-around skirt like an apron. However, throughout Chinese history,
312-484: A banquet with Tugh Temür. He was supposedly killed with poison by El Temür, and Tugh Temür then remounted the throne. Tugh Temür also managed to send delegates to the western Mongol khanates such as Golden Horde and Ilkhanate to be accepted as the suzerain of Mongol world. However, he was mainly a puppet of the powerful official El Temür during his latter three-year reign. El Temür purged pro-Kusala officials and brought power to warlords, whose despotic rule clearly marked
468-460: A broad sense, the Chinese character qun 《 裙 》is a synonym for the word qunzi ( 裙子 ; qúnzi ); both of these are generic words for skirts in China . In ancient China, the Chinese character chang 《 裳 》can refer to "lower garments," which included both the trousers called ku and the qun skirt also called chang which also use the same character《裳》. The term qun with
624-524: A diagram of Pascal's triangle . The summation of a finite arithmetic series is also covered in the book. Guo Shoujing applied mathematics to the construction of calendars. He was one of the first mathematicians in China to work on spherical trigonometry. Gou derived a cubic interpolation formula for his astronomical calculations. His calendar, the Shoushi Li ( 授時暦 ; 'Time Granting Calendar'),
780-799: A fair amount of cultural exchange. The other cultures and peoples in the Mongol Empire also very much influenced China. It had significantly eased trade and commerce across Asia until its decline; the communications between Yuan dynasty and its ally and subordinate in Persia , the Ilkhanate , encouraged this development. Buddhism had a great influence in the Yuan government, and the Tibetan-rite Tantric Buddhism had significantly influenced China during this period. The Muslims of
936-456: A form of qun which are made out of several panel of fabric sewn together instead of using a single piece of cloth, similar to a gore skirt. In the Qin and Han dynasties, the danqun were made out of four panel of fabrics which were sewn together. The upper parts were narrower than the lower parts; and there were also two pieces in the middle were also narrower than those which were found at
1092-565: A form of inner skirt. In the ancient times, the qun was referred as chang and existed even prior to the creation of the trousers called ku . The chang appeared on unearthed artifacts dating as early as the Shang dynasty ; the chang eventually evolved into what became known as the qun . In the Warring States period , men could also wear short skirts similar to a kilt . Several wrap-over qun were found in
1248-454: A lined upper garment. The term ao was sometimes used to refer to thicker forms of jacket which could be used as winter clothing. A jia ao ( 夹袄 ), for example, was a lined jacket which was used by Han Chinese women as winter clothing; the jia ao was typically worn on top of a long-length qun underneath. The term xi ( Chinese : 褶 ; lit. ' coat '), sometimes pronounced zhe ( 褶 ), also exists and
1404-549: A major food crop, sorghum , along with other foreign food products and methods of preparation. The Yuan dynasty was the first dynasty founded by non- Han ethnicity that ruled all of China proper . In the historiography of Mongolia, it is generally considered to be the continuation of the Mongol Empire. Mongols are widely known to worship the Eternal Heaven, and according to the traditional Mongolian ideology Yuan
1560-524: A major overlap between the civil and military jurisdictions, due to the Mongol traditional reliance on military institutions and offices as the core of governance. Nevertheless, such a civilian bureaucracy, with the Central Secretariat as the top institution that was (directly or indirectly) responsible for most other governmental agencies (such as the traditional Chinese-style Six Ministries ),
1716-608: A mixed board consisting of Chinese and Mongols. Another example was the insignificance of the Ministry of War compared with native Chinese dynasties, as the real military authority in Yuan times resided in the Privy Council. The Kingdom of Qocho , Kingdom of Dali , Chiefdom of Bozhou , other Tusi chiefdoms, and Goryeo were ruled by rulers subject to, and in some cases related to, the Yuan imperial house. Advances in polynomial algebra were made by mathematicians during
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#17327658463811872-552: A passage to the Far East in search of its legendary wealth. After strengthening his government in northern China, Kublai pursued an expansionist policy in line with the tradition of Mongol and Chinese imperialism. He renewed a massive drive against the Song dynasty to the south. Kublai besieged Xiangyang (襄阳) between 1268 and 1273, the last obstacle in his way to capture the rich Yangtze River basin. An unsuccessful naval expedition
2028-524: A predominantly Han navy to defeat the Song loyalists at the battle of Yamen in 1279. The last Song emperor drowned, bringing an end to the Song dynasty. The conquest of the Song reunited northern and southern China for the first time in three hundred years. The Yuan dynasty created the "Han Army" ( 漢軍 ) out of defected Jin troops and an army of defected Song troops called the "Newly Submitted Army" ( 新附軍 ). Kublai's government faced financial difficulties after 1279. Wars and construction projects had drained
2184-473: A prominent sight since Europeans had yet to adopt a tea culture – as well the practice of foot binding by the women in capital of the Great Khan. Recent studies however show that Polo's account is largely accurate and unique. The Yuan undertook extensive public works. Among Kublai Khan's top engineers and scientists was the astronomer Guo Shoujing , who was tasked with many public works projects and helped
2340-564: A separate pocket of resistance to the Ming in Yunnan and Guizhou , but his forces were decisively defeated by the Ming in 1381. By 1387 the remaining Yuan forces in Manchuria under Naghachu had also surrendered to the Ming dynasty . The Yuan remnants retreated to Mongolia after the fall of Yingchang to the Ming in 1370, where the name Great Yuan ( 大元 ) was formally carried on, and is known as
2496-681: A successor at the Siege of Diaoyucheng . Kublai returned from fighting the Song in 1260 when he learned that his brother, Ariq Böke , was challenging his claim to the throne. Kublai convened a kurultai in Kaiping that elected him Great Khan. A rival kurultai in Mongolia proclaimed Ariq Böke Great Khan, beginning a civil war. Kublai depended on the cooperation of his Chinese subjects to ensure that his army received ample resources. He bolstered his popularity among his subjects by modeling his government on
2652-482: A synonym word for the clothing items shan ( 衫 ) and ao ( 袄 ; 襖 ). The ru can refer to both a long or short jacket. The ru also had different names depending on its characteristics, such as its length and the presence or absence of lining. The ru ( 襦 ), when referring to a short jacket, can be found with either short or long sleeves. A short ru is also known as duanru ( Chinese : 短襦 ; lit. 'short jacket');
2808-540: A tight jacket or a cotton-padded jacket, which could have embroidered golden line as embellishment at the collar and sleeves or could sometimes be decorated with silk damask . Duijin shan were also worn by women in this period; a form of duijin shan was the daxiushan which became popular when the Hufu -style declined in popularity. In the Song dynasty , the daxiushan (shirt with large/broad sleeves)
2964-571: A tropical terrain unsuitable for the mounted warfare of the Mongols. The Trần dynasty which ruled Annam (Đại Việt) defeated the Mongols at the Battle of Bạch Đằng (1288) . Annam, Burma, and Champa recognized Mongol hegemony and established tributary relations with the Yuan dynasty. Internal strife threatened Kublai within his empire. Kublai Khan suppressed rebellions challenging his rule in Tibet and
3120-495: A type of duanru is the yaoru ( Chinese : 腰襦 ; lit. 'waist jacket') which is waist-length. In the Mawangdui Silk Manuscripts , the character ru 《 襦 》refers to a 'short coat'. The Shuowen also described the ru as being a form of duanyi ( Chinese : 短衣 ; lit. 'short clothing'. It is also described as a common form of duanyi in
