91-648: RMS Quetta was an iron -hulled steamship that was built in Scotland in 1881 and wrecked with great loss of life in the Torres Strait in 1890. She was operated by British India Associated Steamers (BIAS), which was controlled by the British India Steam Navigation Company (BISN). She was wrecked on a previously unknown rock, which has been called Quetta Rock ever since. The Underwater Cultural Heritage Act 2018 protects
182-434: A body-centered cubic (bcc) crystal structure . As it cools further to 1394 °C, it changes to its γ-iron allotrope, a face-centered cubic (fcc) crystal structure, or austenite . At 912 °C and below, the crystal structure again becomes the bcc α-iron allotrope. The physical properties of iron at very high pressures and temperatures have also been studied extensively, because of their relevance to theories about
273-430: A nuclear spin (− 1 ⁄ 2 ). The nuclide Fe theoretically can undergo double electron capture to Cr, but the process has never been observed and only a lower limit on the half-life of 4.4×10 years has been established. Fe is an extinct radionuclide of long half-life (2.6 million years). It is not found on Earth, but its ultimate decay product is its granddaughter, the stable nuclide Ni . Much of
364-557: A sister ship for India , in May 1882. Then in April 1884 Denny completed Manora , which at 410 feet (120 m) long and 45.2 feet (13.8 m) beam was larger still. Mail and passenger ships between Britain and Australia mostly served a route via Australia's south coast, calling at either Fremantle or Albany , Adelaide , Melbourne , and Sydney . Not all ships continued up the east coast to Brisbane . The Colony of Queensland thus had
455-499: A supernova for their formation, involving rapid neutron capture by starting Fe nuclei. In the far future of the universe, assuming that proton decay does not occur, cold fusion occurring via quantum tunnelling would cause the light nuclei in ordinary matter to fuse into Fe nuclei. Fission and alpha-particle emission would then make heavy nuclei decay into iron, converting all stellar-mass objects to cold spheres of pure iron. Iron's abundance in rocky planets like Earth
546-505: A black hull with a slender white line tracing the main deck level. Her black funnel with two thick white bands were distinctive markers of her owner, British India Associated Services (BIAS). In 1876 BISN created BIAS to run a scheduled service between London and Calcutta via Gibraltar , the Suez Canal , Colombo , and Madras (now Chennai ). BIAS managed the ships, but one or more private shareholders owned each ship. Quetta worked
637-527: A deep violet complex: Port of Brisbane Port of Brisbane is the main shipping port and a coastal suburb of the City of Brisbane , on the east coast of Queensland , Australia. In the 2021 census , Port of Brisbane had "no people or a very low population". Port of Brisbane is located in the lower reaches of the Brisbane River on Fisherman Islands , an artificial island reclaimed from
728-454: A distorted sodium chloride structure. The binary ferrous and ferric halides are well-known. The ferrous halides typically arise from treating iron metal with the corresponding hydrohalic acid to give the corresponding hydrated salts. Iron reacts with fluorine, chlorine, and bromine to give the corresponding ferric halides, ferric chloride being the most common. Ferric iodide is an exception, being thermodynamically unstable due to
819-553: A macroscopic piece of iron will have a nearly zero overall magnetic field. Application of an external magnetic field causes the domains that are magnetized in the same general direction to grow at the expense of adjacent ones that point in other directions, reinforcing the external field. This effect is exploited in devices that need to channel magnetic fields to fulfill design function, such as electrical transformers , magnetic recording heads, and electric motors . Impurities, lattice defects , or grain and particle boundaries can "pin"
910-475: A mixture of O 2 /Ar. Iron(IV) is a common intermediate in many biochemical oxidation reactions. Numerous organoiron compounds contain formal oxidation states of +1, 0, −1, or even −2. The oxidation states and other bonding properties are often assessed using the technique of Mössbauer spectroscopy . Many mixed valence compounds contain both iron(II) and iron(III) centers, such as magnetite and Prussian blue ( Fe 4 (Fe[CN] 6 ) 3 ). The latter
1001-485: A party to Somerset on the Cape York Peninsula . A Somerset resident, Frank Jardine , organised a rescue with his own boats, and sent messengers to the nearest telegraph station, 15 miles (24 km) away, to summon steamers from Thursday Island . Jardine also provided one of Quetta ' s boats with food and water for the survivors. The boat then made for Mount Adolphus Island. Later the boat stopped
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#17327877035071092-688: A passenger and mail link with Britain that was less direct and less frequent than the other Australian colonies enjoyed. In 1881 Thomas McIlwraith , Premier of Queensland obtained parliamentary authority for to offer a mail contract for a shipping company to run a service between London and Brisbane via the Suez Canal and the Torres Strait. BIAS won the contract, and formed the Queensland Steam Ship Company to run feeder routes to connect with it. In 1883 BIAS doubled
