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80-589: Development of the Fantrainer commenced during the 1970s. In Germany, it was selected as the winner of a competition for the Luftwaffe's Basic Trainer Requirement, having beaten both the Pilatus PC-7 and Beechcraft Mentor . However, no orders were forthcoming from Germany as it had committed to buying American fighters ( F4 Phantom and F-104 Starfighter ) which included a deal for pilot training in

160-523: A bubble canopy . The flight test programme came to a close during Autumn 1977. On 18 August 1978 ; 46 years ago  ( 1978-08-18 ) , the first production aircraft made its first flight. On 5 December of that year, Switzerland's Federal Office of Civil Aviation (FOCA) issued civil certification for the PC-7; immediately thereafter, initial deliveries of production aircraft commenced to customers Burma and Bolivia . Over time, sales of

240-470: A forward-swept wing , being angled at 6°, for the purpose of not obscuring rear position's visibility by the wing root ; this sweep angle had to be reduced to more closely mimic the flight characteristics expected of a typical military trainer aircraft. The design of this wing is not original, being a derivative of that previously used for the LFU 205 , an experimental aircraft of the 1960s. The interior space of

320-425: A glass with no true melting point, can be used as a glass fiber for fiberglass, but has the drawback that it must be worked at very high temperatures. In order to lower the necessary work temperature, other materials are introduced as "fluxing agents" (i.e., components to lower the melting point). Ordinary A-glass ("A" for "alkali-lime") or soda lime glass, crushed and ready to be remelted, as so-called cullet glass,

400-639: A ban on the sale of additional units to Mexico. At the time, the Mexican Air Force was the largest single export operator of the type, and had been seeking to acquire further PC-7s, thus the sales ban was viewed as an economic blow to Pilatus. During the mid to late 1990s, Executive Outcomes , a private military contractor led by Eeben Barlow, utilised three armed PC-7s (ex- Bophuthatswana Air Force aircraft) to provide close air support (CAS) during its operations in Sierra Leone . During

480-553: A few aircraft per year. All export sales of the PC-7 are subject to approval by the Swiss Government , whose authorisation is required prior to any delivery taking place. The sale of combat -capable aircraft has been a controversial matter at times, and political pressure has been applied for PC-7s to be shipped without the fittings for armaments being installed. The Swiss government has occasionally held up or outright refused to issue export licences for some nations,

560-434: A foam-plastic rubbing strip enables the fan to maintain the optimum blade-tip-to-shroud gap, said to be one-thousandth of the fan's diameter according to RFB; the ring slot ensures smooth air flow even at high power and low airspeed, and can also open asymmetrically to cope with offset inflow when the Fantrainer is flown at a relatively high angle of attack . Structurally, the Fantrainer's forward fuselage and centre section

640-493: A low cost. In March 1975, RFB received a contract from the German Defence Ministry to produce and fly a pair of prototype Fantrainers; these would be evaluated as replacements for Luftwaffe ' s existing fleet of Piaggio P.149 initial trainers. According to aerospace periodical Flight International , the initial production process only took seven months to complete a single prototype. On 27 October 1977,

720-527: A material to be used as thermal building insulation . It is marketed under the trade name Fiberglas, which has become a genericized trademark . Glass fiber, when used as a thermal insulating material, is specially manufactured with a bonding agent to trap many small air cells, resulting in the characteristically air-filled low-density "glass wool" family of products. Glass fiber has roughly comparable mechanical properties to other fibers such as polymers and carbon fiber . Although not as rigid as carbon fiber, it

800-530: A move which has reportedly led to the loss of several potential sales, such as to South Korea and Mexico . In addition to its adoption by numerous military customers, the PC-7 has also been used by private customers. It has been certified for civil use by both the Federal Office of Civil Aviation (FOCA) and the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) as compliant with regulations pertaining to general aviation (GA) operations in both Europe and

880-517: A new one-piece wing . Introduced during the 1970s, it has since developed a sizable presence of the global trainer market. The type has been adopted by in excess of twenty air forces as their ab initio trainer, as well as multiple civilian operators. Over one million hours have reportedly been flown by PC-7s worldwide. In addition to training operations, some aircraft are armed and have been used for combat missions by several customers, including Chad , Iran , and Mexico , often in violation of

