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101-545: In 1996, genetically modified Roundup Ready soybeans resistant to Roundup became commercially available, followed by Roundup Ready corn in 1998. Current Roundup Ready crops include soy , corn (maize), canola , sugar beets , cotton , and alfalfa , with wheat still under development. Additional information on Roundup Ready crops is available on the GM Crops List . As of 2005, 87% of U.S. soybean fields were planted with glyphosate resistant varieties. While

202-499: A gene gun (invented in 1987). In the 1980s techniques were developed to introduce isolated chloroplasts back into a plant cell that had its cell wall removed. With the introduction of the gene gun in 1987 it became possible to integrate foreign genes into a chloroplast . Genetic transformation has become very efficient in some model organisms. In 2008 genetically modified seeds were produced in Arabidopsis thaliana by dipping

303-680: A herbicide ), or improving the nutrient profile of the crop. Examples in non-food crops include production of pharmaceutical agents , biofuels , and other industrially useful goods, as well as for bioremediation . Farmers have widely adopted GM technology. Acreage increased from 1.7 million hectares in 1996 to 185.1 million hectares in 2016, some 12% of global cropland. As of 2016, major crop ( soybean , maize , canola and cotton ) traits consist of herbicide tolerance (95.9 million hectares) insect resistance (25.2 million hectares), or both (58.5 million hectares). In 2015, 53.6 million ha of Genetically modified maize were under cultivation (almost 1/3 of

404-479: A symbiotic relationship with the bacterium Bradyrhizobium japonicum ( syn. Rhizobium japonicum ; Jordan 1982). This ability to fix nitrogen allows farmers to reduce nitrogen fertilizer use and increase yields when growing other crops in rotation with soy. There may be some trade-offs, however, in the long-term abundance of organic material in soils where soy and other crops (for example, corn ) are grown in rotation. For best results, though, an inoculum of

505-524: A 2012 review based on data from the late 1990s and early 2000s, much of the GM crop grown each year is used for livestock feed and increased demand for meat leads to increased demand for GM feed crops. Feed grain usage as a percentage of total crop production is 70% for corn and more than 90% of oil seed meals such as soybeans. About 65 million metric tons of GM corn grains and about 70 million metric tons of soybean meals derived from GM soybean become feed. In 2014

606-426: A case-by-case basis before introduction. Nonetheless, members of the public are much less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe. The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them with widely differing degrees of regulation. Humans have directly influenced the genetic makeup of plants to increase their value as

707-520: A common pest in soybean fields, living in burrows underground and feeding nearby. One den of groundhogs can consume a tenth to a quarter of an acre of soybeans. Chemical repellents or firearms are effective for controlling pests in soybean fields. Soybeans suffer from the fungus Pythium spinosum in Arkansas and Indiana (United States), and China. In Japan and the United States,

808-582: A crop through domestication . The first evidence of plant domestication comes from emmer and einkorn wheat found in pre-Pottery Neolithic A villages in Southwest Asia dated about 10,500 to 10,100 BC. The Fertile Crescent of Western Asia, Egypt , and India were sites of the earliest planned sowing and harvesting of plants that had previously been gathered in the wild. Independent development of agriculture occurred in northern and southern China, Africa's Sahel , New Guinea and several regions of

909-488: A different genus. It originated in Africa and is now a widespread pasture crop in the tropics. Like some other crops of long domestication, the relationship of the modern soybean to wild-growing species can no longer be traced with any degree of certainty. It is a cultigen with a very large number of cultivars . Like many legumes, soybeans can fix atmospheric nitrogen , due to the presence of symbiotic bacteria from

1010-549: A farm animal feed to a human food. William Morse is considered the "father" of modern soybean agriculture in America. In 1910, he and Charles Piper (Dr. C. V. Piper) began to popularize what was regarded as a relatively unknown Oriental peasant crop in America into a "golden bean", with the soybean becoming one of America's largest and most nutritious farm crops. Genetically engineered crops Genetically modified crops ( GM crops ) are plants used in agriculture ,

1111-468: A few that did not report sample sizes. They attempted to correct for publication bias , by considering sources beyond academic journals . The large data set allowed the study to control for potentially confounding variables such as fertilizer use. Separately, they concluded that the funding source did not influence study results. Under special conditions meant to reveal only genetic yield factors, many GM crops are known to actually have lower yields. This

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1212-505: A former East India Company sailor who had visited China in conjunction with James Flint , the first Englishman legally permitted by the Chinese authorities to learn Chinese. The first "New World" soybean crop was grown on Skidaway Island, Georgia , in 1765 by Henry Yonge from seeds given him by Samuel Bowen. Bowen grew soy near Savannah, Georgia , possibly using funds from Flint, and made soy sauce for sale to England. Although soybean

1313-421: A new variety of corn. With multiple trait integration, several new traits may be integrated into a new crop. GM food's economic value to farmers is one of its major benefits, including in developing nations. A 2010 study found that Bt corn provided economic benefits of $ 6.9 billion over the previous 14 years in five Midwestern states. The majority ($ 4.3 billion) accrued to farmers producing non-Bt corn. This

