Misplaced Pages

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126-421: RP-1 (alternatively, Rocket Propellant-1 or Refined Petroleum-1 ) is a highly refined form of kerosene outwardly similar to jet fuel , used as rocket fuel . RP-1 provides a lower specific impulse than liquid hydrogen (H 2 ), but is cheaper, is stable at room temperature, and presents a lower explosion hazard. RP-1 is far denser than H 2 , giving it a higher energy density (though its specific energy

252-494: A hydrated crystal is left in air, dehydration may occur slowly. This makes the color of the crystal become dull. Kerosene can keep air away from the crystal. Octane rating Whether or not a higher octane fuel improves or impairs an engine's performance depends on the design of the engine. In broad terms, fuels with a higher octane rating are used in higher-compression gasoline engines , which may yield higher power for these engines. The added power in such cases comes from

378-415: A knock sensor that monitors if knock is being produced by the fuel being used. In modern computer-controlled engines, the ignition timing will be automatically altered by the engine management system to reduce the knock to an acceptable level. Octanes are a family of hydrocarbons that are typical components of gasoline. They are colorless liquids that boil around 125 °C (260 °F). One member of

504-475: A United States patent for the same invention. These patents were subsequently upheld in both countries in a series of lawsuits, and other producers were obliged to pay him royalties. In 1851, Samuel Martin Kier began selling lamp oil to local miners, under the name "Carbon Oil". He distilled this from crude oil by a process of his own invention. He also invented a new lamp to burn his product. He has been dubbed

630-421: A chain at all. The breakdown products of both molecules are also gases, with fewer problems due to phase separation, and much less likelihood of polymerization and deposition. However, methane (and to a lesser extent propane) reintroduces handling inconveniences that prompted kerosenes in the first place. The low vapor pressure of kerosenes gives safety for ground crews. However, in flight the kerosene tank needs

756-413: A flame wave initiate at the spark plug and then "travel in a fairly uniform manner across the combustion chamber" with the expanding gas mix pushing the piston throughout the entirety of the power stroke. A stable gasoline and air mix will combust when the flame wave reaches the molecules, adding heat at the interface. Knock occurs when a secondary flame wave forms from instability and then travels against

882-622: A great deal of public excitement and investment drilling in new wells, not only in Pennsylvania, but also in Canada, where petroleum had been discovered at Oil Springs, Ontario in 1858, and southern Poland, where Ignacy Łukasiewicz had been distilling lamp oil from petroleum seeps since 1852. The increased supply of petroleum allowed oil refiners to entirely side-step the oil-from-coal patents of both Young and Gesner, and produce illuminating oil from petroleum without paying royalties to anyone. As

1008-515: A heat source during power failures. Kerosene is widely used in Japan and Chile as a home heating fuel for portable and installed kerosene heaters. In Chile and Japan, kerosene can be readily bought at any filling station or be delivered to homes in some cases. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, kerosene is often used as a heating fuel in areas not connected to a gas pipeline network. It

1134-492: A higher density and simpler handling than hydrogen. For rocket engines, specific impulse ( I sp ) differs from other engines' (turbines or pistons) efficiencies: due to the rocket equation , efficiency is derived from exhaust velocity, not from total energy. As such, it can be beneficial to use less energy overall in exchange for lower-molecular-mass exhaust, meaning that chemical rocket engines achieve their peak efficiency at non-stoichiometric ratios. In particular, since

1260-497: A kerosene-based fuel, is used by the United States military as a replacement in diesel fueled vehicles and for powering aircraft. JP-8 is also used by the U.S. military and its NATO allies as a fuel for heaters, stoves, tanks, and as a replacement for diesel fuel in the engines of nearly all tactical ground vehicles and electrical generators. Aliphatic kerosene is a type of kerosene which has a low aromatic hydrocarbon content,

1386-440: A lighter fuel that's less prone to autoignition is a wise "insurance policy". For the same reasons, those lighter fuels which are better solvents are much less likely to cause any "varnish" or other fouling on the "backup" spark plugs. In almost all general aviation piston engines, the fuel mixture is directly controlled by the pilot, via a knob and cable or lever similar to (and next to) the throttle control. Leaning — reducing

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1512-488: A liquid-oxygen and a liquid-nitrogen tank. Thus, once the kerosene was chilled initially, it could remain so for the brief time needed to finish launch preparations. The latest version of Falcon 9, Falcon 9 Full Thrust , also has the capability of sub-cooling the RP-1 fuel to −7  °C , giving a 2.5%–4% density increase. Chemically, a hydrocarbon propellant is less mass-efficient than hydrogen, although typically achieving

1638-434: A local petroleum seep . Many people knew of his work, but paid little attention to it. On the night of 31 July 1853, doctors at the local hospital needed to perform an emergency operation, virtually impossible by candlelight. They therefore sent a messenger for Łukasiewicz and his new lamps. The lamp burned so brightly and cleanly that the hospital officials ordered several lamps plus a large supply of fuel. Łukasiewicz realized

1764-540: A major political and environmental consequence. The Indian government subsidizes the fuel to keep the price very low, to around 15 U.S. cents per liter as of February 2007, as lower prices discourage dismantling of forests for cooking fuel. In Nigeria an attempt by the government to remove a fuel subsidy that includes kerosene met with strong opposition. Kerosene is used as a fuel in portable stoves , especially in Primus stoves invented in 1892. Portable kerosene stoves earn

1890-439: A minimum . Unsaturated compounds ( alkenes , alkynes , and aromatics ) are also held to low levels, as they tend to polymerize at high temperatures and long periods of storage. At the time, it was thought that kerosene-fueled missiles might remain in storage for years awaiting activation. This function was later transferred to solid-fuel rockets , though the high-temperature benefits of saturated hydrocarbons remained. Because of

2016-458: A much better light than a simple wick-type lamp does. Recently, a multipurpose lantern that doubles as a cook stove has been introduced in India in areas with no electricity. In countries such as Nigeria, kerosene is the main fuel used for cooking, especially by the poor, and kerosene stoves have replaced traditional wood-based cooking appliances. As such, increase in the price of kerosene can have