3276-537: Is a form of traditional Chinese upper garment , or coat, or jacket, which typically has a right closure; however, they may also have a front central opening. It is traditional everyday wear for women of the Han Chinese ethnic group. It can be worn in combination with a skirt in a style called ruqun , or a pair of trousers in a style called shanku . The shape and structure of Chinese upper garments, generally referred as yi ( 衣 ), varied depending on
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#17327658463813432-451: Is a form of wrap-around skirt which was tied at the waist level; it consisted of over 100 pleats in numbers. Each pleats were fixed to the waistband of the skirt and each pleats had the same width. The mamianqun was a wrap-around skirt composed of two overlapping panels of fabric which was tied at the waist level. It was characterized with a flat front and pleats on the two sides. The yulinqun ( lit. 'fish-scale skirt')
3588-513: Is also the term changru ( simplified Chinese : 长襦 ; traditional Chinese : 長襦 ; pinyin : chángrú ; lit. 'long jacket') which appear in texts and has been described as the precursor of the chang ao by scholars. According to the Guangyun , however, the changru can also be a form of paofu . In the Zhou dynasty , a long ru was referred as
3744-466: Is an accepted version of this page The Yuan dynasty ( Chinese : 元 朝 ; pinyin : Yuáncháo ), officially the Great Yuan ( Chinese : 大 元 ; pinyin : Dà Yuán ; Mongolian : ᠶᠡᠬᠡ ᠶᠤᠸᠠᠨ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ , Yeke Yuwan Ulus , literally "Great Yuan State"), was a Mongol -led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after its division . It
3900-453: Is considered to be "the beginning of an infinite number of beings, the foundation of peace and happiness, state power, the dream of many peoples, besides it there is nothing great or precious." In traditional historiography of China , on the other hand, the Yuan dynasty is usually considered to be the legitimate dynasty between the Song dynasty and the Ming dynasty . Note, however, Yuan dynasty
4056-435: Is cross-collared closing on the right side, dajin or xiejin when it has an overlapping big oblique lapel, pianjin when it has a slanted, big lapel, fangling when it is squared collared, and yuanling when it is round collared. It can also be found with or without a standing collar , which is referred as liling or shuling . The standing collars started to be incorporated in upper garments by
4212-405: Is traditionally often extended to cover the Mongol Empire before Kublai Khan 's formal establishment of the Yuan in 1271, partly because Kublai officially honoured prior rulers of the Mongol Empire as Yuan emperors by conferring them posthumous names and temple names . Despite the traditional historiography as well as the official views (including the government of the Ming dynasty which overthrew
4368-421: Is typically associated with the upper garment worn in military clothing called kuzhe/kuxi . The ru is a form of jacket or coat, which typically closes to the right and is described as being youren . However, some styles can be found with a front central opening which can be referred as duijin ( 对领 ) or zhiling ( 直领 ). The ru can also be classified as jiaolingyouren when it
4524-502: The Guangyun . In the Han dynasty , the ru could be unlined, lined or padded. According to the Shiming , a ru is a padded jacket, which is soft and warm; a danru ( simplified Chinese : 襌(单)襦 ; traditional Chinese : 襌(單)襦 ; lit. 'unlined jacket') is described as being similar to a ru which does not have cotton wadding. There
4680-463: The Zhiguzi 《 炙轂子 》by Wang Rui, the hanshan used to called zhongdan ( 中單 ), an inner unlined garment; it changed name when the zhongdan of King Han was seeped with sweat when the latter fought with Xiang yu . The term ao ( 袄 ; 襖 ) appears in a Sui dynasty rime dictionary called Qieyun , published in 601 AD and can be translated as "padded coat", but it can also refer to
4836-551: The chang eventually evolved into the qun ; and the qun evolved in diverse shapes, styles, and construction throughout the succeeding dynasties. The qun continued to exist even in the Republic of China . Several forms of ancient style qun regained popularity in the 21st century following the Hanfu Movement ; this also inspired the development of new styles of qun with modern aesthetics and shapes. In
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4992-429: The chang , which uses the Chinese character《 常 》, is a skirt by using the term xiaqun with the characters《 下 帬 》. There are also specific terms which are related to the qun , such as chenqun ( Chinese : 衬裙 ; lit. 'inner skirt / petticoat ') and danqun . The danqun is a generic term which refers to unlined skirts. The chenqun is a generic term which typically refer to
5148-525: The furu was similar to the paofu in form. In the Han dynasty , short waist-length ru could be worn with trousers or skirts by men and women respectively. In the Han and Wei dynasties, the sleeves of the ru could be wide or narrow; the ru was closed to the right. A form of shan which appeared in the Han and Wei period was a new type of gown which had equal front pieces which were straight instead of being jiaolingyouren and
5304-399: The gua while the furu referred to ru with lining and which was similar to the paofu in terms of form. According to the Guangyun , a gua ( Chinese : 袿 ) is also a form of changru . Other forms of changru included the shuhe ( Chinese : 裋褐 ; lit. 'coarse clothing') which jiaolingyouren and could reach the knee- or
5460-467: The jiaolingyouren yi ( 交領右衽 衣 ; jiāolǐngyòurèn yī ) may have some differences and variations in terms of features depending on time period and styles of upper garment. For example, a style of Ming dynasty jiaolingyouren yi have the following features: The traditional way to distinguish between Hufu and Hanfu is by looking at the direction of the collar. In Ancient China, some ethnic minorities had clothing which generally closed on
5616-566: The liangpianqun and the baizhequn . The baizhequn continued to be worn in the Yuan dynasty . The qun continued to be worn in the Qing dynasty . In this period, the qun worn by the Han Chinese were often mamianqun which featured pleats and embroideries at the panels and decorative borders. The late Qing dynasty qun were also heavier compared to those worn in
5772-652: The Chiefdom of Bozhou , which was recognized by both the Song and Tang dynasty, also received recognition by the Mongols in the Yuan dynasty, and later by the Ming dynasty . The Luo clan in Shuixi led by Ahua were recognized by the Yuan emperors, as they were by the Song emperors when led by Pugui and Tang emperors when led by Apei. They descended from the Three Kingdoms era king Huoji who legendarily helped Zhuge Liang against Meng Huo . They were also recognized by
5928-550: The Classics , which had fallen into disuse in north China during the period of disunity, were reinstated by the Yuan court, probably in the hope of maintaining order over Han society. Advances were realized in the fields of travel literature, cartography , geography , and scientific education. Certain Chinese innovations and products, such as purified saltpetre , printing techniques, porcelain , playing cards , and medical literature, were exported to Europe and Western Asia, while
6084-494: The Eastern Han , the ru was the most common form of short robe for both men and women; however, the ru was preferred by women afterwards. The long ru could reach the knee-level whereas the short ru was waist-length. The ru could be found unlined, lined or padded. The jiaolingyouren yi ( 交領右衽 衣 ) started to be worn in the Shang dynasty . According to historical documents and archaeological findings,
6240-477: The Han dynasty tombs. The zhejianqun ( Chinese : 褶 裥 裙 ; pinyin : zhějiǎnqúnqún ; lit. 'pleated skirt') first appeared in the Eastern Han dynasty . According to the story, however, the wearing of short skirts with pleats first appeared in the Western Han dynasty when Feng Wufang saved Zhao Feiyan from falling; but while saving her, her skirt had been ripped. This led to
6396-618: The Liao dynasty . The only moment Han Chinese is supposed to use zuoren is when they dressed their deceased. This is due to ancient Chinese beliefs in the Yin and Yang theory, where it is believed that the left is the Yang aspect and stands for life whereas the right is the Yin which stands for death. Based on this belief, the left lapel needs to be outside (i.e. youren -style) to indicate that