1414-562: A potato that prevents bruising and produces less acrylamide when fried. They do not employ genes from non-potato species. The trait was added to the Russet Burbank , Ranger Russet and Atlantic varieties. Plants have been engineered to tolerate non-biological stressors , such as drought , frost , and high soil salinity . In 2011, Monsanto's DroughtGard maize became the first drought-resistant GM crop to receive US marketing approval. Drought resistance occurs by modifying

1515-608: A range of soluble carbohydrates protecting the seed's cell viability. Patents were awarded to him in the early 1990s on techniques for protecting biological membranes and proteins in the dry state. Together, protein and soybean oil content account for 56% of dry soybeans by weight (36% protein and 20% fat . The remainder consists of 30% carbohydrates , 9% water and 5% ash . Soybeans comprise approximately 8% seed coat or hull, 90% cotyledons and 2% hypocotyl axis or germ. The genus Glycine may be divided into two subgenera, Glycine and Soja . The subgenus Soja includes

1616-516: A result, for example, in 2012 only 18 cultivars out of 807 recommended by the Iowa State University Extension had any ancestry outside of PI 88788. By 2020 the situation was still about the same: Of 849 there were 810 with some ancestry from PI 88788, 35 from Peking, and only 2 from PI 89772. (On the question of exclusively PI 88788 ancestry, that number was not available for 2020.) That was speculated to be in 2012 —and

1717-800: A result, yields were 14-20% higher, in terms of the weight of the dry leaves harvested. The plants had larger leaves, were taller and had more vigorous roots. Another improvement that can be made on the photosynthesis process (with C3 pathway plants ) is on photorespiration . By inserting the C4 pathway into C3 plants, productivity may increase by as much as 50% for cereal crops , such as rice. The Harnessing Plants Initiative focuses on creating GM plants that have increased root mass, root depth and suberin content. Some GM soybeans offer improved oil profiles for processing. Camelina sativa has been modified to produce plants that accumulate high levels of oils similar to fish oils . Golden rice , developed by

1818-417: A review of Roundup Ready soybean crops found that, compared to the top conventional varieties, they had a 6.7% lower yield. This so called "yield drag" follows the same pattern observed when other traits are introduced into soybeans by conventional breeding. Monsanto claims later patented varieties yield 7-11% higher than their poorly performing initial varieties, closer to those of conventional farming, although

1919-435: A sustainable alternative to electric lighting. Cisgenic plants are made using genes found within the same species or a sexually-compatible closely related one, where conventional plant breeding can occur. Some breeders and scientists argue that cisgenic modification is useful for plants that are difficult to crossbreed by conventional means (such as potatoes ), and that plants in the cisgenic category should not require

2020-664: A tomato engineered to have a longer shelf life. Also in 1994, the European Union approved tobacco engineered to be resistant to the herbicide bromoxynil , making it the first genetically engineered crop commercialised in Europe. In 1995 Bt Potato was approved safe by the Environmental Protection Agency , after having been approved by the FDA, making it the first pesticide producing crop to be approved in

2121-451: A wide variety of sizes and hull colors such as black, brown, yellow, and green. Variegated and bicolored seed coats are also common. The hull of the mature bean is hard, water-resistant, and protects the cotyledon and hypocotyl (or "germ") from damage. If the seed coat is cracked, the seed will not germinate . The scar, visible on the seed coat, is called the hilum (colors include black, brown, buff, gray and yellow) and at one end of

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2222-425: Is triggered by day length , often beginning once days become shorter than 12.8 hours. This trait is highly variable however, with different varieties reacting differently to changing day length. Soybeans form inconspicuous, self-fertile flowers which are borne in the axil of the leaf and are white, pink or purple. Though they do not require pollination, they are attractive to bees, because they produce nectar that

2323-410: Is a significant and cheap source of protein for animal feeds and many packaged meals . For example, soybean products, such as textured vegetable protein (TVP), are ingredients in many meat and dairy substitutes. Soybeans contain significant amounts of phytic acid , dietary minerals and B vitamins . Soy vegetable oil , used in food and industrial applications, is another product of processing

2424-473: Is based on Canadian farmer Percy Schmeiser 's legal battle against Monsanto over the Roundup Ready canola patent. Some microorganisms have a version of 5- enol pyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS: EC 2.5.1.19, 3-phosphoshikimate 1-carboxyvinyltransferase; 5- enol pyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthetase ; phospho enol pyruvate:3-phosphoshikimate 5- O -(1-carboxyvinyl)- transferase ) that

2525-582: Is considered a tertiary gene centre particularly the area encompassing Madhya Pradesh which is also the country largest soybean producer. In 1603, " Vocabvlario da Lingoa de Iapam ", a famous Japanese-Portuguese dictionary, was compiled and published by Jesuit priests in Nagasaki. It contains short but clear definitions for about 20 words related to soyfoods—the first in any European language. The Luso-Hispanic traders were familiar with soybeans and soybean product through their trade with Far East since at least

2626-526: Is costly. Wesseler et al. , 2017 estimate the cost of delay for several crops including GM banana in Uganda , GM cowpea in west Africa , and GM maize/corn in Kenya . They estimate Nigeria alone loses $ 33–46m annually. The potential and alleged harms of GM crops must then be compared to these costs of delay. Critics challenged the claimed benefits to farmers over the prevalence of biased observers and by