2142-805: A naturally occurring asphaltum called albertite . He was blocked from using it by the New Brunswick coal conglomerate because they had coal extraction rights for the province, and he lost a court case when their experts claimed albertite was a form of coal. In 1854, Gesner moved to Newtown Creek , Long Island , New York . There, he secured backing from a group of businessmen. They formed the North American Gas Light Company, to which he assigned his patents. Despite clear priority of discovery, Gesner did not obtain his first kerosene patent until 1854, two years after James Young 's United States patent. Gesner's method of purifying

2268-418: A number of useful liquids from it, one of which he named paraffine oil because at low temperatures, it congealed into a substance that resembled paraffin wax. Young took out a patent on his process and the resulting products in 1850, and built the first truly commercial oil-works in the world at Bathgate in 1851, using oil extracted from locally mined torbanite, shale, and bituminous coal. In 1852, he took out

2394-408: A petroleum residue, as can be seen in gasoline, diesel, or jet fuel tanks that have been in service for years. Rocket engines have cycle lifetimes measured in minutes or even seconds, preventing truly heavy deposits. However, rockets are much more sensitive to a deposit, as described above. Thus, kerosene systems generally entail more teardowns and overhauls, creating operations and labor expenses. This

2520-440: A polluting fuel and recommends that "governments and practitioners immediately stop promoting its household use". Kerosene smoke contains high levels of harmful particulate matter , and household use of kerosene is associated with higher risks of cancer , respiratory infections, asthma , tuberculosis , cataracts , and adverse pregnancy outcomes. Kerosene is a low- viscosity , clear liquid formed from hydrocarbons obtained from

2646-505: A public demonstration in Charlottetown , Prince Edward Island of a new process he had discovered. He heated coal in a retort , and distilled from it a clear, thin fluid that he showed made an excellent lamp fuel. He coined the name "kerosene" for his fuel, a contraction of keroselaion , meaning wax-oil . The cost of extracting kerosene from coal was high. Gesner recalled from his extensive knowledge of New Brunswick 's geology

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2772-486: A relatively low octane rating; the isomer iso-octane causes less knocking because it is more branched and combusts more smoothly. In general, branched compounds with a higher intermolecular force (e.g., London dispersion force for iso-octane) will have a higher octane rating, because they are harder to ignite. Octane isomers such as n-octane and 2,3,3-trimethylpentane have an octane rating of -20 and 106.1, respectively ( RON measurement). The large differences between

2898-438: A reputation of reliable and durable stove in everyday use, and perform especially well under adverse conditions. In outdoor activities and mountaineering, a decisive advantage of pressurized kerosene stoves over gas cartridge stoves is their particularly high thermal output and their ability to operate at very low temperature in winter or at high altitude. Wick stoves like Perfection's or wickless like Boss continue to be used by

3024-436: A result, the illuminating oil industry in the United States completely switched over to petroleum in the 1860s. The petroleum-based illuminating oil was widely sold as Kerosene, and the trade name soon lost its proprietary status, and became the lower-case generic product "kerosene". Because Gesner's original Kerosene had been also known as "coal oil", generic kerosene from petroleum was commonly called "coal oil" in some parts of

3150-454: A resurgence in popularity in 21st century rockets, at the expense of kerolox (better efficiency) and hydrolox (better handling). Examples include Starship , New Glenn , the first stage of Vulcan , and Zhuque-2 . During engine shutdown, fuel flow goes to zero rapidly, while the engine is still quite hot. Residual and trapped fuel can polymerize or even carbonize at hot spots or in hot components. Even without hot spots, heavy fuels can create

3276-461: A separate pressurization system to replace fuel volume as it drains. Generally, this is a separate tank of liquid or high-pressure inert gas, such as nitrogen or helium . This creates extra cost and weight. Cryogenic or volatile propellants generally do not need a separate pressurant; instead, some propellant is expanded (often with engine heat) into low-density gas and routed back to its tank. A few highly volatile propellant designs do not even need

3402-648: A similar test engine to that used in RON testing, but with a preheated fuel mixture, higher engine speed, and variable ignition timing to further stress the fuel's knock resistance. Depending on the composition of the fuel, the MON of a modern pump gasoline will be about 8 to 12 lower than the RON, but there is no direct link between RON and MON. See the table below. In most countries in Europe, and in Australia and New Zealand,

3528-426: Is a combustible hydrocarbon liquid which is derived from petroleum . It is widely used as a fuel in aviation as well as households. Its name derives from κηρός ( kērós ) meaning " wax ", and was registered as a trademark by Nova Scotia geologist and inventor Abraham Gesner in 1854 before evolving into a generic trademark . It is sometimes spelled kerosine in scientific and industrial usage. Kerosene

3654-543: Is a custom-blended fuel used by the New York City Transit Authority to power its bus fleet. The transit agency started using this fuel in 2004, prior to the widespread adoption of ultra-low-sulfur diesel , which has since become the standard. In 2008, the suppliers of the custom fuel failed to tender for a renewal of the transit agency's contract, leading to a negotiated contract at a significantly increased cost. JP-8 (for "Jet Propellant 8"),

3780-480: Is a measured and/or calculated rating of the fuel's ability to resist autoignition, the higher the octane of the fuel, the harder that fuel is to ignite and the more heat is required to ignite it. The result is that a hotter ignition spark is required for ignition. Creating a hotter spark requires more energy from the ignition system, which in turn increases the parasitic electrical load on the engine. The spark also must begin earlier in order to generate sufficient heat at

3906-493: Is a mixture of many hydrocarbons and often other additives). Octane ratings are not indicators of the energy content of fuels. (See Effects below and Heat of combustion ). They are only a measure of the fuel's tendency to burn in a controlled manner, rather than exploding in an uncontrolled manner. Where the octane number is raised by blending in ethanol, energy content per volume is reduced. Ethanol energy density can be compared with gasoline in heat-of-combustion tables. It

RP-1 - Misplaced Pages Continue

4032-441: Is a problem for expendable engines, as well as reusable ones, because engines must be ground-fired some number of times before launch. Even cold-flow tests, in which the propellants are not ignited, can leave residues. On the upside, below a chamber pressure of about 1,000 psi (7 MPa), kerosene can produce sooty deposits on the inside of the nozzle and chamber liner. This acts as a significant insulation layer and can reduce