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960-405: A number of ways to manufacture the fiber. The glass can be blown or blasted with heat or steam after exiting the formation machine. Usually these fibers are made into some sort of mat. The most common process used is the rotary process. Here, the glass enters a rotating spinner, and due to centrifugal force is thrown out horizontally. The air jets push it down vertically, and binder is applied. Then

1040-461: A peak rate of six Fantrainers per month. After an initial period of operation, the RTAF elected to replace the aircraft's glass fiber wings with locally-produced aluminium wings, even when the original fiber glass wings proved to endure well in the hot and humid Thailand weather, which was a main concern of the manufacturer. During the 21st century, FanJet Aviation GmbH set about reviving production of

1120-493: A tetrahedron with the silicon atom at the center, and four oxygen atoms at the corners. These atoms then form a network bonded at the corners by sharing the oxygen atoms. The vitreous and crystalline states of silica (glass and quartz ) have similar energy levels on a molecular basis, also implying that the glassy form is extremely stable. In order to induce crystallization , it must be heated to temperatures above 1200 °C for long periods of time. Although pure silica

1200-811: Is alumino-borosilicate glass with less than 1% w/w alkali oxides, mainly used for glass-reinforced plastics. Other types of glass used are A-glass (Alkali-lime glass with little or no boron oxide), E-CR-glass (Electrical/Chemical Resistance; alumino-lime silicate with less than 1% w/w alkali oxides, with high acid resistance), C-glass (alkali-lime glass with high boron oxide content, used for glass staple fibers and insulation), D-glass (borosilicate glass, named for its low dielectric constant), R-glass (alumino silicate glass without MgO and CaO with high mechanical requirements as r einforcement), and S-glass (alumino silicate glass without CaO but with high MgO content with high tensile strength). Pure silica (silicon dioxide), when cooled as fused quartz into

1280-422: Is silica , SiO 2 . In its pure form it exists as a polymer , (SiO 2 ) n . It has no true melting point but softens up to 1200 °C, where it starts to degrade . At 1713 °C, most of the molecules can move about freely. If the glass is extruded and cooled quickly at this temperature, it will be unable to form an ordered structure. In the polymer it forms SiO 4 groups which are configured as

1360-459: Is a low-wing tandem -seat training aircraft , designed and manufactured in Switzerland by Pilatus Aircraft . The aircraft is capable of all basic training functions, including aerobatics , instrument , tactical, and night flying . The PC-7 was developed from the preceding piston -powered Pilatus P-3 , largely differing by the adoption of a turboprop engine, a bubble canopy , and

1440-437: Is a perfectly viable glass and glass fiber, it must be worked with at very high temperatures, which is a drawback unless its specific chemical properties are needed. It is usual to introduce impurities into the glass in the form of other materials to lower its working temperature. These materials also impart various other properties to the glass that may be beneficial in different applications. The first type of glass used for fiber

1520-415: Is extensively used for making FRP tanks and vessels . Open-weave glass fiber grids are used to reinforce asphalt pavement. Non-woven glass fiber/polymer blend mats are used saturated with asphalt emulsion and overlaid with asphalt, producing a waterproof, crack-resistant membrane. Use of glass-fiber reinforced polymer rebar instead of steel rebar shows promise in areas where avoidance of steel corrosion

1600-477: Is formed around a metal box keel ; the cockpit section, which is mainly composed of moulded plastic, is fixed upon this keel. This approach enables the cockpit shape to be readily modified, allowing it to be adapted to imitate various different aircraft. Typically, the cockpit is relatively spacious, providing room for a sizable instrumentation panel and ample side consoles, allowing the Fantrainer to be equipped akin to an air force's operational aircraft. Reportedly,

1680-444: Is in group A4: "Not classifiable as a human carcinogen" . The North American Insulation Manufacturers Association (NAIMA) claims that glass fiber is fundamentally different from asbestos, since it is man-made instead of naturally occurring. They claim that glass fiber "dissolves in the lungs", while asbestos remains in the body for life. Although both glass fiber and asbestos are made from silica filaments, NAIMA claims that asbestos

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1760-431: Is marked by a viscosity of 10  poise. Fabrics of woven glass fibers are useful thermal insulators because of their high ratio of surface area to weight. However, the increased surface area makes them much more susceptible to chemical attack. By trapping air within them, blocks of glass fiber make good thermal insulation , with a thermal conductivity of the order of 0.05 W /(m· K ). (GPa) The strength of glass