2727-533: Is herbicide tolerance, where glyphosate -tolerance is the most common. Glyphosate (the active ingredient in Roundup and other herbicide products) kills plants by interfering with the shikimate pathway in plants, which is essential for the synthesis of the aromatic amino acids phenylalanine , tyrosine , and tryptophan . The shikimate pathway is not present in animals, which instead obtain aromatic amino acids from their diet. More specifically, glyphosate inhibits

2828-535: Is high in sugar content. Depending on the soybean variety, node growth may cease once flowering begins. Strains that continue nodal development after flowering are termed " indeterminates " and are best suited to climates with longer growing seasons. Often soybeans drop their leaves before the seeds are fully mature. The fruit is a hairy pod that grows in clusters of three to five, each pod is 3–8 cm (1–3 in) long and usually contains two to four (rarely more) seeds 5–11 mm in diameter. Soybean seeds come in

2929-597: Is less successful in crops like wheat and maize. Electroporation is used when the plant tissue does not contain cell walls. In this technique, "DNA enters the plant cells through miniature pores which are temporarily caused by electric pulses." Microinjection is used to directly inject foreign DNA into cells. Plant scientists, backed by results of modern comprehensive profiling of crop composition, point out that crops modified using GM techniques are less likely to have unintended changes than are conventionally bred crops. In research tobacco and Arabidopsis thaliana are

3030-1001: Is often the point of the GM trait. See for example Roundup Ready § Productivity claims . Gene editing may also increase yields non-specific to the use of any biocides/pesticides. In March 2022, field test results showed CRISPR -based gene knockout of KRN2 in maize and OsKRN2 in rice increased grain yields by ~10% and ~8% without any detected negative effects. GM crops grown today, or under development, have been modified with various traits . These traits include improved shelf life , disease resistance , stress resistance, herbicide resistance , pest resistance , production of useful goods such as biofuel or drugs, and ability to absorb toxins and for use in bioremediation of pollution. Recently, research and development has been targeted to enhancement of crops that are locally important in developing countries , such as insect-resistant cowpea for Africa and insect-resistant brinjal (eggplant). The first genetically modified crop approved for sale in

3131-479: Is resistant to glyphosate inhibition . The version used in genetically modified crops was isolated from Agrobacterium strain CP4 (CP4 EPSPS) that was resistant to glyphosate. The CP4 EPSPS gene was cloned and inserted into soybeans. The CP4 EPSPS gene was engineered for plant expression by fusing the 5' end of the gene to a chloroplast transit peptide derived from the petunia EPSPS. This transit peptide

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3232-428: Is that serious damage can be done to the cellular tissue. Agrobacterium tumefaciens - mediated transformation is another common technique. Agrobacteria are natural plant parasites . Their natural ability to transfer genes provides another engineering method. To create a suitable environment for themselves, these Agrobacteria insert their genes into plant hosts, resulting in a proliferation of modified plant cells near

3333-571: Is the most common method. DNA is bound to tiny particles of gold or tungsten which are subsequently shot into plant tissue or single plant cells under high pressure. The accelerated particles penetrate both the cell wall and membranes . The DNA separates from the metal and is integrated into plant DNA inside the nucleus . This method has been applied successfully for many cultivated crops, especially monocots like wheat or maize, for which transformation using Agrobacterium tumefaciens has been less successful. The major disadvantage of this procedure

3434-503: Is the worst pest of soybean in the US. Losses of 30% or 40% are common even without symptoms. The corn earworm moth and bollworm (Helicoverpa zea) is a common and destructive pest of soybean growth in Virginia. Soybeans are consumed by whitetail deer which may damage soybean plants through feeding, trampling and bedding, reducing crop yields by as much as 15%. Groundhogs are also

3535-440: Is used. The codons of the gene must be optimized for the organism due to codon usage bias . Transgenic plants have genes inserted into them that are derived from another species. The inserted genes can come from species within the same kingdom (plant to plant), or between kingdoms (for example, bacteria to plant). In many cases the inserted DNA has to be modified slightly in order to be correctly and efficiently expressed in

3636-422: Is variously due to one or both of: Yield drag, wherein the trait itself lowers yield, either by competing for synthesis feedstock or by being inserted slightly inaccurately, into the middle of a yield-relevant gene; and/or yield lag , wherein it takes some time to breed the newest yield genetics into the GM lines. This does not reflect realistic field conditions however, especially leaving out pest pressure which

3737-544: The Cerrado region of Brazil into highly productive cropland that could grow profitable soybeans. Human sewage sludge can be used as fertilizer to grow soybeans. Soybeans grown in sewage sludge likely contain elevated concentrations of metals. Soybean plants are vulnerable to a wide range of bacterial diseases , fungal diseases , viral diseases , and parasites. The primary bacterial diseases include bacterial blight , bacterial pustule and downy mildew affecting