4158-457: Is also commonly referred to as " coal oil ". Confusingly, the name "paraffin" is also used to refer to a number of distinct petroleum byproducts other than kerosene. For instance, liquid paraffin (called mineral oil in the US) is a more viscous and highly refined product which is used as a laxative. Paraffin wax is a waxy solid extracted from petroleum. To prevent confusion between kerosene and

4284-409: Is also developing an RP-1 fueled engine for its future rockets. During and immediately after World War II, alcohols (primarily ethanol , occasionally methanol ) were commonly used as fuels for large liquid-fueled rockets . Their high heat of vaporization kept regeneratively-cooled engines from melting, especially considering that alcohols would typically contain several percent water. However, it

4410-404: Is an even lower sulfur content. However, as most users accept RP-1, there was little incentive to produce and stock a second, even rarer and more expensive formulation. The OTRAG group launched test vehicles using more common blends. In at least one instance, a rocket was propelled by diesel fuel . However, no OTRAG rocket came even close to orbit. Kerosene Kerosene , or paraffin ,

4536-740: Is common in much of Argentina , Australia , Canada , India , New Zealand , Nigeria , and the United States , while the term paraffin (or a closely related variant) is used in Chile , East Africa , South Africa , Norway , and the United Kingdom . The term "lamp oil", or the equivalent in the local languages, is common in the majority of Asia and the Southeastern United States , although in Appalachia , it

4662-508: Is commonly used in metal extraction as the diluent, for example in copper extraction by LIX-84 it can be used in mixer settlers. Kerosene is used as a diluent in the PUREX extraction process, but it is increasingly being supplanted by dodecane and other artificial hydrocarbons such as TPH (Hydrogenated Propylene Trimer). Traditionally the UK plants at Sellafield used aromatic kerosene to reduce

4788-425: Is derived from testing the gasoline in ordinary multi-cylinder engines (rather than in a purpose-built test engine), normally at wide open throttle. This type of test was developed in the 1920s and is still reliable today. The original RdON tests were done in cars on the road, but as technology developed the testing was moved to chassis dynamometers with environmental controls to improve consistency. The evaluation of

4914-427: Is ignited only near the end of the compression stroke by electric spark plugs . Therefore, being able to compress the air/fuel mixture without causing detonation is important mainly for gasoline engines. Using gasoline with lower octane than an engine is built for may cause engine knocking and/or pre-ignition . The octane rating of aviation gasoline was extremely important in determining aero engine performance in

5040-518: Is liquid around room temperature : 25 °C (77 °F). The flash point of kerosene is between 37 °C (99 °F) and 65 °C (149 °F), and its autoignition temperature is 220 °C (428 °F). The freezing point of kerosene depends on grade, with commercial aviation fuel standardized at −47 °C (−53 °F). Grade 1-K kerosene freezes around −40 °C (−40 °F, 233 K). The process of distilling crude oil/petroleum into kerosene, as well as other hydrocarbon compounds,

5166-541: Is lower). RP-1 also has a fraction of the toxicity and carcinogenic hazards of hydrazine , another room-temperature liquid fuel. RP-1 is a fuel in the first-stage boosters of the Electron , Soyuz , Zenit , Delta I-III , Atlas , Falcon , Antares , and Tronador II rockets. It also powered the first stages of the Energia , Titan I , Saturn I and IB , and Saturn V . The Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO)

RP-1 - Misplaced Pages Continue

5292-411: Is possible for a fuel to have a Research Octane Number (RON) more than 100, because iso-octane is not the most knock-resistant substance available today. Racing fuels, avgas , LPG and alcohol fuels such as methanol may have octane ratings of 110 or significantly higher. Typical "octane booster" gasoline additives include MTBE , ETBE , iso-octane and toluene . Lead in the form of tetraethyllead

5418-424: Is produced by fractional distillation of crude oil in an oil refinery . It condenses at a temperature intermediate between diesel fuel , which is less volatile, and naphtha and gasoline , which are more volatile. Kerosene made up 8.5 percent by volume of petroleum refinery output in 2021 in the United States, of which nearly all was kerosene-type jet fuel (8.4 percent). The fuel, also known as heating oil in

5544-416: Is similar to that of diesel fuel ; its lower heating value is 43.1 MJ / kg (around 18,500 Btu / lb ), and its higher heating value is 46.2 MJ/kg (19,900 Btu/lb). The ASTM recognizes two grades of kerosene: 1-K (less than 0.04% sulfur by weight) and 2-K (0.3% sulfur by weight). Grade 1-K kerosene burns cleaner with fewer deposits, fewer toxins, and less frequent maintenance than 2-K, and

5670-540: Is sourced from a small number of oil fields with high-quality base stock, or it can be artificially synthesized . This, coupled with the relatively small demand in a niche market compared to other petroleum users, drives RP-1's high price. Military specifications of RP-1 are covered in MIL-R-25576, and the chemical and physical properties of RP-1 are described in NISTIR 6646. In Russia and other former Soviet countries,

5796-435: Is the octane number of the fuel. For example, gasoline with the same knocking characteristics as a mixture of 90% iso-octane and 10% heptane would have an octane rating of 90. A rating of 90 does not mean that the gasoline contains just iso-octane and heptane in these proportions, but that it has the same detonation resistance properties (generally, gasoline sold for common use never consists solely of iso-octane and heptane; it

5922-412: Is the preferred grade for indoor heaters and stoves. In the United Kingdom, two grades of heating oil are defined. BS 2869 Class C1 is the lightest grade used for lanterns, camping stoves, and wick heaters, and mixed with petrol in some vintage combustion engines as a substitute for tractor vaporizing oil . BS 2869 Class C2 is a heavier distillate, which is used as domestic heating oil. Premium kerosene

6048-667: Is to use a multistage rocket, where the first stage uses kerosene where thrust matters most, and the upper stages use hydrogen where specific impulse matters more. Examples of this dual-fuel architecture include the Saturn V moon rocket and the Atlas V workhorse. Methane serves as a middle-ground between hydrogen and kerosene, offering middling molecular mass and efficiency, middling handling, middling coking/buildup properties, and density only slightly worse than kerosene. Since methane's handling difficulties, while worse than kerosene, are about