1183-493: A poignant fictional account of the child Cecil Quetta Brown's rescue from the shipwreck and contested adoption. The wreck is now a popular if challenging diver site. Over time the hull has become coral encrusted and a flourishing ecosystem. The hull was still largely intact in 2013 when Ben Cropp, marine conservationist and shipwreck diver, found it lying on the port side pointing east (orientation 270/090 degrees). More recently dive master Matt Testoni reported: ‘Due to its location,
1274-471: A result, mercury is traded in standardized 76 pound flasks (34 kg) made of iron. Iron is by far the most reactive element in its group; it is pyrophoric when finely divided and dissolves easily in dilute acids, giving Fe . However, it does not react with concentrated nitric acid and other oxidizing acids due to the formation of an impervious oxide layer, which can nevertheless react with hydrochloric acid . High-purity iron, called electrolytic iron ,
1365-711: A sketch of Quetta Brown (child survivor) in a frame she carved is displayed at Miegunya House Museum , Brisbane (Queensland Women’s Historical Association); and a wooden chest is held at Wolston Farmhouse (National Trust Queensland); several photos of the Quetta at John Oxley Library , State Library of Queensland; and works by renowned colonial artist Isaac Jenner at Queensland Gallery of Modern Art . Memorial plaques hang in churches in Brisbane and Toowoomba (Australia) and Tooting (England). St Thomas Church, Aslockton (England), built in memory of passenger Rev. Thomas Hall, features
1456-541: A steam launch, which landed them at Rockhampton. She steamed from Keppel Bay to Cape Moreton in 24 hours, setting what was then a record, and arrived off Brisbane on 5 June. By 1886 ownership of Quetta had been transferred from Gray, Dawes & Co to BIAS. By 1890 she had made 11 round trips between London and Brisbane. On 18 February 1890 Quetta left Brisbane for London. Along the Queensland coast she called at Townsville, Cairns , Kimberley , and Cooktown. She
1547-469: A striking stained-glass window that depicts Quetta and the Thursday Island church. To mark the shipwreck centenary in 1990, Year 12 students at Thursday Island School retold the story in an imaginative yet factually based booklet entitled The Sinking of the Quetta with each student adopting the perspective of a particular survivor. The picture book Quetta by Gary Crew and Bruce Whatley offers
1638-455: A type of rock consisting of repeated thin layers of iron oxides alternating with bands of iron-poor shale and chert . The banded iron formations were laid down in the time between 3,700 million years ago and 1,800 million years ago . Materials containing finely ground iron(III) oxides or oxide-hydroxides, such as ochre , have been used as yellow, red, and brown pigments since pre-historical times. They contribute as well to
1729-435: A very large coordination and organometallic chemistry : indeed, it was the discovery of an iron compound, ferrocene , that revolutionalized the latter field in the 1950s. Iron is sometimes considered as a prototype for the entire block of transition metals, due to its abundance and the immense role it has played in the technological progress of humanity. Its 26 electrons are arranged in the configuration [Ar]3d 4s , of which
1820-404: A wholly owned subsidiary of Hutchison Port Holdings , subsidiary of Hutchison Whampoa , which Hutchison will operate berths 11 and 12 for 42 years. Deposits of silt and sediment in the ports channels and berths have caused delays of up to five days in the delivery of cargo including oil supplies. This has occurred in 2011, 2013 and 2014. Millions of dollars is spent on dredging annually. In
1911-646: Is also rarely found in basalts that have formed from magmas that have come into contact with carbon-rich sedimentary rocks, which have reduced the oxygen fugacity sufficiently for iron to crystallize. This is known as telluric iron and is described from a few localities, such as Disko Island in West Greenland, Yakutia in Russia and Bühl in Germany. Ferropericlase (Mg,Fe)O , a solid solution of periclase (MgO) and wüstite (FeO), makes up about 20% of
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#17327877035072002-407: Is considered to be resistant to rust, due to its oxide layer. Iron forms various oxide and hydroxide compounds ; the most common are iron(II,III) oxide (Fe 3 O 4 ), and iron(III) oxide (Fe 2 O 3 ). Iron(II) oxide also exists, though it is unstable at room temperature. Despite their names, they are actually all non-stoichiometric compounds whose compositions may vary. These oxides are
2093-499: Is due to its abundant production during the runaway fusion and explosion of type Ia supernovae , which scatters the iron into space. Metallic or native iron is rarely found on the surface of the Earth because it tends to oxidize. However, both the Earth's inner and outer core , which together account for 35% of the mass of the whole Earth, are believed to consist largely of an iron alloy, possibly with nickel . Electric currents in