3838-607: The DNA of which has been modified using genetic engineering methods. Plant genomes can be engineered by physical methods or by use of Agrobacterium for the delivery of sequences hosted in T-DNA binary vectors . In most cases, the aim is to introduce a new trait to the plant which does not occur naturally in the species. Examples in food crops include resistance to certain pests, diseases, environmental conditions, reduction of spoilage, resistance to chemical treatments (e.g. resistance to

3939-559: The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), provides greater amounts of vitamin A targeted at reducing vitamin A deficiency . As of January 2016, golden rice has not yet been grown commercially in any country. A genetically modified cassava under development offers lower cyanogen glucosides and enhanced protein and other nutrients (called BioCassava). In November 2014, the USDA approved

4040-522: The Rhizobia group. Cultivation is successful in climates with hot summers, with optimum growing conditions in mean temperatures of 20 to 30 °C (70 to 85 °F); temperatures of below 20 °C (70 °F) and over 40 °C (105 °F) stunt growth significantly. They can grow in a wide range of soils, with optimum growth in moist alluvial soils with good organic content. Soybeans, like most legumes, perform nitrogen fixation by establishing

4141-633: The Soybean dwarf virus (SbDV) causes a disease in soybeans and is transmitted by aphids. Resistant varieties are available. In Indian cultivars, Nataraj et al. 2020 find that anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum truncatum is resisted by a combination of 2 major genes. The vast majority of cultivars in the US have soybean cyst nematode resistance (SCN resistance), but rely on only one breeding line (PI 88788) as their sole source of resistance. (The resistance genes provided by PI 88788, Peking , and PI 90763 were characterized in 1997.) As

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4242-608: The 13th century, the soybean had arrived and cultivated in Indonesia; it probably arrived much earlier however, carried by traders or merchants from Southern China. The earliest known reference to it as " tempeh " appeared in 1815 in the Serat Centhini manuscript. The development of tempeh fermented soybean cake probably took place earlier, circa 17th century in Java. By the 1600s, soy sauce spread from southern Japan across

4343-541: The 17th century through their trade with Far East, soybeans and its products were traded by European traders (Portuguese, Spanish, and Dutch) in Asia, and reached Indian Subcontinent by this period. By the 18th century, soybeans were introduced to the Americas and Europe from China. Soy was introduced to Africa from China in the late 19th century, and is now widespread across the continent. The cultivation of soybeans began in

4444-850: The 17th century. However, it was not until the late 19th century that the first attempt to cultivate soybeans in the Iberian peninsula was undertaken. In 1880, the soybean was first cultivated in Portugal in the Botanical Gardens at Coimbra (Crespi 1935). In about 1910 in Spain the first attempts at Soybean cultivation were made by the Count of San Bernardo, who cultivated soybeans on his estates at Almillo (in southwest Spain) about 48 miles east-northeast of Seville. Soybeans were first introduced to North America from China in 1765, by Samuel Bowen ,

4545-471: The Amazon not covered by the moratorium, such as the Cerrado region. Roughly one-fifth of deforestation can be attributed to expanding land use to produce oilseeds, primarily for soy and palm oil , whereas the expansion of beef production accounts for 41%. The main driver of deforestation is the global demand for meat, which in turn requires huge tracts of land to grow feed crops for livestock. Around 80% of

4646-558: The Americas. The eight Neolithic founder crops ( emmer wheat , einkorn wheat , barley , peas , lentils , bitter vetch , chick peas and flax ) had all appeared by about 7,000 BC. Traditional crop breeders have long introduced foreign germplasm into crops by creating novel crosses. A hybrid cereal grain was created in 1875, by crossing wheat and rye . Since then traits including dwarfing genes and rust resistance have been introduced in that manner. Plant tissue culture and deliberate mutations have enabled humans to alter

4747-629: The EU to allow the development of agricultural GM technologies to enable more sustainable agriculture, by employing fewer land, water, and nutrient resources. EASAC also criticizes the EU's "time-consuming and expensive regulatory framework" and said that the EU had fallen behind in the adoption of GM technologies. Participants in agriculture business markets include seed companies, agrochemical companies, distributors, farmers, grain elevators and universities that develop new crops/traits and whose agricultural extensions advise farmers on best practices. According to

4848-619: The Early Mumun period Okbang site in Korea indicated soybean was cultivated as a food crop in around 1000–900 BC. Soybeans from the Jōmon period in Japan from 3000 BC are also significantly larger than wild varieties. Soybeans were mentioned as kadêlê (modern Indonesian term: kedelai ) in an old Javanese manuscript, Serat Sri Tanjung , which dates to 12th- to 13th-century Java . By

4949-426: The GM seeds represented about 50% of Monsanto's business. Some patents on GM traits have expired, allowing the legal development of generic strains that include these traits. For example, generic glyphosate-tolerant GM soybean is now available. Another impact is that traits developed by one vendor can be added to another vendor's proprietary strains, potentially increasing product choice and competition. The patent on

5050-467: The U.S. was the FlavrSavr tomato, which had a longer shelf life. First sold in 1994, FlavrSavr tomato production ceased in 1997. It is no longer on the market. In November 2014, the USDA approved a GM potato that prevents bruising. In February 2015 Arctic Apples were approved by the USDA, becoming the first genetically modified apple approved for US sale. Gene silencing was used to reduce