6174-420: Is used less for cooking, with LPG being preferred because it is easier to light. Kerosene is often the fuel of choice for range cookers such as Rayburn . Additives such as RangeKlene can be put into kerosene to ensure that it burns cleaner and produces less soot when used in range cookers. The Amish , who generally abstain from the use of electricity, rely on kerosene for lighting at night. More ubiquitous in

6300-498: Is usually sold in 5- or 20-litre containers from hardware, camping and garden stores, and is often dyed purple. Standard kerosene is usually dispensed in bulk by a tanker and is undyed. National and international standards define the properties of several grades of kerosene used for jet fuel . Flash point and freezing point properties are particularly interesting for operation and safety; the standards also define additives for control of static electricity and other purposes. Kerosene

6426-470: Is widely used to power jet engines of aircraft ( jet fuel ), as well as some rocket engines in a highly refined form called RP-1 . It is also commonly used as a cooking and lighting fuel, and for fire toys such as poi . In parts of Asia, kerosene is sometimes used as fuel for small outboard motors or even motorcycles . World total kerosene consumption for all purposes is equivalent to about 5,500,000 barrels per day as of July 2023. The term "kerosene"

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6552-846: The Grandfather of the American Oil Industry by historians. Kier's salt wells began to be fouled with petroleum in the 1840s. At first, Kier simply dumped the oil into the nearby Pennsylvania Main Line Canal as useless waste, but later he began experimenting with several distillates of the crude oil, along with a chemist from eastern Pennsylvania. Ignacy Łukasiewicz , a Polish pharmacist residing in Lviv , and his partner Jan Zeh  [ pl ] had been experimenting with different distillation techniques, trying to improve on Gesner's kerosene process, but using oil from

6678-557: The four-stroke cycle . In a simple explanation, the forward moving wave of combustion that burns the hydrocarbon + oxygen mixture inside the cylinder like a wave that a surfer would wish to surf upon is violently disrupted by a secondary wave that has started elsewhere. The shock wave of these two separate waves creates the characteristic metallic "pinging" sound, and cylinder pressure increases dramatically. Effects of engine knocking range from inconsequential (incremental heating plus power loss) to completely destructive (detonation while one of

6804-873: The fractional distillation of petroleum between 150 and 275 °C (300 and 525 °F), resulting in a mixture with a density of 0.78–0.81 g/cm . It is miscible with petroleum solvents but immiscible with water. It is composed of hydrocarbon molecules that typically contain between 6-20 carbon atoms per molecule , predominantly containing 9 to 16 carbon atoms. Regardless of crude oil source or processing history, kerosene's major components are branched- and straight-chain alkanes (hydrocarbon chains) and naphthenes (cycloalkanes), which normally account for at least 70% of volume. Aromatic hydrocarbons such as alkylbenzenes (single ring) and alkylnaphthalenes (double ring), do not normally exceed 25% by volume of kerosene streams. Olefins are usually not present at more than 5% by volume. The heat of combustion of kerosene

6930-423: The ideal gas law . Higher compression ratios necessarily add parasitic load to the engine, and are only necessary if the engine is being specifically designed to run on high-octane fuel. Aircraft engines run at relatively low speeds and are " undersquare ". They run best on lower-octane, slower-burning fuels that require less heat and a lower compression ratio for optimum vaporization and uniform fuel-air mixing, with

7056-480: The "headline" octane rating prominently displayed on the pump is the RON, but in Canada, the United States, and Mexico, the headline number is the simple mean or average of the RON and the MON, called the Anti-Knock Index ( AKI ), and often written on pumps as (R+M)/2 . AKI is also sometimes called PON (Pump Octane Number). Because of the 8 to 12 octane number difference between RON and MON noted above,

7182-551: The AKI shown in Canada and the United States is 4 to 6 octane numbers lower than elsewhere in the world for the same fuel. This difference between RON and MON is known as the fuel's sensitivity, and is not typically published for those countries that use the Anti-Knock Index labelling system. See the table in the following section for a comparison. Another type of octane rating, called Observed Road Octane Number ( RdON ),

7308-472: The Amish and off grid living and in natural disasters where there is no power available. In the early to mid-20th century, kerosene or tractor vaporizing oil was used as a cheap fuel for tractors and hit 'n miss engines . A petrol-paraffin engine would start on gasoline, then switch over to kerosene once the engine warmed up. On some engines a heat valve on the manifold would route the exhaust gasses around

7434-533: The Chrysler Horizon that integrated many Saab components) were made. One reason to manufacture kerosene-fueled cars was that in Finland kerosene was less heavily taxed than gasoline. Kerosene is used to fuel smaller-horsepower outboard motors built by Yamaha, Suzuki, and Tohatsu. Primarily used on small fishing craft, these are dual-fuel engines that start on gasoline and then transition to kerosene once

7560-498: The Downer Company (to which Gesner had granted the right) were allowed to call their lamp oil "Kerosene" in the United States. In 1848, Scottish chemist James Young experimented with oil discovered seeping in a coal mine as a source of lubricating oil and illuminating fuel. When the seep became exhausted, he experimented with the dry distillation of coal, especially the resinous "boghead coal" ( torbanite ). He extracted

7686-432: The UK and Ireland, remains widely used in kerosene lamps and lanterns in the developing world. Although it replaced whale oil , the 1873 edition of Elements of Chemistry said, "The vapor of this substance [kerosene] mixed with air is as explosive as gunpowder." This statement may have been due to the common practice of adulterating kerosene with cheaper but more volatile hydrocarbon mixtures, such as naphtha . Kerosene

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7812-415: The United States well into the 20th century. In the United Kingdom, manufacturing oil from coal (or oil shale) continued into the early 20th century, although increasingly overshadowed by petroleum oils. As kerosene production increased, whaling declined. The American whaling fleet , which had been steadily growing for 50 years, reached its all-time peak of 199 ships in 1858. By 1860, just two years later,