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6552-406: The Liao dynasty ; these jackets were waist-length. Both the jiaolingyouren and the jiaolingzuoren jackets for women coexisted in the Yuan dynasty . The wearing of zuoren (instead of youren ) was common in the Yuan dynasty. Han Chinese women also wore jia ao ( 夹袄 ), a form of lined jacket, typically over a long-length qun underneath as winter clothing . Following
6708-597: The Ming dynasty . In 1276 Kublai captured the Song capital of Hangzhou (杭州), the wealthiest city of China, after the surrender of the Southern Song Han Chinese Emperor Gong of Song . Emperor Gong was married off to a Mongol princess of the royal Borjigin family of the Yuan dynasty. Song loyalists escaped from the capital and enthroned a young child as Emperor Bing of Song , who was Emperor Gong's younger brother. The Yuan forces commanded by Han Chinese General Zhang Hongfan led
6864-565: The Mongol postal system , constructing infrastructure, providing loans that financed trade caravans, and encouraging the circulation of paper jiaochao banknotes. During the beginning of the Yuan dynasty, the Mongols continued issuing coins ; however, under Külüg Khan coins were completely replaced by paper money. It was not until the reign of Toghon Temür that the government of the Yuan dynasty would attempt to reintroduce copper coinage for circulation. The Pax Mongolica , Mongol peace, enabled
7020-642: The Northern Yuan dynasty . A rich cultural diversity developed during the Yuan dynasty. The major cultural achievements were the development of drama and the novel and the increased use of the written vernacular . Arts and culture also greatly developed and flourished during the Yuan dynasty. There was a widespread introduction of blue and white painted porcelain, as well as a major change to Chinese painting. The political unity of China and much of central Asia promoted trade between East and West. The Mongols' extensive West Asian and European contacts produced
7176-515: The Shang dynasty . Since then the jiaolingyouren yi has been one of the major symbols of the Sino Kingdom and eventually spread throughout Asia . The structure of the jackets worn in the late Qing shared some features of those worn by the ethnic Han during the Ming dynasty . They continued to evolve and be worn in some form during the Republic of China . Since the 1930s, the popularity of traditional Han fashion declined in favor of
7332-514: The Sui and Tang dynasties) gave a Sinicized image in the Yuan administration, the actual functions of these ministries also reflected how Mongolian priorities and policies reshaped and redirected those institutions. For example, the authority of the Yuan legal system, the Ministry of Justice , did not extend to legal cases involving Mongols and Semu , who had separate courts of justice. Cases involving members of more than one ethnic group were decided by
7488-676: The qipao and Western dress. It has regained prominence in the 21st century following the Hanfu movement . The term yi ( 衣 ) generally refers to clothing. In ancient times, the term yi referred to an upper outer garment. The term yi appeared in ancient texts to refer to upper garments, such as in the Luyi , in the Mao Commentary , in the Analects , and in the I Ching . The term ru ( 襦 ) has sometimes been used as
7644-461: The "Manchu dynasty" or "Manchu Dynasty of China". Furthermore, the Yuan is sometimes known as the "Empire of the Great Khan" or "Khanate of the Great Khan", since Yuan emperors held the nominal title of Great Khan ; these appeared on some Yuan maps. However, both terms can also refer to the khanate within the Mongol Empire directly ruled by Great Khans before the actual establishment of the Yuan dynasty by Kublai Khan in 1271. Genghis Khan united
7800-512: The Chinese character《 帬 》also referred to skirt . According to the Fangyan , the qun 《帬》was called pei 《 帔 》in the area of Wei and Chen; it was also called bai 《 襬 》by some people from the east of the Pass. The Shuowen jiezi also explains that the term qun which uses the character《帬》is the same as the term xiachang which uses the characters《 下 常 》. It also explains that
7956-647: The Dynastic Name issued in 1271, Kublai announced the name of the new dynasty as Great Yuan and claimed the succession of former Chinese dynasties from the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors to the Tang dynasty . Some of the Yuan emperors mastered the Chinese language , while others only used their native Mongolian language , written with the 'Phags-pa script . Kublai, as a Khagan (Great Khan) of
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#17327658463818112-660: The Joseon women's clothing trend which he claimed to be taking more after Mongolian in style, an influence which he attributed to the close relationship between Goryeo and the Yuan dynasty and continued to exist in Joseon during his lifetime. After the Mid-Qing dynasty, Manchu clothing, called qizhuang , started to influence the women's hanfu. In the late 18th and 19th century, there was a dramatic shift in fashion aesthetics. New silhouettes were recorded in various pictorial and written sources, which were different from those worn in
8268-553: The Middle East and the rest of the empire. Several medical advances were made in the Yuan period. The physician Wei Yilin (1277–1347) invented a suspension method for reducing dislocated joints, which he performed using anesthetics. The Mongol physician Hu Sihui described the importance of a healthy diet in a 1330 medical treatise. Western medicine was also practiced in China by the Nestorian Christians of
8424-405: The Ming dynasty (i.e. loose and long layered jackets and skirts which were more unstructured ), with the appearance of wider and more structured forms of Han Chinese women's jackets (including shan , ao , and gua ). The trend in this period was characterized on the emphasis on decorative trims and accessories which were modular and could be easily produced, purchased and then applied on
8580-454: The Ming dynasty customs were gradually forgotten. The clothing of the Han and the Manchu eventually influenced each other. However, Manchu women and Han Chinese women never emulated each other's clothing; and as a result, by the end of the nineteenth century, Manchu and Han Chinese women had maintained distinctive clothing. In the early Qing, Han women continued wearing Ming dynasty hanfu; in
8736-587: The Ming dynasty, the ao as a long jacket became more prevalent at the expense of the short ru . According to the Discourse of Northern Learning ( Pukhak ŭi; 北學議: 완역정본) by Pak Chega (1750–1805) who visited the Qing dynasty in 1778, in the Ming dynasty, Chinese women's upper garment barely covered the waist during the Hongzhi era (1488–1505); their upper garments then gradually became longer and reached below
8892-637: The Mongol Empire from 1260, had claimed supremacy over the other successor Mongol khanates: the Chagatai , the Golden Horde , and the Ilkhanate , before proclaiming as the Emperor of China in 1271. As such, the Yuan was also sometimes referred to as the Empire of the Great Khan . However, even though the claim of supremacy by the Yuan emperors was recognized by the western khans in 1304, their subservience
9048-455: The Mongol treasury. Efforts to raise and collect tax revenues were plagued by corruption and political scandals. Mishandled military expeditions followed the financial problems. Kublai's second invasion of Japan in 1281 failed because of an inauspicious typhoon . Kublai botched his campaigns against Annam, Champa , and Java , but won a Pyrrhic victory against Burma . The expeditions were hampered by disease, an inhospitable climate, and
9204-544: The Mongol tribes of the steppes and became Great Khan in 1206. He and his successors expanded the Mongol empire across Asia. Under the reign of Genghis' third son, Ögedei Khan , the Mongols destroyed the weakened Jin dynasty in 1234, conquering most of northern China . Ögedei offered his nephew Kublai a position in Xingzhou , Hebei . Kublai was unable to read Chinese but had several Han teachers attached to him since his early years by his mother Sorghaghtani . He sought
9360-623: The Mongols to fight against the Jin. Two Han Chinese leaders, Shi Tianze , Liu Heima ( 劉黑馬 , aka Liu Ni), and the Khitan Xiao Zhala ( 蕭札剌 ) defected and commanded the 3 Tumens in the Mongol army. Liu Heima and Shi Tianze served Ögedei Khan. Liu Heima and Shi Tianxiang led armies against Western Xia for the Mongols. There were 4 Han Tumens and 3 Khitan Tumens, with each Tumen consisting of 10,000 troops. The three Khitan Generals Shimobeidier ( 石抹孛迭兒 ), Tabuyir ( 塔不已兒 ), and Zhongxi,