2184-474: Is experimentally well defined for pressures less than 50 GPa. For greater pressures, published data (as of 2007) still varies by tens of gigapascals and over a thousand kelvin. Below its Curie point of 770 °C (1,420 °F; 1,040 K), α-iron changes from paramagnetic to ferromagnetic : the spins of the two unpaired electrons in each atom generally align with the spins of its neighbors, creating an overall magnetic field . This happens because
2275-494: Is in Earth's crust only amounts to about 5% of the overall mass of the crust and is thus only the fourth most abundant element in that layer (after oxygen , silicon , and aluminium ). Most of the iron in the crust is combined with various other elements to form many iron minerals . An important class is the iron oxide minerals such as hematite (Fe 2 O 3 ), magnetite (Fe 3 O 4 ), and siderite (FeCO 3 ), which are
2366-401: Is not like that of Mn with its weak, spin-forbidden d–d bands, because Fe has higher positive charge and is more polarizing, lowering the energy of its ligand-to-metal charge transfer absorptions. Thus, all the above complexes are rather strongly colored, with the single exception of the hexaquo ion – and even that has a spectrum dominated by charge transfer in the near ultraviolet region. On
2457-464: Is now a cathedral, and the rectory is the bishop's house. Artefacts recovered during salvage attempts after the disaster, and since, are now in the church. These include one of Quetta’s portholes, a lifebelt, a photo of the ship and a copy of Queensland Marine Board’s report. A saloon table from the Quetta serves as an altar. Plaques and stained-glass windows commemorate the victims and draw attention to
2548-407: Is possible, but nonetheless the sequence does effectively end at Ni because conditions in stellar interiors cause the competition between photodisintegration and the alpha process to favor photodisintegration around Ni. This Ni, which has a half-life of about 6 days, is created in quantity in these stars, but soon decays by two successive positron emissions within supernova decay products in
2639-548: Is somewhat different). Pieces of magnetite with natural permanent magnetization ( lodestones ) provided the earliest compasses for navigation. Particles of magnetite were extensively used in magnetic recording media such as core memories , magnetic tapes , floppies , and disks , until they were replaced by cobalt -based materials. Iron has four stable isotopes : Fe (5.845% of natural iron), Fe (91.754%), Fe (2.119%) and Fe (0.282%). Twenty-four artificial isotopes have also been created. Of these stable isotopes, only Fe has
2730-442: Is such a strong oxidizing agent that it oxidizes ammonia to nitrogen (N 2 ) and water to oxygen: The pale-violet hex aquo complex [Fe(H 2 O) 6 ] is an acid such that above pH 0 it is fully hydrolyzed: As pH rises above 0 the above yellow hydrolyzed species form and as it rises above 2–3, reddish-brown hydrous iron(III) oxide precipitates out of solution. Although Fe has a d configuration, its absorption spectrum
2821-502: Is supposed to have an orthorhombic or a double hcp structure. (Confusingly, the term "β-iron" is sometimes also used to refer to α-iron above its Curie point, when it changes from being ferromagnetic to paramagnetic, even though its crystal structure has not changed. ) The inner core of the Earth is generally presumed to consist of an iron- nickel alloy with ε (or β) structure. The melting and boiling points of iron, along with its enthalpy of atomization , are lower than those of
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2912-418: Is thus very important economically, and iron is the cheapest metal, with a price of a few dollars per kilogram or pound. Pristine and smooth pure iron surfaces are a mirror-like silvery-gray. Iron reacts readily with oxygen and water to produce brown-to-black hydrated iron oxides , commonly known as rust . Unlike the oxides of some other metals that form passivating layers, rust occupies more volume than
3003-451: Is used as the traditional "blue" in blueprints . Iron is the first of the transition metals that cannot reach its group oxidation state of +8, although its heavier congeners ruthenium and osmium can, with ruthenium having more difficulty than osmium. Ruthenium exhibits an aqueous cationic chemistry in its low oxidation states similar to that of iron, but osmium does not, favoring high oxidation states in which it forms anionic complexes. In
3094-437: Is used in chemical actinometry and along with its sodium salt undergoes photoreduction applied in old-style photographic processes. The dihydrate of iron(II) oxalate has a polymeric structure with co-planar oxalate ions bridging between iron centres with the water of crystallisation located forming the caps of each octahedron, as illustrated below. Iron(III) complexes are quite similar to those of chromium (III) with
3185-579: The 2016 census , Port of Brisbane had "no people or a very low population". In the 2021 census , Port of Brisbane had "no people or a very low population". The port is managed by the Port of Brisbane Pty Ltd (PBPL) under a 99-year lease from the Queensland Government . The Port of Brisbane has 29 operating berths including nine deep-water container berths and three deep-water bulk berths as well as 17 bulk and general cargo berths. In total