7938-404: The aircraft of World War II . The octane rating affected not only the performance of the gasoline, but also its versatility; the higher octane fuel allowed a wider range of lean to rich operating conditions. In spark ignition internal combustion engines , knocking (also knock , detonation , spark knock , pinging , or pinking ) occurs when combustion of some of the air/fuel mixture in

8064-424: The aromatic content of crude oil varies greatly from oil field to oil field. However by solvent extraction it is possible to separate aromatic hydrocarbons from aliphatic (alkane) hydrocarbons. A common method is solvent extraction with methanol, DMSO or sulfolane . Aromatic kerosene is a grade of kerosene with a large concentration of aromatic hydrocarbons, an example of this would be Exon 's Solvesso 150. Kerosene

8190-403: The available air) or "lean of peak" (less fuel, leaving some oxygen in the exhaust) as either will keep the fuel-air mixture from detonating prematurely. Because of the high cost of unleaded, high-octane avgas , and possible increased range before refueling, some general aviation pilots attempt to save money by tuning their fuel-air mixtures and ignition timing to run "lean of peak". Additionally,

8316-451: The compression ratio (making the engine less powerful and less efficient, but able to run on kerosene). The necessary equipment was sold under the trademark "Econom". During the fuel crisis of the 1970s , Saab-Valmet developed and series-produced the Saab 99 Petro that ran on kerosene, turpentine or gasoline. The project, codenamed "Project Lapponia", was headed by Simo Vuorio, and towards

8442-413: The cylinder does not result from propagation of the flame front ignited by the spark plug , but when one or more pockets of air/fuel mixture explode outside the envelope of the normal combustion front. The fuel-air charge is meant to be ignited by the spark plug only, and at a precise point in the piston's stroke. Knock occurs when the peak of the combustion process no longer occurs at the optimum moment for

8568-411: The days of electrically lighted road barriers, highway construction zones were marked at night by kerosene fired, pot-bellied torches. Most of these uses of kerosene created thick black smoke because of the low temperature of combustion. A notable exception, discovered in the early 19th century, is the use of a gas mantle mounted above the wick on a kerosene lamp. Looking like a delicate woven bag above

8694-421: The decreased air density at higher altitudes (such as Colorado) and temperatures (as in summer) requires leaning (reduction in amount of fuel per volume or mass of air) for the peak EGT and power (crucial for takeoff). The selection of octane ratings available at filling stations can vary greatly between countries. Due to its name, the chemical "octane" is often misunderstood as the only substance that determines

8820-482: The definition of octane rating. The following table lists octane ratings for various other fuels. Higher octane ratings correlate to higher activation energies : the amount of applied energy required to initiate combustion. Since higher octane fuels have higher activation energy requirements, it is less likely that a given compression will cause uncontrolled ignition, otherwise known as autoignition, self-ignition, pre-ignition, detonation, or knocking. Because octane

8946-417: The density of kerosene enables considerably higher power and thrust than hydrogen (relative to engine mass). All told, due to higher energy-per-mass and lower molecular mass, hydrogen engines achieve 370 to 465 s , while kerosene engines generate an I sp in the range of 270 to 360  s ; conversely, kerosene has the better handling, density, and thrust-to-weight properties. One common solution

9072-597: The direct measurements required for research or motor octane numbers. An octane index can be of great service in the blending of gasoline. Motor gasoline, as marketed, is usually a blend of several types of refinery grades that are derived from different processes such as straight-run gasoline, reformate, cracked gasoline etc. These different grades are blended in amounts that will meet final product specifications. Most refiners produce and market more than one grade of motor gasoline, differing principally in their anti-knock quality. Being able to make sufficiently accurate estimates of

9198-562: The distillation products appears to have been superior to Young's, resulting in a cleaner and better-smelling fuel. Manufacture of kerosene under the Gesner patents began in New York in 1854 and later in Boston —being distilled from bituminous coal and oil shale . Gesner registered the word "Kerosene" as a trademark in 1854, and for several years, only the North American Gas Light Company and

9324-521: The end of the 1970s, a working prototype was produced based on the Saab 99 GL. The car was designed to run on two fuels. Gasoline was used for cold starts and when extra power was needed, but normally it ran on kerosene or turpentine. The idea was that the gasoline could be made from peat using the Fischer–Tropsch process . Between 1980 and 1984, 3,756 Saab 99 Petros and 2,385 Talbot Horizons (a version of

9450-484: The engine reaches optimum operating temperature . Multiple fuel Evinrude and Mercury Racing engines also burn kerosene, as well as jet fuel. Today, kerosene is mainly used in fuel for jet engines in several grades. One highly refined form of the fuel is known as RP-1 , and is often burned with liquid oxygen as rocket fuel . These fuel grade kerosenes meet specifications for smoke points and freeze points . The combustion reaction can be approximated as follows, with

9576-507: The engine. Lighter and "thinner" fuel also has a lower specific heat , so the practice of running an engine "rich" to use excess fuel to aid in cooling requires richer and richer mixtures as octane increases. Higher-octane, lower-energy-dense "thinner" fuels often contain alcohol compounds incompatible with the stock fuel system components, which also makes them hygroscopic . They also evaporate away much more easily than heavier, lower-octane fuel which leads to more accumulated contaminants in

9702-401: The evaluation of the anti-knock quality of gasoline. Such substitute methods include FTIR, near infrared on-line analyzers, and others. Deriving an equation that can be used to calculate ratings accurately enough would also serve the same purpose, with added advantages. The term Octane Index is often used to refer to the use of an equation to determine a theoretical rating, in contradistinction to

9828-455: The fleet had dropped to 167 ships. The Civil War cut into American whaling temporarily, but only 105 whaling ships returned to sea in 1866, the first full year of peace, and that number dwindled until only 39 American ships set out to hunt whales in 1876. Kerosene, made first from coal and oil shale, then from petroleum, had largely taken over whaling's lucrative market in lamp oil. Electric lighting started displacing kerosene as an illuminant in

9954-445: The form of gas bubbles cause cavitation, and heavy ones in the form of wax deposits block narrow cooling passages in the engine. The resulting coolant starvation raises temperatures further, and causes more polymerization which accelerates breakdown. The cycle rapidly escalates (i.e., thermal runaway ) until an engine wall rupture or other mechanical failure occurs, and it persists even when the entire coolant flow consists of kerosene. In