9516-824: The Qing dynasty officials also wore the mangchu as part of their wedding attire and as their burial attire. The shiliqun ( Chinese : 石榴 裙 ; lit. 'pomegranate red') was a red skirt which was especially popular in the Tang dynasty. The qun was also used as a costume item in xifu . There are several forms of qun which are used as xifu by performing Chinese opera actors, which include the: Ru (upper garment) Ru ( Chinese : 襦 ; pinyin : rú ), sometimes referred to as shan ( Chinese : 衫 ; pinyin : shān ), ao ( simplified Chinese : 袄 ; traditional Chinese : 襖 ; pinyin : ǎo ), and yi ( Chinese : 衣 ; pinyin : yī ),
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#17327658463819672-528: The River by Zhang Zeduan. This painting depicts the clothing worn by people holding different social status, ranks, and occupation: the jackets worn as outer garments were all short, about knee-length or shorter, when worn by coolies, pedlars, peasants, and boat people and children who peddled dried fruits wore short white shan. Song dynasty-style fashion, including jiaolingyouren jackets, continued to be worn by both Han Chinese and non-elite Khitan women in
9828-476: The Song. Kublai's government after 1262 was a compromise between preserving Mongol interests in China and satisfying the demands of his Chinese subjects. He instituted the reforms proposed by his Chinese advisers by centralizing the bureaucracy, expanding the circulation of paper money, and maintaining the traditional monopolies on salt and iron . He restored the Imperial Secretariat and left
9984-614: The South, the jiaoling ao and shan continued to be worn with long skirts by most women while in the North, trousers were more common. In the mid-Qing clothing, fashionable styles were associated to those worn in the late 16th and early 17th century. According to the Discourse of Northern Learning ( Pukhak ŭi; 北學議: 완역정본) by Pak Chega (1750–1805) who visited the Qing dynasty in 1778, Chinese women wore upper and lower garments which were similar to those worn in ancient paintings. Pak described
10140-450: The Sui and Tang dynasties. The design of the skirt thus reflects the gradual integration of Hanfu and Hufu . Pleated skirts are called zhejianqun ( Chinese : 褶 裥 裙 ; pinyin : zhějiǎnqúnqún ; lit. 'pleated skirt'). There are several forms of zhejianqun , such as the baizhequn ( Chinese : 百褶裙 ), and the baidiequn . Baizhequn
10296-526: The Yuan court, where it was sometimes labeled as huihui or Muslim medicine. The Nestorian physician Jesus the Interpreter founded the Office of Western Medicine in 1263 during the reign of Kublai. Huihui doctors staffed at two imperial hospitals were responsible for treating the imperial family and members of the court. Chinese physicians opposed Western medicine because its humoral system contradicted
10452-505: The Yuan dynasty introduced Middle Eastern cartography , astronomy , medicine, clothing, and cuisine in East Asia. Eastern crops such as carrots , turnips , new varieties of lemons , eggplants , and melons , high-quality granulated sugar , and cotton were all either introduced or successfully popularized during the Yuan dynasty. Western musical instruments were introduced to enrich Chinese performing arts. From this period dates
10608-458: The Yuan dynasty), there also exist Chinese people who did not consider the Yuan dynasty as a legitimate dynasty of China, but rather as a period of foreign domination. The latter believe that Han Chinese were treated as second-class citizens , and that China stagnated economically and scientifically. The dynasty chose white as its imperial color, which corresponds to the Metal element according to
10764-539: The Yuan era. The mathematician Zhu Shijie (1249–1314) solved simultaneous equations with up to four unknowns using a rectangular array of coefficients, equivalent to modern matrices . Zhu used a method of elimination to reduce the simultaneous equations to a single equation with only one unknown. His method is described in the Jade Mirror of the Four Unknowns , written in 1303. The opening pages contain
10920-399: The Yuan government and were given special legal privileges. Kublai created the Imperial Academy of Medicine to manage medical treatises and the education of new doctors. Confucian scholars were attracted to the medical profession because it ensured a high income and medical ethics were compatible with Confucian virtues. The Chinese medical tradition of the Yuan had "Four Great Schools" that
11076-404: The Yuan government. The government had to adopt some measure to increase revenue, such as selling offices, as well as curtailing its spending on some items. When Yesün Temür died in Shangdu in 1328, Tugh Temür was recalled to Khanbaliq by the Qipchaq commander El Temür . He was installed as emperor in Khanbaliq, while Yesün Temür's son Ragibagh succeeded to the throne in Shangdu (商都) with
11232-516: The Yuan inherited from the Jin dynasty. All four schools were based on the same intellectual foundation, but advocated different theoretical approaches toward medicine. Under the Mongols, the practice of Chinese medicine spread to other parts of the empire. Chinese physicians were brought along military campaigns by the Mongols as they expanded towards the west. Chinese medical techniques such as acupuncture , moxibustion , pulse diagnosis , and various herbal drugs and elixirs were transmitted westward to
11388-536: The Yuan period, Beijing became the terminus of the Grand Canal of China , which was completely renovated. These commercially oriented improvements encouraged overland and maritime commerce throughout Asia and facilitated direct Chinese contacts with Europe. Chinese travelers to the West were able to provide assistance in such areas as hydraulic engineering. Contacts with the West also brought the introduction to China of
11544-450: The Yuan reform the lunisolar calendar to provide an accuracy of 365.2425 days of the year, which was only 26 seconds off the modern Gregorian calendar 's measurement. Road and water communications were reorganized and improved. To provide against possible famines, granaries were ordered built throughout the empire. The city of Beijing was rebuilt with new palace grounds that included artificial lakes, hills and mountains, and parks. During
11700-503: The approval of Toghon Temür, marking the end of his first administration, and he was not called back until 1349. The final years of the Yuan dynasty were marked by struggle, famine, and bitterness among the populace. In time, Kublai Khan's successors lost all influence on other Mongol lands across Asia, while the Mongols beyond the Middle Kingdom saw them as too Chinese. Gradually, they lost influence in China as well. The reigns of
11856-482: The basic form of clothing during Shang was yichang . In the Shang dynasty, the yi was long reaching the knee-level and would be worn over a skirt called chang ; the yi worn by slaveholders had tight sleeves and were also closed on the right side following the youren -style. In the Zhou dynasty , there were various forms of yi as a generic term of upper garments. A typical form of yi
12012-406: The broad sense of the definition by modern scholars due to the division of the Mongol Empire . Some scholars believe that 1260 was the year that the Yuan dynasty emerged with the proclamation of a reign title following the collapse of the unified Mongol Empire. The Yuan dynasty is sometimes also called the "Mongol dynasty" by westerners, akin to the Qing dynasty sometimes being referred to as
12168-489: The bureaucracy of traditional Chinese dynasties and adopting the Chinese era name of Zhongtong. Ariq Böke was hampered by inadequate supplies and surrendered in 1264. All of the three western khanates ( Golden Horde , Chagatai Khanate and Ilkhanate ) became functionally autonomous, and only the Ilkhans truly recognized Kublai as Great Khan. Civil strife had permanently divided the Mongol Empire . Instability troubled
12324-724: The central government administration was established within the first decade of Kublai's reign. This government adopted the traditional Chinese tripartite division of authority among civil , military, and censorial offices, including the Central Secretariat (Zhongshu Sheng) to manage civil affairs, the Privy Council ( 樞密院 ; Shūmì Yuàn ) to manage military affairs, and the Censorate to conduct internal surveillance and inspection. The actual functions of both central and local government institutions, however, showed