1840-656: Is more dangerous because of its crystalline structure, which causes it to cleave into smaller, more dangerous pieces, citing the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services : Synthetic vitreous fibers [fiber glass] differ from asbestos in two ways that may provide at least partial explanations for their lower toxicity. Because most synthetic vitreous fibers are not crystalline like asbestos, they do not split longitudinally to form thinner fibers. They also generally have markedly less biopersistence in biological tissues than asbestos fibers because they can undergo dissolution and transverse breakage. A 1998 study using rats found that

1920-550: Is much cheaper and significantly less brittle when used in composites. Glass fiber reinforced composites are used in marine industry and piping industries because of good environmental resistance, better damage tolerance for impact loading, high specific strength and stiffness. Glass fiber is formed when thin strands of silica -based or other formulation glass are extruded into many fibers with small diameters suitable for textile processing. The technique of heating and drawing glass into fine fibers has been known for millennia, and

2000-458: Is used for various elements, including the Friese ailerons and air brakes . Normal behaviour of both ailerons and air brakes has been observed even during deliberately-induced stall conditions. In the early 1990s, RFB and Rockwell International developed in a joint venture a jet-powered variation of the Fantrainer under the denomination Ranger 2000, which was evaluated as a trainer aircraft in

2080-532: Is used when high tensile strength (modulus) is important, and is thus important in composites for building and aircraft construction. The same substance is known as R-glass ("R" for "reinforcement") in Europe. C-glass ("C" for "chemical resistance") and T-glass ("T" is for "thermal insulator" – a North American variant of C-glass) are resistant to chemical attack; both are often found in insulation-grades of blown fiberglass. The basis of textile -grade glass fibers

2160-414: Is usually tested and reported for "virgin" or pristine fibers—those that have just been manufactured. The freshest, thinnest fibers are the strongest because the thinner fibers are more ductile. The more the surface is scratched, the less the resulting tenacity . Because glass has an amorphous structure, its properties are the same along the fiber and across the fiber. Humidity is an important factor in

2240-679: The JPATS contest by the USAF and the U.S. Navy , but no orders were placed as the aircraft lost to the T-6 Texan II . One of the two prototypes crashed during evaluation. The Ranger 2000's turbofan engine was a Pratt & Whitney Canada JT15D . Data from Jane's All The World's Aircraft 1988–89 General characteristics Performance Related development Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Related lists Pilatus PC-7 The Pilatus PC-7 Turbo Trainer

2320-617: The Northrop F-5E fighter aircraft. In the 1960s the German company Rhein Flugzeugbau developed an interest in aircraft powered by ducted fans integrated into the fuselage, flying a pair of modified gliders as flying testbeds in 1969 and 1971. During 1970, the company announced that it had embarked upon a new project to develop a two-seat ducted-fan military trainer, intending to offer an aircraft that possessed jet-like handling at

2400-727: The United States . Amongst its uses in the civilian sector has been aerobatic displays . During the 1990s, the PC-7 Mk.II M was adopted as the basic trainer of the Royal Brunei Air Force (RBAirF) alongside the BAE Systems Hawk jet trainer; the acquisition was seen a key to its expanded operations with fixed-wing aircraft . During June 2011 , the Indian Air Force (IAF) selected

2480-483: The 1970s found that fibrous glass of less than 3  μm in diameter and greater than 20 μm in length is a "potent carcinogen". Likewise, the International Agency for Research on Cancer found it "may reasonably be anticipated to be a carcinogen" in 1990. The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists , on the other hand, says that there is insufficient evidence, and that glass fiber

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2560-674: The 1980s, amid tensions between Iran and the United States , it is alleged that Iranian officials threatened to arm its PC-7 fleet with explosives and use them to launch suicide attacks against United States Navy (USN) vessels present in the Persian Gulf . Iran reportedly trained a number of suicide pilots and flew some operational missions, training was performed at Bushehr Air Base in Iran and overseas in North Korea . In early 1984 , an Iranian attack helicopter AH-1J Sea Cobra

2640-444: The 6,000 rpm output of the engine to achieve a fan speed of 3,090 rpm; both of these were designed by British supplier Dowty Group . The constant speed of the five-bladed fan enables the use of a relatively simple blade profile. Various noise reduction measures were implemented, including the use of Hoffmann -sourced plastic-covered wooden blades and the adoption of a re-designed fan that used five blades instead of seven. The use of