10080-406: The fuel system. It is typically the hydrochloric acids that form due to that water and the compounds in the fuel that have the most detrimental effects on the engine fuel system components, as such acids corrode many metals used in gasoline fuel systems. During the compression stroke of an internal combustion engine, the temperature of the air-fuel mix rises as it is compressed, in accordance with

10206-480: The fuel. Slightly too-heavy or too-light fractions affected lubrication abilities and were likely to separate during storage and under load. The remaining hydrocarbons are at or near C 12 mass. Because of the lack of light hydrocarbons, RP-1 has a high flash point and is less of a fire hazard than petrol. All told, the final product is much more expensive than common kerosene. Any petroleum can produce RP-1 with enough refining, though real-world rocket-grade kerosene

10332-409: The gas loop; some of the liquid automatically vaporizes to fill its own container. Some rockets use gas from a gas generator to pressurize the fuel tank; usually, this is exhaust from a turbopump . Although this saves the weight of a separate gas system, the loop now has to handle a hot, reactive gas instead of a cool, inert one. Regardless of chemical constraints, RP-1 has supply constraints due to

10458-462: The heat flow into the wall by roughly a factor of two. Most modern hydrocarbon engines, however, run above this pressure, therefore this is not a significant effect for most engines. Recent heavy-hydrocarbon engines have modified components and new operating cycles, in attempts to better manage leftover fuel, achieve a more-gradual cooldown, or both. This still leaves the problem of non-dissociated petroleum residue. Other new engines have tried to bypass

10584-483: The heavier hydrocarbons that previously went into kerosene were incorporated into diesel fuel. Kerosene kept some market share by being increasingly used in stoves and portable heaters. A pilot project by ETH Zurich used solar power to produce kerosene from carbon dioxide and water in July 2022. The product can be used in existing aviation applications, and "can also be blended with fossil-derived kerosene." Kerosene

10710-449: The ignition spark coming as late as possible in order to extend the production of cylinder pressure and torque as far down the power stroke as possible. The main reason for using high-octane fuel in air-cooled engines is that it is more easily vaporized in a cold carburetor and engine and absorbs less intake air heat which greatly reduces the tendency for carburetor icing to occur. With their reduced densities and weight per volume of fuel,

10836-483: The intake pipe, heating the kerosene to the point where it was vaporized and could be ignited by an electric spark . In Europe following the Second World War, automobiles were similarly modified to run on kerosene rather than gasoline, which they would have to import and pay heavy taxes on. Besides additional piping and the switch between fuels, the head gasket was replaced by a much thicker one to diminish

10962-482: The late 19th and early 20th centuries, kerosene space heaters were often built into kitchen ranges, and kept many farm and fishing families warm and dry through the winter. At one time, citrus growers used a smudge pot fueled by kerosene to create a pall of thick smoke over a grove in an effort to prevent freezing temperatures from damaging crops. " Salamanders " are kerosene space heaters used on construction sites to dry out building materials and to warm workers. Before

11088-461: The late 19th century, especially in urban areas. However, kerosene remained the predominant commercial end-use for petroleum refined in the United States until 1909, when it was exceeded by motor fuels. The rise of the gasoline-powered automobile in the early 20th century created a demand for the lighter hydrocarbon fractions, and refiners invented methods to increase their output of gasoline, while decreasing their output of kerosene. In addition, some of

11214-446: The lifespan of engines. In 1927, Graham Edgar devised the method of using iso-octane and n-heptane as reference chemicals, in order to rate the knock resistance of a fuel with respect to this isomer of octane, thus the name "octane rating". By definition, the isomers iso-octane and n-heptane have an octane rating of 100 and 0, respectively. Because of its more volatile nature, n-heptane ignites and knocks readily, which gives it

11340-530: The low levels of alkenes and aromatics, RP-1 is less toxic than various jet and diesel fuels, and far less toxic than gasoline. The more desirable isomers were selected or synthesized, with linear alkanes being reduced in number in favor of greater numbers of cyclic and highly branched alkanes. Just as cyclic and branched molecules improve octane rating in petrol , they also significantly increase thermal stability at high temperatures. The most desirable isomers are polycyclics such as ladderanes . In contrast,

11466-657: The lower of the two. One is referred to as the "aviation lean" rating, which for ratings up to 100 is the same as the MON of the fuel. The second is the "aviation rich" rating and corresponds to the octane rating of a test engine under forced induction operation common in high-performance and military piston aircraft. This utilizes a supercharger , and uses a significantly richer fuel/air ratio for improved detonation resistance. The most common currently used fuel, 100LL , has an aviation lean rating of 100 octane, and an aviation rich rating of 130. The RON/MON values of n- heptane and iso-octane are exactly 0 and 100, respectively, by

11592-418: The main applications of kerosene (aviation, heating, and lighting), are much less concerned with thermal breakdown and therefore do not require stringent optimisation of their isomers. In production, these grades are processed tightly to remove impurities and side fractions. Ashes were feared likely to block fuel lines and engine passages, and wear away valves and turbopump bearings, as these are lubricated by

11718-450: The mid-1950s rocket designers turned to the chemists to formulate a heat-resistant hydrocarbon, with the result being RP-1. During the 1950s, LOX ( liquid oxygen ) became the preferred oxidizer to use with RP-1, though other oxidizers have also been employed. First, sulfur and sulfur compounds attack metals at high temperatures, and even very small amounts of sulfur assist polymerization . Therefore, sulfur and sulfur compounds are kept to

11844-445: The mixture from its maximum amount — must be done with knowledge, as some combinations of fuel mixture and throttle position (that produce the highest ) can cause detonation and/or pre-ignition , in the worst case destroying the engine within seconds. Pilots are taught in primary training to avoid settings that produce the highest exhaust gas temperatures, and run the engine either "rich of peak EGT " (more fuel than can be burned with