12480-460: The climate changes during the Ming dynasty (i.e. the average temperature was low in China). There were at least two types of high collar jackets in the Ming dynasty: liling duijin shan ( Chinese : 立领对襟衫 ) which is jacket with high collar and closes at the front centrally, and liling dajin changshan ( Chinese : 立领大襟长衫 ) which is a long jacket with stand-up collar, it overlaps from
12636-540: The clothing (including robes, jackets, and skirts); those forms of modular features included collars, sleeve-bands and border decorations. The borders decoration in contrasting colours were used throughout the clothing history of China and were recorded early on in history (e.g. in the Liji ). During this period, auspicious symbols and narrative scenery were especially made into embroidered roundels and borders and became fashionable in Han Chinese women's clothing; this new trend
12792-402: The conversion to Islam , by Muslims of Central Asia, of growing numbers of Chinese in the northwest and southwest. Nestorianism and Roman Catholicism also enjoyed a period of toleration. Buddhism (especially Tibetan Buddhism ) flourished, although Taoism endured certain persecutions in favor of Buddhism from the Yuan government. Confucian governmental practices and examinations based on
12948-563: The counsel of Chinese Buddhist and Confucian advisers. Möngke Khan succeeded Ögedei's son, Güyük , as Great Khan in 1251. He granted his brother Kublai control over Mongol held territories in China. Kublai built schools for Confucian scholars, issued paper money , revived Chinese rituals, and endorsed policies that stimulated agricultural and commercial growth. He adopted as his capital city Kaiping in Inner Mongolia , later renamed Shangdu . Many Han Chinese and Khitan defected to
13104-403: The creation of a long excessively pleated-style zhejianqun , called liuxianqun , which was inspired by the ripped skirt of Zhao Feiyan and became popular. After the Sui and Tang dynasty, the pleats which were used in the zhejianqun increased in numbers, from a few dozens to over one hundred forming the baizhequn . The tomb of Huang Sheng contains various forms of qun , such as
13260-635: The decline of the dynasty. Due to the fact that the bureaucracy was dominated by El Temür, Tugh Temür is known for his cultural contribution instead. He adopted many measures honoring Confucianism and promoting Chinese cultural values . His most concrete effort to patronize Chinese learning was founding the Academy of the Pavilion of the Star of Literature ( 奎章閣學士院 ), first established in the spring of 1329 and designed to undertake "a number of tasks relating to
13416-466: The division of the Mongol Empire, the Yuan dynasty was the khanate ruled by the successors of Möngke . In official Chinese histories, the Yuan dynasty bore the Mandate of Heaven . The dynasty was established by Kublai Khan, yet he placed his grandfather Genghis Khan on the imperial records as the official founder of the dynasty and accorded him the temple name Taizu. In the edict titled Proclamation of
13572-454: The earlier times as they were weighted by the embroideries and pleats. During the early period of the Republic of China , people in Beijing continued to wear the clothing worn in the Qing dynasty . Women continued to wear the qun ; however, the qun had evolved in style and had become shorter. The qun can also have specific names based on the styles, design and constructions,
13728-455: The early Republic of China , the dajin youren ao were found with narrow sleeves; the length of the sleeves could be found wrist-length, and higher standing collar (e.g. saddle/ingot collar or ear-length collar). These high collars were gradually lowered. After the May 4th Movement , these high collars were abandoned due to their inconvenience. In the 1920s, the jackets had curved lower hem at
13884-494: The early years of Kublai Khan's reign. Ögedei's grandson Kaidu refused to submit to Kublai and threatened the western frontier of Kublai's domain. The hostile but weakened Song dynasty remained an obstacle in the south. Kublai secured the northeast border in 1259 by installing the hostage prince Wonjong as the ruler of the Kingdom of Goryeo (Korea), making it a Mongol tributary state. Kublai betrothed one of his daughters to
14040-482: The emergence and the popularity of the standup collar and the Chinese jacket with buttons at the front, and laid the foundation of the use of Chinese knot buckles . In women garments of the Ming dynasty, the standup collar with gold and silver zimukou became one of the most distinctive and popular form of clothing structure; it became commonly used in women's clothing reflecting the conservative concept of Ming women's chastity by keeping their bodies covered and due to
14196-406: The end of the Yuan dynasty , the wearing of zuoren in women's clothing persisted in the Ming dynasty for at least Chinese women who lived in the province of Shanxi . Ming dynasty portrait paintings showing Chinese women dressing in zuoren jackets appeared to be characteristic of ancestral portraits from the province of Shanxi and most likely in the areas neighbouring the province. In
14352-600: The first dynasty founded by a non-Han ethnicity that ruled all of China proper . In 1368, following the defeat of the Yuan forces by the Ming dynasty, the Genghisid rulers retreated to the Mongolian Plateau and continued to rule until 1635 when they surrendered to the Later Jin dynasty (which later evolved into the Qing dynasty ). The rump state is known in historiography as the Northern Yuan . After
14508-435: The front and back panels are connected by the shoulder, and the left and right pieces are more or less symmetrical. It has a front centre closure and then curves crossover to the right before secured with frog buttons in a style called pianjin . The front closing, collar, hem, and sleeves cuff have edging of contrasting pipings and side slits. The jackets could also be decorated with yunjian appliqué . There
14664-694: The government based on the Confucian principles, with the help of his newly appointed grand chancellor Baiju. During his reign, the Da Yuan Tong Zhi ( 《大元通制》 ; 'Comprehensive Institutions of the Great Yuan';), a huge collection of codes and regulations of the Yuan dynasty begun by his father, was formally promulgated. Gegeen was assassinated in a coup involving five princes from a rival faction, perhaps steppe elite opposed to Confucian reforms. They placed Yesün Temür (or Taidingdi) on
14820-472: The government into the narrative of traditional Chinese political succession. Kublai evoked his public image as a sage emperor by following the rituals of Confucian propriety and ancestor veneration, while simultaneously retaining his roots as a leader from the steppes. Kublai Khan promoted commercial, scientific, and cultural growth. He supported the merchants of the Silk Road trade network by protecting
14976-479: The government, sometimes more than high officials, but their official rank was nebulous. Kublai readied the move of the Mongol capital from Karakorum in Mongolia to Khanbaliq in 1264, constructing a new city near the former Jurchen capital Zhongdu , now modern Beijing , in 1266. In 1271, Kublai formally claimed the Mandate of Heaven and declared that 1272 was the first year of the Great Yuan ( 大元 ) in
15132-477: The hip-level. Other terms, such as daru ( Chinese : 大襦 ; lit. 'outerwear'), shangru ( Chinese : 上襦 ; lit. 'jacket'), and yiru ( Chinese : 衣襦 ), also exist. According to the Ben Cang Gang Mu 《 本草綱目 》written by Li Shizhen 's time (1518 – 1593 AD), in ancient times, an unlined short garment, duanru ( 短襦 ; 'short jacket'),
15288-399: The jackets had collars which were round and narrow and were fastened just below the chin; he also described them as being typically long enough to conceal the entire body although in some cases, the jacket would be long enough to be just below the knee-level. Pak also observed that the Chinese women's clothing preserved the old traditions (which were mostly intact) and which he contrasted with
15444-644: The knee-level during the Zhengde era (1506–1521). Pak Chega based his description of Chinese women's clothing by using the Records of Daily Study ( Rizhilu ) by Gu Yanwu (1613–1682), a scholar from the late Ming and early Qing dynasties. By the late Ming dynasty, jackets with high collars , known as liling or shuling , started to appear. The standup collar were closed with interlocking buttons made of gold and silver, called zimukou ( Chinese : 子母扣 ). The appearance of interlocking buckle promoted