2720-412: The Fantrainer 600, aiming to re-introduce the type under the new name Fanjet 600 . During 2010, the company purchased all documentation related to the design, testing and type certification of the original aircraft, followed by the acquisition of associated tools, spare parts inventory, and the trademarks for Rhein-Flugzeugbau and Vereinigte Flugtechnische Werke. FanJet Aviation believes that, following

2800-637: The Fantrainer has one-tenth of the fuel consumption of the Dassault/Dornier Alpha Jet , a contemporary jet-powered trainer aircraft. Furthermore, RFB has claimed the type to be one-fifth as expensive to procure as the Cessna T-37 Tweet , a rival trainer, while delivering comparable performance (except for a slower top speed) at one-tenth of the fuel consumption. The design of the Fantrainer reportedly incorporates several features to increase effectiveness and reduce costs. Attention

2880-532: The PC-7 Mk.II M as its new basic trainer, signing a contract for an initial batch of 75 aircraft, with an option for buying an additional 38 PC-7 Mk.II Ms; the Indian military had a total requirement of 181 trainers. The fast-tracked decision to procure a foreign aircraft over a domestically developed alternative proposed by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) was a controversial one; retired Air Marshal Anil Chopra argued that HAL had no viable design for

2960-569: The PC-7 across the North American civil aviation market. At this time, there were already five civil-registered PC-7s in operation in North America; Pilatus believed that the region could be a viable market for both remanufactured and newly built examples of the type, which would be priced between $ 1 million and $ 2 million respectively. It was recognised that this market was limited, Western Aircraft expected to sell only

3040-549: The PC-7 generated considerable profits, allowing the company to finance the development of further types of aircraft. The PC-7 Mk.II M is a development of the PC-9's airframe and avionics, which was powered by the PC-7's smaller turbine engine, which reportedly achieved lower operating and maintenance costs. This variant was developed at the behest of the South African Air Force (SAAF), who later adopted

3120-475: The PC-7 has been succeeded by the newer PC-9 and PC-21 trainers. Work on what would become the PC-7 commenced during the 1960s. It was based on the earlier piston -powered Pilatus P-3 , the initial prototype being produced from the existing prototype P-3, principally differing by the substitution of its Lycoming O-435 engine with a Pratt & Whitney PT6A-20 turboprop power-plant. On 12 April 1966 ; 58 years ago  ( 1966-04-12 ) ,

3200-583: The PC-7: At least seven PC-7 aircraft are in service by various unspecified civilian operators as of October 2008. Data from General characteristics Performance Armament Related development Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Glass fiber Glass fiber ( or glass fibre ) is a material consisting of numerous extremely fine fibers of glass . Glassmakers throughout history have experimented with glass fibers, but mass manufacture of glass fiber

3280-514: The United States. At one point, German flag carrier Lufthansa also reportedly took an interest in the aircraft, noting its jet-like handling. Pilots have confirmed the type to be relatively fuel-efficient and capable of providing a true "jet feel" for a reasonable price. The Royal Thai Air Force operates the FT400 and FT600 versions, using it to train ab initio pilots who then went on to fly

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3360-511: The abilities of the Fantrainer in a training capacity is such to almost fully cover a pilot's entire syllabus, only needing to be supplemented by an Advanced Trainer for the purpose of building direct experience with high performance jets. The first four aircraft were constructed in Germany while the remaining aircraft were assembled in Thailand from kits shipped from RFB, which were assembled at

3440-474: The adoption of a glass cockpit to modernise it, the aircraft remains both valid and cost-competitive for current-day pilot training purposes compared to contemporary jet-powered competitors. The RFB Fantrainer is a twin-seat trainer aircraft; its most distinctive feature is its propulsion system, a mid-mounted ducted fan . This reportedly delivers performance akin to aircraft harnessing conventional jet propulsion , but at significantly reduced costs; on average,

3520-461: The biopersistence of synthetic fibers after one year was 0.04–13%, but 27% for amosite asbestos. Fibers that persisted longer were found to be more carcinogenic. Glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) is a composite material or fiber-reinforced plastic made of a plastic reinforced by fine glass fibers. The glass can be in the form of a chopped strand mat (CSM) or a woven fabric. As with many other composite materials (such as reinforced concrete ),

3600-425: The bushing acts more like a furnace as it melts more of the material. Bushings are the major expense in fiber glass production. The nozzle design is also critical. The number of nozzles ranges from 200 to 4000 in multiples of 200. The important part of the nozzle in continuous filament manufacture is the thickness of its walls in the exit region. It was found that inserting a counterbore here reduced wetting. Today,