11970-575: The molecular formula C 12 H 26 ( dodecane ): In the initial phase of liftoff, the Saturn V launch vehicle was powered by the reaction of liquid oxygen with RP-1. For the five 6.4 meganewton sea-level thrust F-1 rocket engines of the Saturn V, burning together, the reaction generated roughly 1.62 × 10 watts (J/s) (162 gigawatt) or 217 million horsepower. Kerosene is sometimes used as an additive in diesel fuel to prevent gelling or waxing in cold temperatures. Ultra-low sulfur kerosene

12096-427: The much more flammable and volatile gasoline (petrol) , some jurisdictions regulate markings or colourings for containers used to store or dispense kerosene. For example, in the United States, Pennsylvania requires that portable containers used at retail service stations for kerosene be colored blue, as opposed to red (for gasoline ) or yellow (for diesel ). The World Health Organization considers kerosene to be

12222-448: The nitrogen (N 2 ) and oxygen (O 2 ) already present in the atmosphere, to create oxides of nitrogen. Robert H. Goddard 's initial rockets used gasoline. While the RP-1 specification was being developed, Rocketdyne was experimenting with diethyl cyclohexane . While superior to RP-1, it was never adopted for use – its formulation was not finished before development of Atlas and Titan I (designed around RP-1) leading to RP-1 becoming

12348-567: The non-optimal formulations. Any hydrocarbon-based fuel produces more air pollution when burned than hydrogen alone. Hydrocarbon combustion produces carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), carbon monoxide (CO), and hydrocarbon (HC) emissions, while hydrogen (H 2 ) reacts with oxygen (O 2 ) to produce only water (H 2 O), with some unreacted H 2 also released. Both hydrocarbon-based fuels and hydrogen fuel will create oxides of nitrogen (NO x ) pollutants, because rocket exhaust temperatures above 1,600 °C (2,900 °F) will thermally combine some of

12474-479: The octane family, 2,2,4-Trimethylpentane (iso-octane), is used as a reference standard to benchmark the tendency of gasoline or LPG fuels to resist self-ignition. The octane rating of gasoline is measured in a test engine and is defined by comparison with the mixture of 2,2,4-trimethylpentane (iso-octane) and normal heptane that would have the same anti-knocking capability as the fuel under test. The percentage, by volume, of 2,2,4-trimethylpentane in that mixture

12600-401: The octane number by either of the two laboratory methods requires a special engine built to match the tests' rigid standards, and the procedure can be both expensive and time-consuming. The standard engine required for the test may not always be available, especially in out-of-the-way places or in small or mobile laboratories. These and other considerations led to the search for a rapid method for

12726-493: The octane rating (or octane number) of a fuel. This is an inaccurate description. In reality, the octane rating is defined as a number describing the stability and ability of a fuel to prevent an engine from unwanted combustions that occur spontaneously in the other regions within a cylinder (i.e., delocalized explosions from the spark plug). This phenomenon of combustion is more commonly known as engine knocking or self-ignition, which causes damage to pistons over time and reduces

12852-470: The octane rating of gasoline is not directly related to the power output of an engine. Using gasoline of a higher octane than an engine is designed for cannot increase its power output. Octane became well known in American popular culture in the 1960s, when gasoline companies boasted of "high octane" levels in their gasoline advertisements. The compound adjective "high-octane", meaning powerful or dynamic,

12978-404: The octane rating that will result from blending different refinery products is essential, something for which the calculated octane index is specially suited. Aviation gasolines used in piston aircraft engines common in general aviation have a slightly different method of measuring the octane of the fuel. Similar to an AKI, it has two different ratings, although it is usually referred to only by

13104-418: The octane ratings for the isomers show that the compound octane itself is clearly not the only factor that determines octane ratings, especially for commercial fuels consist of a wide variety of compounds. "Octane" is colloquially used in the expression "high-octane". The term is used to describe a powerful action because of the association with the concept of "octane rating". This is a misleading term, because

13230-544: The other obvious benefit is that an aircraft with any given volume of fuel in the tanks is automatically lighter. And since many airplanes are flown only occasionally and may sit unused for weeks or months, the lighter fuels tend to evaporate away and leave behind fewer deposits such as "varnish" (gasoline components, particularly alkenes and oxygenates slowly polymerize into solids). Aircraft also typically have dual "redundant" ignition systems which are nearly impossible to tune and time to produce identical ignition timing, so using

13356-399: The oxygen is heavier than the carbon or hydrogen, essentially all combustion rocket engines run fuel-rich to reduce the exhast molecular mass, increasing exhaust velocity and thus specific impulse (and as a side benefit, temperature and cooling are reduced too). This effect favors ligher elements like pure hydrogen. However, total thrust also matters, especially deep inside a gravity well , and

13482-453: The path of the primary flame wave, thus depriving the power stroke of its uniformity and causing issues including power loss and heat buildup. The other rarely-discussed reality with high-octane fuels associated with "high performance" is that as octane increases, the specific gravity and energy content of the fuel per unit of weight are reduced. The net result is that to make a given amount of power , more high-octane fuel must be burned in

13608-534: The potential of his work and quit the pharmacy to find a business partner, and then traveled to Vienna to register his technique with the government. Łukasiewicz moved to the Gorlice region of Poland in 1854, and sank several wells across southern Poland over the following decade, setting up a refinery near Jasło in 1859. The petroleum discovery by Edwin Drake - Drake Well in western Pennsylvania in 1859 caused

13734-404: The problem entirely, by switching to light hydrocarbons such as methane or propane gas. Both are volatiles, so engine residues simply evaporate. If necessary, solvents or other purgatives can be run through the engine to finish dispersion. The short-chain carbon backbone of propane (a C 3  molecule) is very difficult to break; methane, with a single carbon atom (C 1 ), is technically not

13860-415: The proper time for precise ignition. As octane, ignition spark energy, and the need for precise timing increase, the engine becomes more difficult to "tune" and keep "in tune". The resulting sub-optimal spark energy and timing can cause major engine problems, from a simple "miss" to uncontrolled detonation and catastrophic engine failure. Mechanically within the cylinder, stability can be visualized as having

13986-509: The radiolysis of TBP while the French nuclear industry tended to use diluents with very little aromatic content. The French nuclear reprocessing plants typically use TPH as their diluent. In recent times it has been shown by Mark Foreman at Chalmers that aliphatic kerosene can be replaced in solvent extraction with HVO100 which is a second generation biodiesel made by Neste . In X-ray crystallography , kerosene can be used to store crystals. When