5151-454: The US. In 1996 a total of 35 approvals had been granted to commercially grow 8 transgenic crops and one flower crop (carnation), with 8 different traits in 6 countries plus the EU. By 2010, 29 countries had planted commercialised genetically modified crops and a further 31 countries had granted regulatory approval for transgenic crops to be imported. GM banana cultivar QCAV-4 was approved by Australia and New Zealand in 2024. The banana resists

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5252-662: The United States until a remedial environmental impact report could be filed, prompting some fear of a sugar shortage. The USDA completed an environmental impact study of Roundup Ready sugar beets in 2012 and concluded that they are safe, at which time they were deregulated. In 2016, Monsanto introduced Roundup Ready Xtend soybeans, modified to tolerate both dicamba and glyphosate. Xtend soybeans were planted on 1 million acres in 2016, and by 2020 were projected to be planted on 50 million acres. The US patent for Roundup Ready soybeans expired in 2014. The US patent for Roundup Ready canola expired on 26 April 2022. The 2022 film Percy

5353-564: The absence of randomized controlled trials . The main Bt crop grown by small farmers in developing countries is cotton. A 2006 review of Bt cotton findings by agricultural economists concluded, "the overall balance sheet, though promising, is mixed. Economic returns are highly variable over years, farm type, and geographical location". In 2013 the European Academies Science Advisory Council (EASAC) asked

5454-500: The ancient Chinese myth, in 2853 BC, the legendary Emperor Shennong of China proclaimed that five plants were sacred: soybeans, rice, wheat, barley, and millet . Early Chinese records mention that soybeans were a gift from the region of Yangtze River delta and Southeast China. The Great Soviet Encyclopedia claims soybean cultivation originated in China about 5000 years ago. Some scholars suggest that soybean originated in China and

5555-481: The apples in March 2015. Plants use non-photochemical quenching to protect them from excessive amounts of sunlight. Plants can switch on the quenching mechanism almost instantaneously, but it takes much longer for it to switch off again. During the time that it is switched on, the amount of energy that is wasted increases. A genetic modification in three genes allows to correct this (in a trial with tobacco plants). As

5656-473: The chimeric gene being inserted into the plant. Through tissue culture techniques a single tobacco cell was selected that contained the gene and a new plant grown from it. The first field trials of genetically engineered plants occurred in France and the US in 1986, tobacco plants were engineered to be resistant to herbicides . In 1987 Plant Genetic Systems , founded by Marc Van Montagu and Jeff Schell ,

5757-451: The company refrains from citing actual yields. Monsanto's 2006 application to USDA states that RR2 (mon89788) yields 1.6 bu less than A3244, the conventional variety that the trait is inserted into. Many genetically engineered crops have similar yield alterations due to one or both of the common causes for this. Roundup Ready crops have both: Yield drag due to the modification itself interfering with yield production; and yield lag due to

5858-435: The correct strain of bacteria should be mixed with the soybean (or any legume) seed before planting. Modern crop cultivars generally reach a height of around 1 m (3 ft), and take 80–120 days from sowing to harvesting. Soil scientists Edson Lobato (Brazil), Andrew McClung (U.S.), and Alysson Paolinelli (Brazil) were awarded the 2006 World Food Prize for transforming the ecologically biodiverse savannah of

5959-574: The cultivated soybean, G. max , and the wild soybean, treated either as a separate species G. soja , or as the subspecies G. max subsp. soja . The cultivated and wild soybeans are annuals . The wild soybean is native to China , Japan , Korea and Russia . The subgenus Glycine consists of at least 25 wild perennial species: for example, G. canescens and G. tomentella , both found in Australia and Papua New Guinea . Perennial soybean ( Neonotonia wightii ) belongs to

6060-765: The delay in breeding the best new yield genetics into the RR lines. Because this kind of testing is done under artificial conditions, these results do not hold for actual field conditions with weed pressure . Under realistic field use the weed control advantages are more significant. Soybeans The soybean , soy bean , or soya bean ( Glycine max ) is a species of legume native to East Asia , widely grown for its edible bean , which has numerous uses. Traditional unfermented food uses of soybeans include soy milk , from which tofu and tofu skin are made. Fermented soy foods include soy sauce , fermented bean paste , nattō , and tempeh . Fat-free (defatted) soybean meal

6161-498: The eastern half of northern China by 2000 BC, but is almost certainly much older. The earliest documented evidence for the use of Glycine of any kind comes from charred plant remains of wild soybean recovered from Jiahu in Henan province China, a Neolithic site occupied between 9000 and 7800 calendar years ago (cal bp). An abundance of archeological charred soybean specimens have been found centered around this region. According to

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6262-540: The expression of polyphenol oxidase (PPO) , thus preventing enzymatic browning of the fruit after it has been sliced open. The trait was added to Granny Smith and Golden Delicious varieties. The trait includes a bacterial antibiotic resistance gene that provides resistance to the antibiotic kanamycin . The genetic engineering involved cultivation in the presence of kanamycin, which allowed only resistant cultivars to survive. Humans consuming apples do not acquire kanamycin resistance, per arcticapple.com. The FDA approved