15600-437: The late Ming dynasty. The length of the bodice may vary; it can be waist-length or knee-length. Slits can also be found at both sides of the lower hems of the bodice. The length of the sleeves can vary in length, such as wrist-length and elbow length. The shapes of the sleeves can also vary, such as big sleeves, narrow sleeves, large cuffs, mandarin sleeves, flared sleeves. Clothing style which overlaps and closes to
15756-415: The later Yuan emperors were short and marked by intrigues and rivalries. Uninterested in administration, they were separated from both the army and the populace, and China was torn by dissension and unrest. Outlaws ravaged the country without interference from the weakening Yuan armies. From the late 1340s onwards, people in the countryside suffered from frequent natural disasters such as droughts, floods and
15912-466: The left side in a way referred as zuoren ( Chinese : 左衽 ; pinyin : zuǒrèn ; lit. 'left lapel'). This can be found in the Analects where Confucius himself praised Guan Zhong for preventing the weakened Zhou dynasty from becoming barbarians: "But for Guan Zhong, we should now be wearing our hair unbound, and the lapels of our coats buttoning on the left side [微管仲，吾其被髮左衽矣]" Unbound hair and coats which were closed on
16068-472: The left side were associated with the clothing customs of the northern nomadic ethnic groups which were considered as barbarians by the Han Chinese. Therefore, the zuoren were used to refer to Hufu and/or refer to the rule of foreign nationalities. However, the youren rule was not always respected: for example, in some areas (such as Northern Hebei ) in the 10th century, some ethnic Han Chinese could also be found wearing zuoren clothing. It
16224-610: The liquidation of the Department of State Affairs ( 尚書省 ), which resulted in the execution of five of the highest-ranking officials. Starting in 1313 the traditional imperial examinations were reintroduced for prospective officials, testing their knowledge on significant historical works. Also, he codified much of the law, as well as publishing or translating a number of Chinese books and works. Emperor Gegeen Khan , Ayurbarwada's son and successor, ruled for only two years, from 1321 to 1323. He continued his father's policies to reform
16380-471: The local administrative structure of past Chinese dynasties unchanged. However, Kublai rejected plans to revive the Confucian imperial examinations and divided Yuan society into three classes with the Han occupying the lowest rank until the conquest of the Song dynasty and its people, who made up the fourth class, the Southern Chinese. Kublai's Chinese advisers still wielded significant power in
16536-424: The long jacket ( ao ) was about below the hip level or at the knee level but were never as long as the Manchu robes, it was however longer than the waist-length jacket ( yaoru ) which appeared to have fallen from popularity during the 18th century. The dajin youren ao ( Chinese : 大襟右衽袄 ) continued to be worn. In the late Qing, these dajin youren ao had neither darts nor shoulder stitching;
16692-430: The most common colours used. The mangchu was typically paired with the mangao jacket . During the Qing dynasty , the mangchu was worn by Han Chinese women; it was typically worn by the wives of Chinese noblemen or wives of high-ranking Qing officials as part of their quasi-official formal clothing attire on ceremonial occasions when their husband would be wearing the Qing dynasty court robe attire. Wives of
16848-436: The neck and closes at the right side. The liling dajin changshan is typically worn with a skirt, called mamianqun . As Han women were not forced to change into Manchu clothing in the Qing dynasty , Han women of the Qing dynasty followed the style of female jacket worn in the Ming dynasty . The Han Chinese women carefully maintained their pure Han Chinese ethnicity and did not wear Manchu clothing . Over time,
17004-445: The northeast. His favorite wife died in 1281 and so did his chosen heir in 1285. Kublai grew despondent and retreated from his duties as emperor. He fell ill in 1293, and died on 18 February 1294. Following the conquest of Dali in 1253, the former ruling Duan family were appointed as its leaders. Local chieftains were appointed as Tusi , recognized as imperial officials by the Yuan, Ming , and Qing -era governments, principally in
17160-464: The number of pleats and colours. In Hanfu , the qun can be used in set of attire, such as the ruqun , qungua , xiuhefu . In some dynasties, the qun could be found very long and was tied under the armpits either below or above the bust regions; for example, in the qixiong ruqun . In other dynasties, the qun could be tied at the waist level. Poqun ( Chinese : 破裙 ; lit. 'broken skirt') are
17316-470: The official terminology of the institutions may indicate the government structure was almost purely that of native Chinese dynasties, the Yuan bureaucracy actually consisted of a mix of elements from different cultures. The Chinese-style elements of the bureaucracy mainly came from the native Tang , Song , as well as Khitan Liao and Jurchen Jin dynasties. Chinese advisers such as Liu Bingzhong and Yao Shu gave strong influence to Kublai's early court, and
17472-400: The one hand and a rapid weakening of the central government on the other. He had no choice but to rely on local warlords' military power, and gradually lost his interest in politics and ceased to intervene in political struggles. He fled north to Shangdu from Khanbaliq (present-day Beijing) in 1368 after the approach of the forces of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), founded by Zhu Yuanzhang in
17628-697: The period was the Venetian Marco Polo , whose account of his trip to "Cambaluc," the capital of the Great Khan, and of life there astounded the people of Europe. The account of his travels, Il milione (or, The Million , known in English as the Travels of Marco Polo ), appeared about the year 1299. Some doubted the accuracy of Marco Polo's accounts due to the lack of mentioning the Great Wall of China, chopsticks, tea houses – which would have been
17784-448: The power of Yang is suppressing the Yin , which therefore symbolized the clothing of living people. However, if Yin surpasses Yang (i.e. zuoren -style), then clothing becomes the clothing worn by the deceased. It is therefore typically taboo in Chinese clothing for a living person to wear zuoren . Clothing style with youren ( 右衽 ; yòurèn ; 'right lapel') closure originated in China . Prior to
17940-533: The prince to solidify the relationship between the two houses. Korean women were sent to the Yuan court as tribute and one concubine became the empress of the Yuan dynasty. Kublai was also threatened by domestic unrest. Li Tan, the son-in-law of a powerful official, instigated a revolt against Mongol rule in 1262. After successfully suppressing the revolt, Kublai curbed the influence of the Han advisers in his court. He feared that his dependence on Chinese officials left him vulnerable to future revolts and defections to
18096-470: The production of thin glass and cloisonné became popular in China. The Yuan exercised a profound influence on the Chinese Ming dynasty. The Ming Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang (1368–97) admired the Mongols' unification of China and adopted its garrison system. Aside from the ancient Roman embassies , the first recorded travels by Europeans to China and back date from this time. The most famous traveler of
18252-406: The province of Yunnan . Succession for the Yuan dynasty, however, was an intractable problem, later causing much strife and internal struggle. This emerged as early as the end of Kublai's reign. Kublai originally named his eldest son, Zhenjin , as the crown prince, but he died before Kublai in 1285. Thus, Zhenjin's third son, with the support of his mother Kökejin and the minister Bayan , succeeded
18408-456: The realm with its main capital in Dadu (modern-day Beijing ). However, the Han -style dynastic name "Great Yuan" and the claim to Chinese political orthodoxy were meant for the entire Mongol Empire when the dynasty was proclaimed. This usage is seen in the writings, including non-Chinese texts, produced during the time of the Yuan dynasty. In spite of this, "Yuan dynasty" is not commonly used in