3276-568: The 2nd millennium BC and the use of iron tools and weapons began to displace copper alloys – in some regions, only around 1200 BC. That event is considered the transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age . In the modern world , iron alloys, such as steel , stainless steel , cast iron and special steels , are by far the most common industrial metals, due to their mechanical properties and low cost. The iron and steel industry
3367-601: The Port of Gladstone and the Port of Townsville . According to the former Queensland Department of Primary Industries the Port of Brisbane was the most likely entry point of the South American fire ant to Australia. About 60% of the coal transported through the port originates from the New Acland Mine . In 1980, the narrow gauge ( 1,067 mm / 3 ft 6 in ) Fisherman Islands line
3458-424: The Quetta is overflowing with amazing marine life, all of which seems to be huge.' A recent sonar 3D image (right) shows Quetta's current physical state. Iron Iron is a chemical element ; it has the symbol Fe (from Latin ferrum 'iron') and atomic number 26. It is a metal that belongs to the first transition series and group 8 of the periodic table . It is, by mass,
3549-530: The most common element on Earth , forming much of Earth's outer and inner core . It is the fourth most abundant element in the Earth's crust , being mainly deposited by meteorites in its metallic state. Extracting usable metal from iron ores requires kilns or furnaces capable of reaching 1,500 °C (2,730 °F), about 500 °C (932 °F) higher than that required to smelt copper . Humans started to master that process in Eurasia during
3640-432: The supernova remnant gas cloud, first to radioactive Co, and then to stable Fe. As such, iron is the most abundant element in the core of red giants , and is the most abundant metal in iron meteorites and in the dense metal cores of planets such as Earth . It is also very common in the universe, relative to other stable metals of approximately the same atomic weight . Iron is the sixth most abundant element in
3731-491: The trans - chlorohydridobis(bis-1,2-(diphenylphosphino)ethane)iron(II) complex is used as a starting material for compounds with the Fe( dppe ) 2 moiety . The ferrioxalate ion with three oxalate ligands displays helical chirality with its two non-superposable geometries labelled Λ (lambda) for the left-handed screw axis and Δ (delta) for the right-handed screw axis, in line with IUPAC conventions. Potassium ferrioxalate
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3822-466: The universe , and the most common refractory element. Although a further tiny energy gain could be extracted by synthesizing Ni , which has a marginally higher binding energy than Fe, conditions in stars are unsuitable for this process. Element production in supernovas greatly favor iron over nickel, and in any case, Fe still has a lower mass per nucleon than Ni due to its higher fraction of lighter protons. Hence, elements heavier than iron require
3913-570: The 3d and 4s electrons are relatively close in energy, and thus a number of electrons can be ionized. Iron forms compounds mainly in the oxidation states +2 ( iron(II) , "ferrous") and +3 ( iron(III) , "ferric"). Iron also occurs in higher oxidation states , e.g., the purple potassium ferrate (K 2 FeO 4 ), which contains iron in its +6 oxidation state. The anion [FeO 4 ] with iron in its +7 oxidation state, along with an iron(V)-peroxo isomer, has been detected by infrared spectroscopy at 4 K after cocondensation of laser-ablated Fe atoms with
4004-603: The Earth's surface. Items made of cold-worked meteoritic iron have been found in various archaeological sites dating from a time when iron smelting had not yet been developed; and the Inuit in Greenland have been reported to use iron from the Cape York meteorite for tools and hunting weapons. About 1 in 20 meteorites consist of the unique iron-nickel minerals taenite (35–80% iron) and kamacite (90–95% iron). Native iron
4095-586: The London – Calcutta route for the first two years of her career. Quetta was one of a series of three-masted brigantines that Denny built for BIAS. Denny completed India in November 1881. She was similar to Quetta , but about 10 feet (3 m) longer, 2 feet (0.6 m) greater beam, and built of steel instead of iron. India was the first ship in the BISN group to have electric light. Denny completed Goorkha ,
4186-532: The Luggage Point Resource Recovery Centre). The terminal can accommodate the largest cruise vessels in the world. It is operated by the port but will not be part of the suburb of Port of Brisbane. The port accommodates a visitors centre and in 2005 a shorebird roost was constructed. The bird roost is the largest site built specifically for migratory shorebirds on the east coast of Australia . The Port of Brisbane Motorway