6363-901: The first 48 hours under ideal growing conditions. The first photosynthetic structures, the cotyledons , develop from the hypocotyl , the first plant structure to emerge from the soil. These cotyledons both act as leaves and as a source of nutrients for the immature plant, providing the seedling nutrition for its first 7 to 10 days. The first true leaves develop as a pair of single blades . Subsequent to this first pair, mature nodes form compound leaves with three blades. Mature trifoliolate leaves, having three to four leaflets per leaf, are often between 6 and 15 cm ( 2 + 1 ⁄ 2 and 6 in) long and 2 and 7 cm (1 and 3 in) broad. Under ideal conditions, stem growth continues, producing new nodes every four days. Before flowering, roots can grow 2 cm ( 3 ⁄ 4  in) per day. If rhizobia are present, root nodulation begins by

6464-405: The first type of Roundup Ready crop that Monsanto produced (soybeans) expired in 2014 and the first harvest of off-patent soybeans occurs in the spring of 2015. Monsanto has broadly licensed the patent to other seed companies that include the glyphosate resistance trait in their seed products. About 150 companies have licensed the technology, including Syngenta and DuPont Pioneer . In 2014,

6565-458: The flowers in an Agrobacterium solution. In 2013 CRISPR was first used to target modification of plant genomes. The first genetically engineered crop plant was tobacco, reported in 1983. It was developed creating a chimeric gene that joined an antibiotic resistant gene to the T1 plasmid from Agrobacterium . The tobacco was infected with Agrobacterium transformed with this plasmid resulting in

6666-554: The fungus that is fatal to the Cavendish banana , the dominant cultivar. Genetically engineered crops have genes added or removed using genetic engineering techniques, originally including gene guns , electroporation , microinjection and agrobacterium . More recently, CRISPR and TALEN offered much more precise and convenient editing techniques. Gene guns (also known as biolistics) "shoot" (direct high energy particles or radiations against ) target genes into plant cells. It

6767-401: The genes in the plasmid that caused the tumor and adding in novel genes researchers were able to infect plants with A. tumefaciens and let the bacteria insert their chosen DNA sequence into the genomes of the plants. As not all plant cells were susceptible to infection by A. tumefaciens other methods were developed, including electroporation , micro-injection and particle bombardment with

6868-772: The germplasm supplier, Delta & Pine Land Company of Mississippi (5%)." According to the International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications (ISAAA), in 2014 approximately 18 million farmers grew biotech crops in 28 countries; about 94% of the farmers were resource-poor in developing countries. 53% of the global biotech crop area of 181.5 million hectares was grown in 20 developing countries. PG Economics comprehensive 2012 study concluded that GM crops increased farm incomes worldwide by $ 14 billion in 2010, with over half this total going to farmers in developing countries. Forgoing these benefits

6969-592: The global soybean crop is used to feed livestock. Soybeans were a crucial crop in East Asia long before written records began. The origin of soy bean cultivation remains scientifically debated. The closest living relative of the soybean is Glycine soja (previously called G. ussuriensis ), a legume native to central China. There is evidence for soybean domestication between 7000 and 6600 BC in China, between 5000 and 3000 BC in Japan and 1000 BC in Korea. The first unambiguously domesticated, cultigen -sized soybean

7070-399: The global value of biotech seed was US$ 15.7 billion; US$ 11.3 billion (72%) was in industrial countries and US$ 4.4 billion (28%) was in the developing countries. In 2009, Monsanto had $ 7.3 billion in sales of seeds and from licensing its technology; DuPont, through its Pioneer subsidiary, was the next biggest company in that market. As of 2009, the overall Roundup line of products including

7171-518: The hilum is the micropyle , or small opening in the seed coat which can allow the absorption of water for sprouting. Some seeds such as soybeans containing very high levels of protein can undergo desiccation , yet survive and revive after water absorption. A. Carl Leopold began studying this capability at the Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research at Cornell University in the mid-1980s. He found soybeans and corn to have

7272-508: The host organism. Transgenic plants are used to express proteins , like the cry toxins from B. thuringiensis , herbicide -resistant genes, antibodies , and antigens for vaccinations . A study led by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) also found viral genes in transgenic plants. Transgenic carrots have been used to produce the drug Taliglucerase alfa which is used to treat Gaucher's disease . In

7373-518: The industry has been primarily fueled by large increases in worldwide demand for meat products, particularly in developing countries like China, which alone accounts for more than 60% of imports. In spite of the Amazon "Soy Moratorium", soy production continues to play a significant role in deforestation when its indirect impacts are taken into account, as land used to grow soy continues to increase. This land either comes from pasture land (which increasingly supplants forested areas), or areas outside

7474-464: The laboratory, transgenic plants have been modified to increase photosynthesis (currently about 2% at most plants versus the theoretic potential of 9–10%). This is possible by changing the rubisco enzyme (i.e. changing C 3 plants into C 4 plants ), by placing the rubisco in a carboxysome , by adding CO 2 pumps in the cell wall, or by changing the leaf form or size. Plants have been engineered to exhibit bioluminescence that may become