18564-479: The reign of Kublai Khan (1260–1294). While some changes took place such as the functions of certain institutions, the essential components of the government bureaucracy remained intact from the beginning to the end of the dynasty in 1368. The system of bureaucracy created by Kublai Khan reflected various cultures in the empire, including that of the Hans , Khitans , Jurchens , Mongols , and Tibetan Buddhists . While
18720-419: The reign of Temür Khan. Külüg Khan (Emperor Wuzong) came to the throne after the death of Temür Khan. Unlike his predecessor, he did not continue Kublai's work, largely rejecting his objectives. Most significantly he introduced a policy called "New Deals", focused on monetary reforms. During his short reign (1307–11), the government fell into financial difficulties, partly due to bad decisions made by Külüg. By
18876-677: The resulting famines, and the government's lack of effective policy led to a loss of popular support. In 1351, the Red Turban Rebellion led by Song loyalists started and grew into a nationwide uprising and the Song loyalists established a renewed Song dynasty in 1351 with its capital at Kaifeng. In 1354, when Toghtogha led a large army to crush the Red Turban rebels, Toghon Temür suddenly dismissed him for fear of betrayal. This resulted in Toghon Temür's restoration of power on
19032-423: The right originated in China . Chinese robes and jackets must cover the right part in a style called youren ( 右衽 ; yòurèn ; 'right lapel'). The youren closure is an important symbol of the Han Chinese ethnicity . The jiaolingyouren yi ( 交領右衽 衣 ; jiāolǐngyòurèn yī ) had been one of the major symbols of the Sino Kingdom, and eventually spread throughout Asia. The structure of
19188-427: The same year, the 13-year-old Toghon Temür (Emperor Huizong), the last of the nine successors of Kublai Khan, was summoned back from Guangxi and succeeded to the throne. After El Temür's death, Bayan became as powerful an official as El Temür had been in the beginning of his long reign. As Toghon Temür grew, he came to disapprove of Bayan's autocratic rule. In 1340 he allied himself with Bayan's nephew Toqto'a , who
19344-473: The sides of the danqun . It was most often found with a belt attached to it; however some women preferred to use a separate belt. The four-panel poqun , as the one found in the Mawangdui tomb No.1 dating from the Western Han dynasty, was used as a form of chenqun ( 衬裙 ) and was usually worn over the zhijupao or under the qujupao . This form of poqun also had a waist belt which
19500-496: The son of Xiaozhaci ( 蕭札刺之子重喜 ) commanded the three Khitan Tumens and the four Han Generals Zhang Rou, Yan Shi, Shi Tianze, and Liu Heima commanded the four Han tumens under Ögedei Khan. Möngke Khan commenced a military campaign against the Chinese Song dynasty in southern China. The Mongol force that invaded southern China was far greater than the force they sent to invade the Middle East in 1256. He died in 1259 without
19656-825: The south. Zhu Yuanzhang was a former Duke and commander in the army of the Red Turban Song dynasty and assumed power as Emperor after the death of the Red Turban Song Emperor Han Lin'er , who had tried to regain Khanbaliq, which eventually failed, and who died in Yingchang (located in present-day Inner Mongolia ) two years later (1370). Yingchang was seized by the Ming shortly after his death. Some royal family members still live in Henan today. The Prince of Liang , Basalawarmi established
19812-505: The spread of technologies, commodities, and culture between China and the West. Kublai expanded the Grand Canal from southern China to Daidu in the north. Mongol rule was cosmopolitan under Kublai Khan. He welcomed foreign visitors to his court, such as the Venetian merchant Marco Polo , who wrote the most influential European account of Yuan China. Marco Polo's travels would later inspire many others like Christopher Columbus to chart
19968-467: The style of a traditional Chinese dynasty. The name of the dynasty is first attested in the I Ching and describes the "origin of the universe" or a "primal force". Kublai proclaimed Khanbaliq the Daidu ( 大都 ; Dàdū ; 'Great Capital') of the dynasty. The era name was changed to Zhiyuan to herald a new era of Chinese history. The adoption of a dynastic name legitimized Mongol rule by integrating
20124-661: The support of Yesün Temür's favorite retainer Dawlat Shah. Gaining support from princes and officers in Northern China and some other parts of the dynasty, Khanbaliq-based Tugh Temür eventually won the civil war against Ragibagh known as the War of the Two Capitals . Afterwards, Tugh Temür abdicated in favour of his brother Kusala , who was backed by Chagatai Khan Eljigidey , and announced Khanbaliq's intent to welcome him. However, Kusala suddenly died only four days after
20280-667: The theory of the Five Elements (wuxing). The Metal element does not follow from the Song's dynastic element Five in the creation sequence of the five elements. Instead, it follows from the Jin dynasty 's dynastic element Earth. Although the Yuan did not openly announce it, its choice of white as its imperial color suggests that it considered Jin, another conquest dynasty, rather than the Han-Chinese Song dynasty, as its rightful predecessor. The dragon clothing of Imperial China
20436-402: The throne and ruled as Temür Khan , or Emperor Chengzong, from 1294 to 1307. Temür Khan decided to maintain and continue much of the work begun by his grandfather. He also made peace with the western Mongol khanates as well as neighboring countries such as Vietnam, which recognized his nominal suzerainty and paid tributes for a few decades. However, the corruption in the Yuan dynasty began during
20592-408: The throne, and, after an unsuccessful attempt to calm the princes, he also succumbed to regicide . Before Yesün Temür's reign, China had been relatively free from popular rebellions after the reign of Kublai. Yuan control, however, began to break down in those regions inhabited by ethnic minorities. The occurrence of these revolts and the subsequent suppression aggravated the financial difficulties of
20748-433: The time he died, China was in severe debt and the Yuan court faced popular discontent. The fourth Yuan emperor, Buyantu Khan (born Ayurbarwada), was a competent emperor. He was the first Yuan emperor to actively support and adopt mainstream Chinese culture after the reign of Kublai, to the discontent of some Mongol elite. He had been mentored by Li Meng ( 李孟 ), a Confucian academic. He made many reforms, including
20904-455: The time period. Garments that overlap and close to the right originated in China and are called youren ( Chinese : 右衽 ; pinyin : yòurèn ; lit. 'right lapel'). The style of yi which overlaps at the front and closes on the right in a y-shape is known as jiaolingyouren ( Chinese : 交領右衽 ; pinyin : jiāolǐngyòurèn ; lit. 'intersecting collar right lapel') and first appeared in
21060-593: The transmission of Confucian high culture to the Mongolian imperial establishment" ( 儒教推崇 ). The academy was responsible for compiling and publishing a number of books, but its most important achievement was its compilation of a vast institutional compendium named Jingshi Dadian ( 經世大典 ). Tugh Temür supported Zhu Xi 's Neo-Confucianism and also devoted himself in Buddhism . After the death of Tugh Temür in 1332 and subsequent death of Rinchinbal (Emperor Ningzong)
21216-529: The waist-hip region and low standing collar; it was a component of the Wenming xinzhuang Chinese : 文明新裝 ; lit. 'Civilized new dress'). After the 1930s, these forms of upper garments lost popularity and decreased in use, as they were replaced by qipao and Western dress. Following the Hanfu movement in 2003, many various forms, shapes, and styles of Hanfu upper garments have reappeared and regained popularity. Yuan dynasty This
21372-588: Was Dai Ön Ulus , also rendered as Ikh Yuan Üls or Yekhe Yuan Ulus . In Mongolian, Dai Ön a borrowing from Chinese, was often used in conjunction with the "Yeke Mongghul Ulus" ( 大蒙古國 ; 'Great Mongol State'), which resulted in the form ᠳᠠᠢ ᠥᠨ ᠶᠡᠬᠡ ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ ( 大元大蒙古國 ; Dai Ön Yeqe Mongɣul Ulus , lit. "Great Yuan – Great Mongol State") or ᠳᠠᠢ ᠦᠨ ᠺᠡᠮᠡᠺᠦ ᠶᠡᠬᠡ ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ ( Dai Ön qemeqü Yeqe Mongɣol Ulus , lit. "Great Mongol State called Great Yuan"). As per contemporary historiographical norm, "Yuan dynasty" typically refers to