3680-483: The cockpit was also improved; the changes reportedly enabled a significant noise reduction and superior external visibility. The aircraft has been produced in two principal models, these being the Fantrainer 400 , powered by a 545 shp (406 kW) Allison 250-C20B, and the Fantrainer 600 , which was powered by a 650 shp (480 kW) Allison 250-C30. According to aerospace publication Flight International,

3760-405: The company had forecast a wider market for trainer aircraft of roughly 5,000 aircraft over the following decade, it stated that it was aiming for an initial market share of 4 per cent (equivalent to 200 aircraft) due to the unorthodox nature of the Fantrainer. During 1983, the prototype was refitted, its seven-bladed ducted fan being substituted for a five-bladed production standard counterpart, while

3840-470: The continuous filament process, after the fiber is drawn, a size is applied. This size helps protect the fiber as it is wound onto a bobbin. The particular size applied relates to end-use. While some sizes are processing aids, others make the fiber have an affinity for a certain resin, if the fiber is to be used in a composite. Size is usually added at 0.5–2.0% by weight. Winding then takes place at around 1 km/min. For staple fiber production, there are

3920-415: The diameter of the fiber, the viscosity must be relatively low. If it is too high, the fiber will break during drawing. However, if it is too low, the glass will form droplets instead of being drawn out into a fiber. There are two main types of glass fiber manufacture and two main types of glass fiber product. First, fiber is made either from a direct melt process or a marble remelt process. Both start with

4000-445: The first prototype ( registration D-EATJ ), powered by a pair of EA871 110 kW (150 hp) NSU Wankel engines , made its maiden flight . The EA871 engine installation proved to be troublesome, thus the second prototype ( D-EATI ) was furnished with a single 310 kW (420 shp) Allison 250-C20B turboshaft engine, making its first flight on 31 May 1978. The second prototype crashed on 7 September 1978, which resulted in

4080-556: The first prototype being modified to Fantrainer 400 standard, being furnished with an Allison engine and revised air intakes. The Fantrainer was evaluated by the Luftwaffe against the Beechcraft T-34C and Pilatus PC-7 turboprop powered trainers, but although it was considered to be the most suitable of the three aircraft, being cheaper both to purchase (at DM 1 million per aircraft) and to operate, no orders resulted as it

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4160-597: The glass may be specifically placed in those portions of the structure that will experience tensile loads. Uses for regular glass fiber include mats and fabrics for thermal insulation , electrical insulation , sound insulation, high-strength fabrics or heat- and corrosion-resistant fabrics. It is also used to reinforce various materials, such as tent poles, pole vault poles, arrows , bows and crossbows , translucent roofing panels, automobile bodies, hockey sticks , surfboards , boat hulls , and paper honeycomb . It has been used for medical purposes in casts. Glass fiber

4240-412: The glass wetted the bushing so easily that it ran under the plate after exiting the nozzle and accumulated on the underside. Also, due to its cost and the tendency to wear, the platinum was alloyed with rhodium. In the direct melt process, the bushing serves as a collector for the molten glass. It is heated slightly to keep the glass at the correct temperature for fiber formation. In the marble melt process,

4320-493: The increasing age of existing trainer aircraft. To support the relaunch, another P-3 was obtained from the Swiss Air Force . After modifications, this aircraft first flew on 12 May 1975 ; 49 years ago  ( 1975-05-12 ) . Further extensive modifications followed later in the programme, including the adoption of a new one-piece wing complete with integral fuel tanks , along with an altered tail fin and

4400-409: The late 1990s, Israeli engineering firm Radom began offering a kit of new avionics for the type, which included a new mission computer, a wide-angle head-up display , along with various replacement communications and weapons-delivery systems. During July 1998 , Pilatus announced that it has come to an agreement with American company Western Aircraft , for the latter to act as a distributor for

4480-517: The late 2000s, the Chadian Air Force reportedly used its small fleet of PC-7s to bomb rebel positions both in their own territory and in neighbouring Sudan . The Swiss government summoned the Chad's ambassador to request an explanation for these reports, as these actions breached the export agreements previously struck for the sale of the type to Chad. An incomplete list of the users of

4560-401: The lower its tendency to wet the vertical part of the nozzle. The surface tension of the glass is what influences the formation of the meniscus. For E-glass it should be around 400 mN/m. The attenuation (drawing) speed is important in the nozzle design. Although slowing this speed down can make coarser fiber, it is uneconomic to run at speeds for which the nozzles were not designed. In