7575-410: The largest review yet concluded that GM crops' effects on farming were positive. The meta-analysis considered all published English-language examinations of the agronomic and economic impacts between 1995 and March 2014 for three major GM crops: soybean, maize, and cotton. The study found that herbicide-tolerant crops have lower production costs, while for insect-resistant crops the reduced pesticide use

7676-488: The maize crop). GM maize outperformed its predecessors: yield was 5.6 to 24.5% higher with less mycotoxins (−28.8%), fumonisin (−30.6%) and thricotecens (−36.5%). Non-target organisms were unaffected, except for lower populations some parasitoid wasps due to decreased populations of their pest host European corn borer ; European corn borer is a target of Lepidoptera active Bt maize. Biogeochemical parameters such as lignin content did not vary, while biomass decomposition

7777-421: The makeup of plant genomes. Modern advances in genetics have allowed humans to more directly alter plants genetics. In 1970 Hamilton Smith's lab discovered restriction enzymes that allowed DNA to be cut at specific places, enabling scientists to isolate genes from an organism's genome. DNA ligases that join broken DNA together had been discovered earlier in 1967, and by combining the two technologies, it

7878-481: The mildew. The researchers deleted all three copies of the genes from wheat's hexaploid genome. Gao used the TALENs and CRISPR gene editing tools without adding or changing any other genes. No field trials were immediately planned. The CRISPR technique has also been used by Penn State researcher Yinong Yang to modify white button mushrooms ( Agaricus bisporus ) to be non-browning, and by DuPont Pioneer to make

7979-400: The most frequently modified plants, due to well-developed transformation methods, easy propagation and well studied genomes. They serve as model organisms for other plant species. Introducing new genes into plants requires a promoter specific to the area where the gene is to be expressed. For instance, to express a gene only in rice grains and not in leaves, an endosperm -specific promoter

8080-538: The plant's genes responsible for the mechanism known as the crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM), which allows the plants to survive despite low water levels. This holds promise for water-heavy crops such as rice, wheat, soybeans and poplar to accelerate their adaptation to water-limited environments. Several salinity tolerance mechanisms have been identified in salt-tolerant crops. For example, rice, canola and tomato crops have been genetically modified to increase their tolerance to salt stress. The most prevalent GM trait

8181-585: The region through the Dutch East India Company (VOC). While the origins and history of Soybean cultivation in the Eastern Himalayas is debated, it was potentially introduced from southern China , more specifically Yunnan province. Alternatively, it could have reached here through traders from Indonesia via Myanmar . Northeast India is viewed as a passive micro-centre within the soybean secondary gene centre. Central India

8282-589: The relationship between Bt cotton adoption and farmer suicides in India found that "Available data show no evidence of a 'resurgence' of farmer suicides" and that "Bt cotton technology has been very effective overall in India." During the time period of Bt cotton introduction in India, farmer suicides instead declined by 25%. There is a scientific consensus that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food, but that each GM food needs to be tested on

8383-430: The same regulatory scrutiny as transgenics. Genetically modified plants can also be developed using gene knockdown or gene knockout to alter the genetic makeup of a plant without incorporating genes from other plants. In 2014, Chinese researcher Gao Caixia filed patents on the creation of a strain of wheat that is resistant to powdery mildew . The strain lacks genes that encode proteins that repress defenses against

8484-573: The soil level ( crown gall ). The genetic information for tumor growth is encoded on a mobile, circular DNA fragment ( plasmid ). When Agrobacterium infects a plant, it transfers this T-DNA to a random site in the plant genome. When used in genetic engineering the bacterial T-DNA is removed from the bacterial plasmid and replaced with the desired foreign gene. The bacterium is a vector , enabling transportation of foreign genes into plants. This method works especially well for dicotyledonous plants like potatoes, tomatoes, and tobacco. Agrobacteria infection

8585-462: The soybean crop. Soybean is a common protein source in feed for farm animals that in turn yield animal protein for human consumption. The word "soy" derives from the Japanese soi , a regional variant of shōyu , meaning "soy sauce". The name of the genus, Glycine , comes from Linnaeus . When naming the genus, Linnaeus observed that one of the species within the genus had a sweet root. Based on

8686-414: The soybean plant. The Japanese beetle ( Popillia japonica ) poses a significant threat to agricultural crops, including soybeans, due to its voracious feeding habits. Found commonly in both urban and suburban areas, these beetles are frequently observed in agricultural landscapes where they can cause considerable damage to crops like corn, soybeans, and various fruits. Soybean cyst nematode (SCN)

8787-472: The sweetness, the Greek word for sweet, glykós , was Latinized. The genus name is not related to the amino acid glycine . Like most plants, soybeans grow in distinct morphological stages as they develop from seeds into fully mature plant. The first stage of growth is germination , a method which first becomes apparent as a seed's radicle emerges. This is the first stage of root growth and occurs within

8888-461: The time the third node appears. Nodulation typically continues for 8 weeks before the symbiotic infection process stabilizes. The final characteristics of a soybean plant are variable, with factors such as genetics, soil quality , and climate affecting its form; however, fully mature soybean plants are generally between 50 and 125 cm (20 and 50 in) in height and have rooting depths between 75 and 150 cm (30 and 60 in). Flowering