14112-399: The results with those for mixtures of iso-octane and n-heptane. The compression ratio is varied during the test to challenge the fuel's antiknocking tendency, as an increase in the compression ratio will increase the chances of knocking. Another type of octane rating, called Motor Octane Number ( MON ), is determined at 900 rpm engine speed instead of the 600 rpm for RON. MON testing uses

14238-403: The same as liquid oxygen, that means a methlox rocket is nearly as easy to handle as a kerolox rocket, but with the improved efficiency and cleanliness (which remain worse than hydrogen). Furthermore, these balances in efficiency-vs-power makes methane more suitable for a single-fuel rocket, which have proven more economical than dual-fuel rockets (due to less complexity). As such, methalox has made

14364-543: The standard hydrocarbon rocket fuel. Soviet formulations are discussed above. In addition, the Soviets briefly used syntin (Russian: синтин ), a higher-energy formulation, used in upper stages . Syntin is 1-methyl-1,2-dicyclopropyl cyclopropane ( C 10 H 16 ). Russia is also working to switch the Soyuz-2 from RP-1 to "naftil" or "naphthyl". After the RP-1 standard, RP-2 was developed. The primary difference

14490-430: The temperature penalty was minor. Facilities were already in place to manage the vehicle's cryogenic liquid oxygen and liquid nitrogen , both of which are far colder than the kerosene. The launcher's central kerosene tank is surrounded on four sides and the top by liquid-oxygen tanks; the liquid-nitrogen tank is nearby at the bottom. The kerosene tanks of the four boosters are relatively small and compact, and also between

14616-463: The two main rocket kerosene formulations are T-1 and RG-1 . Densities are slightly higher, 0.82 to 0.85  g / mL , compared to RP-1 at 0.81 g/mL . For a short period, the Soviets achieved even higher densities by super-chilling the kerosene in the rocket's fuel tanks, but this partially defeated the purpose of using kerosene over other super-chilled fuels. In the case of the Soyuz and R-7 ,

14742-459: The valves is still open). Knocking should not be confused with pre-ignition —they are two separate events with pre-ignition occurring before the combustion event. However, pre-ignition is highly correlated with knock because knock will cause rapid heat increase within the cylinder eventually leading to destructive pre-detonation. Most engine management systems commonly found in automobiles today, typically electronic fuel injection (EFI), have

14868-523: The very small size of the launch-vehicle industry versus other consumers of petroleum. While the material price of such a highly refined hydrocarbon is still less than many other rocket propellants, the number of RP-1 suppliers is limited. A few engines have attempted to use more standard, widely distributed petroleum products such as jet fuel or even diesel (for example, ABL Space Systems' E2 engine can run on either RP-1 or Jet-A). By using alternate or supplemental engine cooling methods, some engines can tolerate

14994-481: The way the engine is designed to compress the air/fuel mixture, and not directly from the rating of the gasoline. In contrast, fuels with lower octane (but higher cetane numbers ) are ideal for diesel engines because diesel engines (also called compression-ignition engines) do not compress the fuel, but rather compress only air, and then inject fuel into the air that was heated by compression. Gasoline engines rely on ignition of compressed air and fuel mixture, which

15120-445: The woven cotton wick, the mantle is a residue of mineral materials (mostly thorium dioxide ), heated to incandescence by the flame from the wick. The thorium and cerium oxide combination produces both a whiter light and a greater fraction of the energy in the form of visible light than a black body at the same temperature would. These types of lamps are still in use today in areas of the world without electricity, because they give

15246-415: Was a significant fire risk; in 1880, nearly two of every five New York City fires were caused by defective kerosene lamps. In less-developed countries kerosene is an important source of energy for cooking and lighting. It is used as a cooking fuel in portable stoves for backpackers . As a heating fuel, it is often used in portable stoves, and is sold in some filling stations . It is sometimes used as

15372-512: Was first written about in the ninth century by the Persian scholar Rāzi (or Rhazes). In his Kitab al-Asrar ( Book of Secrets ), the physician and chemist Razi described two methods for the production of kerosene, termed naft abyad (نفط ابيض"white naphtha"), using an apparatus called an alembic . One method used clay as an absorbent , and later the other method using chemicals like ammonium chloride ( sal ammoniac ). The distillation process

15498-486: Was once a common additive, but concerns about its toxicity have led to its use for fuels for road vehicles being progressively phased out worldwide beginning in the 1970s. The most common type of octane rating worldwide is the Research Octane Number ( RON ). RON is determined by running the fuel in a test engine at 600 rpm with a variable compression ratio under controlled conditions, and comparing

15624-580: Was recognized that hydrocarbon fuels would increase engine efficiency, due to a slightly higher density , the lack of an oxygen atom in the fuel molecule, and negligible water content. Regardless of which hydrocarbon was chosen, it would also have to replace alcohol as a coolant. Many early rockets burned kerosene , but as burn times, combustion efficiencies, and combustion-chamber pressures increased, engine masses decreased, which led to unmanageable engine temperatures. Raw kerosene used as coolant tends to dissociate and polymerize . Lightweight products in

15750-678: Was repeated until most of the volatile hydrocarbon fractions had been removed and the final product was perfectly clear and safe to burn. Kerosene was also produced during the same period from oil shale and bitumen by heating the rock to extract the oil, which was then distilled. During the Chinese Ming Dynasty , the Chinese made use of kerosene through extracting and purifying petroleum and then converted it into lamp fuel. The Chinese made use of petroleum for lighting lamps and heating homes as early as 1500 BC. Although "coal oil"

15876-567: Was well known by industrial chemists at least as early as the 1700s as a byproduct of making coal gas and coal tar, it burned with a smoky flame that prevented its use for indoor illumination. In cities, much indoor illumination was provided by piped-in coal gas , but outside the cities, and for spot lighting within the cities, the lucrative market for fueling indoor lamps was supplied by whale oil , specifically that from sperm whales , which burned brighter and cleaner. Canadian geologist Abraham Pineo Gesner claimed that in 1846, he had given

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