4277-744: The Queensland Marine Board inquiry found that the Quetta shipwreck was purely accidental, noting that the damaging rock was not shown on Admiralty charts. It reported that the starboard side had been ripped ‘from right forward as far aft to the engine room’, and the ship had foundered so rapidly that nothing could have been done to save her. According to the Board, Quetta had been well equipped with 8 life buoys and over 600 life belts. Captain Sanders and pilot Captain Keatinge were exonerated:
4368-558: The Torres Strait. She turned into the Adolphus Channel to round the Cape York Peninsula . The pilot was experienced, the weather fine and visibility good, but at 21:14 hrs she struck an uncharted rock in the middle of the channel near Albany Island . Captain Keating estimated the rock's position to be 10°40′10″S 142°38′10″E / 10.66944°S 142.63611°E / -10.66944; 142.63611 . It split open
4459-655: The Torres Straits pilots, Captain Edmund Brown, adopted her, naming her Cecil Quetta Brown, nicknamed "Cissy". A year or two later Captain Brown died, so his brother Villiers Brown raised "Cissy" in Brisbane. In 1927 it was confirmed that "Cissy" was in fact Mary Copeland. After rescuing survivors, Albatross took soundings and found the rock thought to have caused the disaster, about 1 ⁄ 2 nautical mile (1 km) from Quetta ' s wreck. In April 1890
4550-472: The boats could hear her calling, but it was too dark to see her as the moon had set. Nicklin kept hold of the plank, alternately swimming and falling asleep, until dawn, when she swam still aided by the plank to an islet (now known as Nicklin Island, just north of Mount Adolphus Island). When she neared the islet, a lascar cabin boy called Alick, who had already reached the island, helped her ashore. Later one of
4641-547: The bridge and the engine room to lessen the need for sending messengers back and forth. The wreck lies on its port side in 18 metres (59 ft) of water and is protected by the Underwater Cultural Heritage Act 2018 . Quetta Memorial Precinct on Thursday Island is a monument to the 134 lives lost in the disaster. Building started in 1892 and the church was consecrated in 1893. It comprises an Anglican church, rectory, and church hall. The church
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#17327877035074732-450: The brown deposits present in a sizeable number of streams. Due to its electronic structure, iron has a very large coordination and organometallic chemistry. Many coordination compounds of iron are known. A typical six-coordinate anion is hexachloroferrate(III), [FeCl 6 ] , found in the mixed salt tetrakis(methylammonium) hexachloroferrate(III) chloride . Complexes with multiple bidentate ligands have geometric isomers . For example,
4823-709: The color of various rocks and clays , including entire geological formations like the Painted Hills in Oregon and the Buntsandstein ("colored sandstone", British Bunter ). Through Eisensandstein (a jurassic 'iron sandstone', e.g. from Donzdorf in Germany) and Bath stone in the UK, iron compounds are responsible for the yellowish color of many historical buildings and sculptures. The proverbial red color of
4914-464: The cores of the Earth and other planets. Above approximately 10 GPa and temperatures of a few hundred kelvin or less, α-iron changes into another hexagonal close-packed (hcp) structure, which is also known as ε-iron . The higher-temperature γ-phase also changes into ε-iron, but does so at higher pressure. Some controversial experimental evidence exists for a stable β phase at pressures above 50 GPa and temperatures of at least 1500 K. It
5005-401: The domains in the new positions, so that the effect persists even after the external field is removed – thus turning the iron object into a (permanent) magnet . Similar behavior is exhibited by some iron compounds, such as the ferrites including the mineral magnetite , a crystalline form of the mixed iron(II,III) oxide Fe 3 O 4 (although the atomic-scale mechanism, ferrimagnetism ,
5096-479: The earlier 3d elements from scandium to chromium , showing the lessened contribution of the 3d electrons to metallic bonding as they are attracted more and more into the inert core by the nucleus; however, they are higher than the values for the previous element manganese because that element has a half-filled 3d sub-shell and consequently its d-electrons are not easily delocalized. This same trend appears for ruthenium but not osmium . The melting point of iron
5187-406: The exception of iron(III)'s preference for O -donor instead of N -donor ligands. The latter tend to be rather more unstable than iron(II) complexes and often dissociate in water. Many Fe–O complexes show intense colors and are used as tests for phenols or enols . For example, in the ferric chloride test , used to determine the presence of phenols, iron(III) chloride reacts with a phenol to form
5278-481: The former had ‘exerted himself to the utmost’ and the latter had been ‘very careful and attentive to the navigation of the ship’ in steering the Admiralty’s recommended course. The crew members were apparently well disciplined and had responded quickly to orders during the emergency. The Board commended Frank Jardine for his rescue effort. It als recommendation that steamships should be equipped with speaking tubes between