4640-510: The market had a more favourable reaction to the Fantrainer 600 during the 1980s. In August 1982, the Royal Thai Air Force signed a contract with RFB to purchase 47 aircraft, 31 of the model 400 and 16 of the 600. Upon introduction, they were assigned to the 402 Squadron and used as a step-up trainer for their future F-5 Freedom Fighter pilots. The step-up characteristic of the Fantrainer is generally one of its main advantages;

4720-470: The mat is vacuumed to a screen and the binder is cured in the oven. Glass fiber has increased in popularity since the discovery that asbestos causes cancer and its subsequent removal from most products. Following this increase in popularity, the safety of glass fiber has also been called into question. Research shows that the composition of glass fiber can cause similar toxicity as asbestos since both are silicate fibers. Studies on rats conducted during

4800-416: The modified prototype performed its maiden flight . However, the PC-7 programme was abruptly shelved following an accident involving the aircraft. The termination of work was reportedly driven by a lack of market interest. During 1973 , it was decided to restart work on the programme; factors for its revival had included the 1973 oil crisis , the launch of the rival Beechcraft T-34C Turbo-Mentor , and

4880-467: The molten glass in the furnace goes directly to the bushing for formation. The bushing plate is the most important part of the machinery for making the fiber. This is a small metal furnace containing nozzles for the fiber to be formed through. It is almost always made of platinum alloyed with rhodium for durability. Platinum is used because the glass melt has a natural affinity for wetting it. When bushings were first used they were pure platinum, and

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4960-418: The nozzles are designed to have a minimum thickness at the exit. As glass flows through the nozzle, it forms a drop which is suspended from the end. As it falls, it leaves a thread attached by the meniscus to the nozzle as long as the viscosity is in the correct range for fiber formation. The smaller the annular ring of the nozzle and the thinner the wall at exit, the faster the drop will form and fall away, and

5040-613: The option of buying a batch of 38 trainers. A number of PC-7s were employed by the Guatemalan Air Force in air strikes and for close air support (CAS) during the Guatemalan civil war , starting in 1982 , until the end of the conflict in 1996 . The PC-7s were typically deployed from the airfield in La Aurora , being armed with a mixture of gun pods and rocket pods . During the lengthy Iran–Iraq War of

5120-456: The original cockpit was based on that of the Alpha Jet. The rear fuselage uses a conventional metal structure instead of plastics, which were unsuitable due to the presence of heat generated by the engine exhaust. To ease maintenance requirements, a modular approach is present in the Fantrainer's design, many of its systems are grouped together into single detachable units. It is fitted with

5200-416: The raw materials in solid form. The materials are mixed together and melted in a furnace . Then, for the marble process, the molten material is sheared and rolled into marbles which are cooled and packaged. The marbles are taken to the fiber manufacturing facility where they are inserted into a can and remelted. The molten glass is extruded to the bushing to be formed into fiber. In the direct melt process,

5280-528: The relevant export agreement between the customer and the Swiss government . An improved model of the aircraft, the PC-7 Mk.II M , was developed during the 1990s, by combining the newer airframe and avionics from the PC-9 with the PC-7's smaller turbine engine. Reportedly, in excess of 600 PC-7s have been sold to various operators, the majority of which are in service. In Pilatus' range of aircraft,

5360-492: The role, and that the IAF could not have reasonably afforded the delay involved in the development of such an aircraft. The procurement of an additional 106 trainers under the 'Make & Buy' (Indian) category was repeatedly deferred. In 2017 , the maintenance agreement with Pilatus lapsed, resulting in the IAF becoming solely responsible for performing these activities. During 2018 , India announced that it had chosen to exercise

5440-427: The softening point being "the temperature at which a 0.55–0.77 mm diameter fiber 235 mm long, elongates under its own weight at 1 mm/min when suspended vertically and heated at the rate of 5 °C per minute". The strain point is reached when the glass has a viscosity of 10   poise . The annealing point, which is the temperature where the internal stresses are reduced to an acceptable commercial limit in 15 minutes,

5520-415: The tensile strength. Moisture is easily adsorbed and can worsen microscopic cracks and surface defects, and lessen tenacity. In contrast to carbon fiber , glass can undergo more elongation before it breaks. Thinner filaments can bend further before they break. The viscosity of the molten glass is very important for manufacturing success. During drawing, the process where the hot glass is pulled to reduce