21528-520: Was a form of fashionable formal clothing. Song dynasty, women wore jiaolingyouren jackets and duijin jackets. The short ru was a daily garment item for women; the closures of the short ru were found either on the left or right of the front of the garment. Clothing worn by the Northern Song dynasty people living in Kaifeng are depicted in the on the painting Qingming Festival on
21684-636: Was a variant of the mamianqun and featured small pleats which gave a ripple effects. The early prototypes of the mamianqun was the baidiequn and the liangpianqun . A derivative of the mamianqun is the skirt used in the Xiuhefu , which is also called mamianqun . The mangchu skirt, sometimes literally translated as "Dragon skirt" in English, was a skirt decorated with Chinese dragons and/or Chinese phoenixes or with mang ( lit. 'python'). The mangchu could typically vary in colour; however, red and green were
21840-412: Was also a special form of ao called mangao, which was typically used as part of a type of Chinese wedding dress attire . The duijin ao (jackets with front opening) were also worn. The duijin ao in the 19th century could be round neck with no collar or have small stand-up collars. The jiaolingyouren yi continued to be worn in the Qing dynasty even in the 19th century by children. In
21996-468: Was also common for the Han Chinese women to adopt zuoren under the reign of foreign nationalities, such as in the Yuan dynasty ; the use of zuoren also continued in some areas of the Ming dynasty despite being Han-Chinese ruled dynasty, which is an atypical feature. Some non-Chinese ethnicities who also adopted Hanfu -style sometimes maintain their zuoren lapels, such as the Khitans in
22152-490: Was an influence of the late imperial secularization of arts and culture on textiles. They were also lavished with embroideries which were based on the Chinese symbolic system, which was itself based on Chinese language, mythology, customs, and literature, and belief system (e.g. Confucianist and Taoist motifs). The wide sleeves used in the upper garment were a heritage of the Ming dynasty and a distinctive feature which differentiated Hanfu from Manchu clothing. In terms of length,
22308-437: Was called shan ( 衫 ); and in the time of Li Shizhen's time, the shan also came to refer to long garments ( simplified Chinese : 长衣 ; traditional Chinese : 長衣 ; pinyin : chángyī ; lit. 'long clothes'). The term hanshan ( Chinese : 汗衫 ; pinyin : hànshān ; lit. ' sweat shirt') typically refers to a form an undershirt. According to Li Shizhen, who quoted
22464-483: Was created in China. At various times another central government institution called the Department of State Affairs ( 尚書省 ; Shangshu Sheng ) that mainly dealt with finance was established (such as during the reign of Külüg Khan or Emperor Wuzong), but was usually abandoned shortly afterwards. While the existence of these central government departments and the Six Ministries (which had been introduced since
22620-508: Was disseminated in 1281 as the official calendar of the Yuan dynasty. The calendar may have been influenced solely by the work of Song dynasty astronomer Shen Kuo or possibly by the work of Arab astronomers. There are no explicit signs of Muslim influences in the Shoushi calendar, but Mongol rulers were known to be interested in Muslim calendars. Mathematical knowledge from the Middle East
22776-544: Was established by Kublai (Emperor Shizu or Setsen Khan), the fifth khagan-emperor of the Mongol Empire from the Borjigin clan, and lasted from 1271 to 1368. In Chinese history , the Yuan dynasty followed the Song dynasty and preceded the Ming dynasty . Although Genghis Khan 's enthronement as Khagan in 1206 was described in Chinese as the Han -style title of Emperor and the Mongol Empire had ruled territories including modern-day northern China for decades, it
22932-605: Was fastened with a string; it was also a form of unlined upper garment with straight sleeves and wide cuffs. This shan was worn by men and women and became popular as it was more convenient for wearing. The ru , shan , and ao were common garment items for women in the Tang dynasty . The ru (as a short jacket) and shan (as an unlined short robe) were used for ceremonial and daily clothing by women. Some jackets in Tang dynasty could be found with narrow sleeves, while other upper garments could be found with loose sleeves. The Tang dynasty ru could also be
23088-535: Was high-waist during the Sui and the Tang dynasties and were characteristics clothing for women during this time period. The evolution process of the Jiansequn reflects the multiculturalism context, the cultural exchange, and the cultural integration which occurred between the Han Chinese, the northern ethnic minority culture, and the culture of the Western regions which occurred from the late Northern Wei dynasty to
23244-475: Was in discord with Bayan, and banished Bayan by coup. With the dismissal of Bayan, Toqto'a seized the power of the court. His first administration clearly exhibited fresh new spirit. He also gave a few early signs of a new and positive direction in central government. One of his successful projects was to finish the long-stalled official histories of the Liao , Jin , and Song dynasties, which were eventually completed in 1345. Yet, Toqto'a resigned his office with
23400-471: Was introduced to China under the Mongols, and Muslim astronomers brought Arabic numerals to China in the 13th century. The physicians of the Yuan court came from diverse cultures. Healers were divided into non-Mongol physicians called otachi and traditional Mongol shamans. The Mongols characterized otachi doctors by their use of herbal remedies, which was distinguished from the spiritual cures of Mongol shamanism. Physicians received official support from
23556-568: Was nominal and each continued its own separate development. In 1271, Kublai Khan imposed the name Great Yuan ( Chinese : 大元 ; pinyin : Dà Yuán ), establishing the Yuan dynasty. "Dà Yuán" ( 大元 ) is derived from a clause " 大哉乾元 " ( dà zāi Qián Yuán ; 'Great is Qián', 'the Primal';) in the Commentaries on the I Ching section regarding the first hexagram ( 乾 ). The Mongolian-language counterpart
23712-462: Was not until 1271 that Kublai Khan officially proclaimed the dynasty in the traditional Han style, and the conquest was not complete until 1279 when the Southern Song dynasty was defeated in the Battle of Yamen . His realm was, by this point, isolated from the other Mongol-led khanates and controlled most of modern-day China and its surrounding areas, including modern-day Mongolia . It was
23868-500: Was sewed at the upper part of the skirt and both ends of the waist belt would extend to form the ties. Jiansequn ( Chinese : 間色裙 ; lit. 'inter-coloured skirt') are a form of poqun made of alternative strips of fabric of two different colours sewn together. Its structure can be traced back to the late Northern Wei dynasty and continued to be used until the Five dynasties and Ten kingdoms period. This form of skirt
24024-408: Was the ru . The ru had different names in this period depending on its characteristics such as length and lining: gua referred to the long-length ru ; yaoru ( 腰襦 ; 'waist jacket') referred to the short-length ru ; furu referred to the ru with a lining and was therefore suitable to protect its wearer from the cold in winter if it was filled with silk or flax;
24180-590: Was undertaken against Japan in 1274. The Duan family ruling the Kingdom of Dali (大理) in Yunnan submitted to the Yuan dynasty as vassals and were allowed to keep their throne, militarily assisting the Yuan dynasty against the Song dynasty in southern China. The Duan family still ruled Dali relatively independently during the Yuan dynasty. The Tusi chieftains and local tribe leaders and kingdoms in Yunnan, Guizhou and Sichuan submitted to Yuan rule and were allowed to keep their titles. The Han Chinese Yang family ruling
24336-590: Was used by the Ilkhanids , the Chinese Huangdi ( Emperor ) title was used by the Ilkhanids due to heavy clout upon the Mongols of the Chinese system of politics. Seals with Chinese characters were created by the Ilkhanids themselves besides the seals they received from the Yuan dynasty which contain references to a Chinese government organization. The structure of the Yuan government took shape during
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