5369-652: The frequency of its London – Brisbane service. For this it chartered six ships, and also transferred Quetta to the route. On 8 April that year Quetta left London on her first voyage to Brisbane. She called at Plymouth , Port Said , Aden , and Batavia (now Jakarta ). On 29 May she reached Cooktown in North Queensland . She continued down Queensland's east coast, calling at Cleveland Bay (for Townsville ), Bowen , and Keppel Bay (for Rockhampton ). At Cleveland Bay she disembarked 67 migrants for Townsville, and at Keppel Bay she disembarked 115 migrants to
5460-462: The global stock of iron in use in society is 2,200 kg per capita. More-developed countries differ in this respect from less-developed countries (7,000–14,000 vs 2,000 kg per capita). Ocean science demonstrated the role of the iron in the ancient seas in both marine biota and climate. Iron shows the characteristic chemical properties of the transition metals , namely the ability to form variable oxidation states differing by steps of one and
5551-669: The human impacts of a shipwreck. In 2021 the St Bartholomew’s Church community held a commemorative service on the 141st anniversary of the Quetta shipwreck. Beyond Thursday Island, other Quetta artefacts can be viewed, including: the ship’s bell, which for many years hung outside St Bartholomew’s Church, is now in the Cooktown Museum; the brass binnacle is exhibited at the Commissariat Store Museum , Brisbane (Royal Queensland Historical Society);
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#17327877035075642-670: The larger ocean-going cruise liners must dock further down the river at the more industrial Multi User Terminal at the Port of Brisbane. On 2 June 2022, the Brisbane International Cruise Terminal opened on the northern bank of the Brisbane River in the suburb of Pinkenba opposite the port. The cruise terminal is located at Luggage Point next to the Luggage Point Sewage Treatment Plant (which has been renamed
5733-424: The lascars. Albatross continued to Mount Adolphus Island, whence she picked up nearly 100 survivors, including the second and fourth officers. Just before Quetta hit the rock, two teenagers, May Lacy and Alice Elizabeth Nicklin, had been on deck. They were separated in the sinking, but Nicklin was a strong swimmer and clung to flotsam: first a hatch cover, then a dead sheep, and finally a plank. The survivors in
5824-453: The liquid outer core are believed to be the origin of the Earth's magnetic field . The other terrestrial planets ( Mercury , Venus , and Mars ) as well as the Moon are believed to have a metallic core consisting mostly of iron. The M-type asteroids are also believed to be partly or mostly made of metallic iron alloy. The rare iron meteorites are the main form of natural metallic iron on
5915-446: The literature, this mineral phase of the lower mantle is also often called magnesiowüstite. Silicate perovskite may form up to 93% of the lower mantle, and the magnesium iron form, (Mg,Fe)SiO 3 , is considered to be the most abundant mineral in the Earth, making up 38% of its volume. While iron is the most abundant element on Earth, most of this iron is concentrated in the inner and outer cores. The fraction of iron that
6006-407: The major ores of iron . Many igneous rocks also contain the sulfide minerals pyrrhotite and pentlandite . During weathering , iron tends to leach from sulfide deposits as the sulfate and from silicate deposits as the bicarbonate. Both of these are oxidized in aqueous solution and precipitate in even mildly elevated pH as iron(III) oxide . Large deposits of iron are banded iron formations ,
6097-775: The metal and thus flakes off, exposing more fresh surfaces for corrosion. Chemically, the most common oxidation states of iron are iron(II) and iron(III) . Iron shares many properties of other transition metals, including the other group 8 elements , ruthenium and osmium . Iron forms compounds in a wide range of oxidation states , −4 to +7. Iron also forms many coordination compounds ; some of them, such as ferrocene , ferrioxalate , and Prussian blue have substantial industrial, medical, or research applications. The body of an adult human contains about 4 grams (0.005% body weight) of iron, mostly in hemoglobin and myoglobin . These two proteins play essential roles in oxygen transport by blood and oxygen storage in muscles . To maintain
6188-612: The meteorites Semarkona and Chervony Kut, a correlation between the concentration of Ni, the granddaughter of Fe, and the abundance of the stable iron isotopes provided evidence for the existence of Fe at the time of formation of the Solar System . Possibly the energy released by the decay of Fe, along with that released by Al , contributed to the remelting and differentiation of asteroids after their formation 4.6 billion years ago. The abundance of Ni present in extraterrestrial material may bring further insight into
6279-559: The necessary levels, human iron metabolism requires a minimum of iron in the diet. Iron is also the metal at the active site of many important redox enzymes dealing with cellular respiration and oxidation and reduction in plants and animals. At least four allotropes of iron (differing atom arrangements in the solid) are known, conventionally denoted α , γ , δ , and ε . The first three forms are observed at ordinary pressures. As molten iron cools past its freezing point of 1538 °C, it crystallizes into its δ allotrope, which has