5600-414: The two materials act together, each overcoming the deficits of the other. Whereas the plastic resins are strong in compressive loading and relatively weak in tensile strength , the glass fibers are very strong in tension but tend not to resist compression. By combining the two materials, GRP becomes a material that resists both compressive and tensile forces well. The two materials may be used uniformly or

5680-568: The type. A batch of 60 PC-7 Mk.II Ms were locally assembled in South Africa using kits supplied by Pilatus for the SAAF; due to political considerations, these aircraft were not fitted with the armament hardpoints . Deliveries to the SAAF took place between late 1994 and 1996 . In addition to Pilatus' own improvement programmes, several third-party companies have independently developed their own upgrades for customer's PC-7. During

5760-448: The wing accommodates a total of four 96-litre capacity fuel cells, which are integral to the wing structure; only two of the tanks can be filled when performing aerobatics . Both skin and internal structure of the wing are formed from a pair of moulded skins sandwiched upon a series of inflated plastic tubes. To facilitate greater performance, the wing can be shortened with relative ease according to RFB. A mixture of carbon and fiberglass

5840-565: Was soda lime glass or A-glass ("A" for the alkali it contains). It is not very resistant to alkali. A newer, alkali -free (<2%) type, E-glass, is an alumino-borosilicate glass. C-glass was developed to resist attack from chemicals, mostly acids that destroy E-glass. T-glass is a North American variant of C-glass. AR-glass is alkali-resistant glass. Most glass fibers have limited solubility in water but are very dependent on pH . Chloride ions will also attack and dissolve E-glass surfaces. E-glass does not actually melt, but softens instead,

5920-432: Was also paid to ease of use, the engine is controlled via a single-lever power control with ground and flight idle stops, behaving much like a traditional turbojet unit; in general, both controls and instrumentation are clear and straightforward. The engine and fan installation incorporates a freely-moving turbine, which necessitates constant-speed control over the fan along with the use of reduction gear to roughly halve

6000-521: Was decided that the Piaggio P.149 was still adequate for the Luftwaffe ' s needs. Despite failing to secure an order from the Luftwaffe , during May 1982, RFB announced that it was set to commence mass production of the Fantrainer within the next few months. By this point, the prototype had accumulated 500 flight hours, which included a five week-long marketing tour around America , have flown an average of 6.5 hours per day during this sojourn. While

6080-498: Was in 1936. In 1938 Owens-Illinois Glass Company and Corning Glass Works joined to form the Owens-Corning Fiberglas Corporation . When the two companies joined to produce and promote glass fiber, they introduced continuous filament glass fibers. Owens-Corning is still the major glass-fiber producer in the market today. The most common type of glass fiber used in fiberglass is E-glass , which

6160-496: Was only made possible with the invention of finer machine tooling. In 1893, Edward Drummond Libbey exhibited a dress at the World's Columbian Exposition incorporating glass fibers with the diameter and texture of silk fibers. Glass fibers can also occur naturally, as Pele's hair . Glass wool , which is one product called "fiberglass" today, was invented some time between 1932 and 1933 by Games Slayter of Owens-Illinois , as

6240-600: Was practiced in Egypt and Venice. Before the recent use of these fibers for textile applications, all glass fiber had been manufactured as staple (that is, clusters of short lengths of fiber). The modern method for producing glass wool is the invention of Games Slayter working at the Owens-Illinois Glass Company ( Toledo, Ohio ). He first applied for a patent for a new process to make glass wool in 1933. The first commercial production of glass fiber

6320-730: Was shot down by an Iraqi PC-7 during Operation Khyber (Iranian pilots Reza Moghadam and Mohammad Yazdi were rescued). In 1994 , the Mexican Air Force used several armed PC-7s to attack units of the Zapatista Army of National Liberation during the Chiapas conflict in Mexico . This action was considered illegal by the Swiss government because the aeroplanes were sold for training purposes only, and as result, Switzerland issued

6400-447: Was the first type of glass used for fiberglass. E-glass ("E" because of initial electrical application), is alkali free, and was the first glass formulation used for continuous filament formation. It now makes up most of the fiberglass production in the world, and also is the single largest consumer of boron minerals globally. It is susceptible to chloride ion attack and is a poor choice for marine applications. S-glass ("S" for "Strength")

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