8989-461: The use of Roundup Ready crops has increased the usage of herbicides measured in pounds applied per acre, it has also changed the herbicide use profile away from atrazine , metribuzin , and alachlor which are more likely to be present in run off water. An injunction in the case of Center for Food Safety v. USDA in September, 2010 prevented farmers from planting Roundup Ready sugar beets across

9090-412: Was attributed to European corn borer populations reduced by exposure to Bt corn, leaving fewer to attack conventional corn nearby. Agriculture economists calculated that "world surplus [increased by] $ 240.3 million for 1996. Of this total, the largest share (59%) went to U.S. farmers. Seed company Monsanto received the next largest share (21%), followed by US consumers (9%), the rest of the world (6%), and

9191-489: Was clearly by 2020 —producing SCN populations that are virulent on PI 88788. In 2020, world production of soybeans was over 353 million tonnes, led by Brazil and the United States combined with 66% of the total (table). Production has dramatically increased across the globe since the 1960s, but particularly in South America after a cultivar that grew well in low latitudes was developed in the 1980s. The rapid growth of

9292-564: Was discovered in Korea at the Mumun -period Daundong site. Prior to fermented products such as fermented black soybeans ( douchi ), jiang (Chinese miso), soy sauce , tempeh , nattō , and miso , soy was considered sacred for its beneficial effects in crop rotation , and it was eaten by itself, and as bean curd and soy milk . Soybeans were introduced to Java in Malay Archipelago circa 13th century or probably earlier. By

9393-453: Was domesticated about 3500 BC. Recent research, however, indicates that seeding of wild forms started early (before 5000 BC) in multiple locations throughout East Asia. Soybeans became an important crop by the Zhou dynasty (c. 1046–256 BC) in China. However, the details of where, when, and under what circumstances soybean developed a close relationship with people are poorly understood. Soybean

9494-604: Was higher. A 2014 meta-analysis concluded that GM technology adoption had reduced chemical pesticide use by 37%, increased crop yields by 22%, and increased farmer profits by 68%. This reduction in pesticide use has been ecologically beneficial, but benefits may be reduced by overuse. Yield gains and pesticide reductions are larger for insect-resistant crops than for herbicide-tolerant crops. Yield and profit gains are higher in developing countries than in developed countries . Pesticide poisonings were reduced by 2.4 to 9 million cases per year in India alone. A 2011 review of

9595-548: Was introduced into North America in 1765, for the next 155 years, the crop was grown primarily for forage . In 1831, the first soy product "a few dozen India Soy" [sauce] arrived in Canada. Soybeans were probably first cultivated in Canada by 1855, and definitely in 1895 at Ontario Agricultural College . It was not until Lafayette Mendel and Thomas Burr Osborne showed that the nutritional value of soybean seeds could be increased by cooking, moisture or heat, that soy went from

9696-434: Was offset by higher seed prices, leaving overall production costs about the same. Yields increased 9% for herbicide tolerance and 25% for insect resistant varieties. Farmers who adopted GM crops made 69% higher profits than those who did not. The review found that GM crops help farmers in developing countries, increasing yields by 14 percentage points. The researchers considered some studies that were not peer-reviewed and

9797-464: Was possible to "cut and paste" DNA sequences and create recombinant DNA . Plasmids , discovered in 1952, became important tools for transferring information between cells and replicating DNA sequences. In 1907 a bacterium that caused plant tumors, Agrobacterium tumefaciens , was discovered and in the early 1970s the tumor inducing agent was found to be a DNA plasmid called the Ti plasmid . By removing

9898-462: Was the first company to genetically engineer insect-resistant plants by incorporating genes that produced insecticidal proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) into tobacco . The People's Republic of China was the first country to commercialise transgenic plants, introducing a virus-resistant tobacco in 1992. In 1994 Calgene attained approval to commercially release the Flavr Savr tomato,

9999-907: Was unknown in South China before the Han period. From about the first century AD to the Age of Discovery (15–16th centuries), soybeans were introduced into across South and Southeast Asia. This spread was due to the establishment of sea and land trade routes. The earliest Japanese textual reference to the soybean is in the classic Kojiki ( Records of Ancient Matters ), which was completed in AD 712. The oldest preserved soybeans resembling modern varieties in size and shape were found in archaeological sites in Korea dated about 1000 BC. Radiocarbon dating of soybean samples recovered through flotation during excavations at

10100-443: Was used because it had shown previously an ability to deliver bacterial EPSPS to the chloroplasts of other plants. The plasmid used to move the gene into soybeans was PV-GMGTO4. It contained three bacterial genes, two CP4 EPSPS genes, and a gene encoding beta-glucuronidase (GUS) from Escherichia coli as a marker. The DNA was injected into the soybeans using the particle-acceleration method or " gene gun ". Soybean cultivar A54O3

10201-546: Was used for the transformation . The expression of the GUS gene was used as the initial evidence of transformation. GUS expression was detected by a staining method in which the GUS enzyme converts a substrate into a blue precipitate . Those plants that showed GUS expression were then taken and sprayed with glyphosate and their tolerance was tested over many generations. Under special conditions meant to reveal only genetic yield factors, RR lines actually have worse yields. In 1999,

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