6370-436: The orbitals of those two electrons (d z and d x − y ) do not point toward neighboring atoms in the lattice, and therefore are not involved in metallic bonding. In the absence of an external source of magnetic field, the atoms get spontaneously partitioned into magnetic domains , about 10 micrometers across, such that the atoms in each domain have parallel spins, but some domains have other orientations. Thus
6461-539: The origin and early history of the Solar System . The most abundant iron isotope Fe is of particular interest to nuclear scientists because it represents the most common endpoint of nucleosynthesis . Since Ni (14 alpha particles ) is easily produced from lighter nuclei in the alpha process in nuclear reactions in supernovae (see silicon burning process ), it is the endpoint of fusion chains inside extremely massive stars . Although adding more alpha particles
6552-444: The other hand, the pale green iron(II) hexaquo ion [Fe(H 2 O) 6 ] does not undergo appreciable hydrolysis. Carbon dioxide is not evolved when carbonate anions are added, which instead results in white iron(II) carbonate being precipitated out. In excess carbon dioxide this forms the slightly soluble bicarbonate, which occurs commonly in groundwater, but it oxidises quickly in air to form iron(III) oxide that accounts for
6643-581: The oxidizing power of Fe and the high reducing power of I : Ferric iodide, a black solid, is not stable in ordinary conditions, but can be prepared through the reaction of iron pentacarbonyl with iodine and carbon monoxide in the presence of hexane and light at the temperature of −20 °C, with oxygen and water excluded. Complexes of ferric iodide with some soft bases are known to be stable compounds. The standard reduction potentials in acidic aqueous solution for some common iron ions are given below: The red-purple tetrahedral ferrate (VI) anion
6734-497: The past work on isotopic composition of iron has focused on the nucleosynthesis of Fe through studies of meteorites and ore formation. In the last decade, advances in mass spectrometry have allowed the detection and quantification of minute, naturally occurring variations in the ratios of the stable isotopes of iron. Much of this work is driven by the Earth and planetary science communities, although applications to biological and industrial systems are emerging. In phases of
6825-499: The port facilitates more than 2,600 ships each year and transports more than 28 million tonnes of cargo each year. Portside Wharf at Hamilton was completed in 2006 and is an international standard facility for cruise liners, offering restaurants, coffee shops, gift shops, and other facilities. However, due to the height restrictions of the Gateway Bridge and length restriction of 270 metres (890 ft) that far upstream,
6916-414: The principal ores for the production of iron (see bloomery and blast furnace). They are also used in the production of ferrites , useful magnetic storage media in computers, and pigments. The best known sulfide is iron pyrite (FeS 2 ), also known as fool's gold owing to its golden luster. It is not an iron(IV) compound, but is actually an iron(II) polysulfide containing Fe and S 2 ions in
7007-437: The second half of the 3d transition series, vertical similarities down the groups compete with the horizontal similarities of iron with its neighbors cobalt and nickel in the periodic table, which are also ferromagnetic at room temperature and share similar chemistry. As such, iron, cobalt, and nickel are sometimes grouped together as the iron triad . Unlike many other metals, iron does not form amalgams with mercury . As
7098-513: The smaller Fisherman Islands group at the mouth of the river, adjacent to Brisbane Airport . It currently is the third busiest port in Australia and the nation's fastest growing container port . It is the endpoint of the main shipping channel across Moreton Bay which extends 90 kilometres (56 mi) north to Mooloolaba and is dredged to maintain a depth of 14 metres (46 ft) at the lowest tide. Queensland 's next two largest ports are
7189-615: The steamship Victoria , to which Captains Keating and Sanders and some lascars transferred. One of Jardine's boats was already at sea, having been catching turtles , and was on its way back to Somerset. It encountered wreckage, from which its crew rescued ten survivors. The telegram reached Thursday Island about 14:00 hrs on 1 March. The government resident , John Douglas , sent the steamer Albatross from Port Kennedy. Another captain volunteered to take his steamer, Merrie England , as well. After about three hours Albatross met Victoria , from which it took off Captains Keating and Sanders and
7280-430: The steel plates of her hull from her bow to her engine room. She settled by her bow, listed to port , raised her stern out of the water, and then sank, all within three minutes. Quetta ' s cutter floated clear but capsized, surrounded by a large group of Javanese and lascars. Quartermaster James Oates organised the baling of the cutter and steered it ashore. Her Number 1 ( starboard ) lifeboat floated free, but
7371-564: The surface of Mars is derived from an iron oxide-rich regolith . Significant amounts of iron occur in the iron sulfide mineral pyrite (FeS 2 ), but it is difficult to extract iron from it and it is therefore not exploited. In fact, iron is so common that production generally focuses only on ores with very high quantities of it. According to the International Resource Panel 's Metal Stocks in Society report ,
7462-467: The vessels searching for survivors found the pair and took them to Somerset. May Lacy did not survive. However, Albatross found her elder sister Emily, still swimming in the sea 36 hours after the sinking. One other survivor was a toddler who did not know her own name. The only words she said were "Mama", "Jimmsy" and "Willie". About 30 children had been aboard Quetta , and her manifest listed more than one family with boys called James and William. One
7553-455: The volume of the lower mantle of the Earth, which makes it the second most abundant mineral phase in that region after silicate perovskite (Mg,Fe)SiO 3 ; it also is the major host for iron in the lower mantle. At the bottom of the transition zone of the mantle, the reaction γ- (Mg,Fe) 2 [SiO 4 ] ↔ (Mg,Fe)[SiO 3 ] + (Mg,Fe)O transforms γ-olivine into a mixture of silicate perovskite and ferropericlase and vice versa. In
7644-567: The wreck. William Denny and Brothers built Quetta for £70,119 at Dumbarton on the River Leven as yard number 243. She was launched on 1 March 1881 and completed on 18 May. Her registered length was 380.0 ft (115.8 m), her beam was 40.3 ft (12.3 m) and her depth was 29.0 ft (8.8 m). Her tonnages were 3,484 GRT and 2,254 NRT . She originally had berths for 76 passengers in first class and 32 in second class travelling between England and India, but
7735-597: Was damaged and capsized. Captain Keating and the Third Officer Thomas Babb, righted it, but were unable to bale it out. It picked up more survivors, including Captain Sanders. The two boats met, and landed their survivors on Mount Adolphus Island . The Quetta wrecking is considered to be ‘worst single-incident disaster in Queensland history’. A full list of passengers and crew indicating who died or were saved can be viewed at John Oxley Library, State Library of Queensland in Brisbane. Captain Keating led
7826-914: Was due to call at Batavia, Singapore , and Colombo. On departing Cooktown on Thursday 27 February Quetta carried a total of 293 persons (passengers and crew) and live sheep in deck pens. In addition to mail bags, the cargo comprised 2278 bales of wool, 4260 cases of meat and tallow, and 60 tons of metals with an insurance value of more than £50,000. Quetta ' s Master was Captain Alfred Sanders. Her ship's company comprised 28 European officers and ratings and 93 lascars . After leaving Cooktown she carried 171 passengers: 33 first or second class, 65 steerage, and 62 Javanese labourers, who were returning to Batavia as deck passengers from working on sugar cane plantations. Quetta embarked an experienced pilot , Captain Eldred P. Keatinge, to command her through
7917-502: Was later modified to accommodate the increasing number of migrants bound for Australia in steerage .The steam engine and two 500-ton coal bunkers were amidship. According to shipwreck historian Max Jeffrys, Quetta was ‘fitted out with all the comforts of her class at the time’. After her refit, first class cabins were on the upper deck, next to an elegantly appointed dining, music and smoking rooms. The captain’s cabin and open navigation bridge were perched above. The steerage accommodation
8008-459: Was on the main deck, under the ‘tween deck luggage and cargo storage. There was no third class on Quetta, apart from temporary shelters erected when needed at the stern of the upper deck for Javanese labourers returning to Batavia from the Queensland canefields. Quetta had a single screw , driven by a two-cylinder compound engine built by Denny. It was rated at 500 HP and gave her a speed of 12 knots (22 km/h). The ship had three masts, and
8099-525: Was opened between the port and a junction near Lindum on the Cleveland line. This was converted to dual 1,435 mm ( 4 ft 8 + 1 ⁄ 2 in ) / 1,067 mm ( 3 ft 6 in ) gauge in 1997 under the Keating Government's One Nation program. In January 2008, Port of Brisbane Corporation signed an agreement with Brisbane Container Terminals ,
8190-498: Was rigged as a barquentine . She also had a hydraulic system to drive the cargo winches, steering gear and anchors, as well as electric lighting and refrigerated storage for meat and dairy exports from Queensland. Denny built Quetta for Gray, Dawes and Company, who since 1865 had been BISN's London agents. They registered her in Glasgow . Her United Kingdom official number was 84309 and her code letters were VMNG. She had
8281-414: Was that of a widow, Mary Copeland from Maryborough , who had a young daughter also called Mary. Mrs Copeland and her three children were returning to Britain after her husband, a stockman, had drowned in a separate accident. The toddler was photographed, and a print of the photograph was sent to a family in Scotland believed to be her relatives, but the family replied that they did not recognise her. One of
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