144-685: Roundheads were the supporters of the Parliament of England during the English Civil War (1642–1651). Also known as Parliamentarians , they fought against King Charles I of England and his supporters, known as the Cavaliers or Royalists, who claimed rule by absolute monarchy and the principle of the divine right of kings . The goal of the Roundheads was to give to Parliament the supreme control over executive administration of
288-591: A magnum concilium (Latin for ' great council ' ) to discuss national business and promulgate legislation. For example, the Domesday survey was planned at the Christmas council of 1085, and the Constitutions of Clarendon were made at the 1164 council. The magnum concilium continued to be the setting of state trials, such as the trial of Thomas Becket . The members of the great councils were
432-533: A bicameral Parliament emerged when its membership was divided into the House of Lords and House of Commons , which included knights of the shire and burgesses . During Henry IV 's time on the throne, the role of Parliament expanded beyond the determination of taxation policy to include the "redress of grievances", which essentially enabled English citizens to petition the body to address complaints in their local towns and counties. By this time, citizens were given
576-750: A coronation . She immersed herself in national affairs as civil war loomed, and in 1644, following the birth of her youngest daughter, Henrietta , during the height of the First English Civil War , was compelled to seek refuge in France. The execution of Charles I in 1649 left her impoverished. She settled in Paris and returned to England after the Restoration of Charles II to the throne. In 1665, she moved back to Paris, where she died four years later. The North American Province of Maryland ,
720-585: A French invasion and unrest throughout the realm. For the first time, burgesses (elected by those residents of boroughs or towns who held burgage tenure , such as wealthy merchants or craftsmen) were summoned along with knights of the shire. Montfort was killed at the Battle of Evesham in 1265, and Henry was restored to power. In August 1266, Parliament authorised the Dictum of Kenilworth , which nullified everything Montfort had done and removed all restraints on
864-760: A Royalist court in exile at the Chateau-Neuf de Saint-Germain-en-Laye . During 1646 there was talk of Prince Charles joining Henrietta Maria in Paris; Henrietta Maria and the King were keen, but the Prince was initially advised not to go, as it would portray him as a Catholic friend of France. After the continued failure of the Royalist efforts in England, he finally agreed to join his mother in July 1646. Henrietta Maria
1008-532: A birthdate of 26 November. In England, where the Julian calendar was still in use, her date of birth is often recorded as 16 November. Henrietta Maria was brought up as a Roman Catholic . As a daughter of the Bourbon king of France, she was a Fille de France and a member of the House of Bourbon . She was the youngest sister of the future Louis XIII of France . Her father was assassinated on 14 May 1610, when she
1152-612: A certain new town" were summoned to advise on the rebuilding of Berwick after its capture by the English. Parliament—or the High Court of Parliament as it became known—was England's highest court of justice. A large amount of its business involved judicial questions referred to it by ministers, judges, and other government officials. Many petitions were submitted to Parliament by individuals whose grievances were not satisfied through normal administrative or judicial channels. As
1296-454: A change in royal policy. According to historian Judith Green , "these assemblies were more concerned with ratification and publicity than with debate". In addition, the magnum concilium had no role in approving taxation as the king could levy geld (discontinued after 1162) whenever he wished. The years between 1189 and 1215 were a time of transition for the great council. The cause of this transition were new financial burdens imposed by
1440-476: A chapel garden and a magnificent altarpiece by Rubens . It also had an unusual monstrance , designed by François Dieussart to exhibit the Holy Sacrament. Henrietta Maria also had quite an interest in commercial theatre and, much like paintings and sculptures, was a prime patronage to many actors, their companies, and the theaters they performed in. A prime name in regards to her theatrical patronages
1584-505: A close bond with her husband, such confidants were no longer as necessary. Henrietta Maria had a strong interest in the arts, and her patronage of various activities was one of the various ways in which she tried to shape court events. She and Charles were "dedicated and knowledgeable collectors" of paintings. Henrietta Maria was particularly known for her patronage of the Italian painter Orazio Gentileschi , who came to England in 1626 in
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#17327809436181728-404: A cold, and coughs. Henrietta Maria's negotiations were difficult; the larger pieces of jewellery were both too expensive to be sold easily, and politically risky – many buyers were deterred in case a future English Parliament attempted to reclaim them, arguing they had been illegally sold by Henrietta Maria. Henrietta Maria was finally partially successful in her negotiations, particularly for
1872-435: A combination of her piety, her femininity, and her sponsorship of the arts. A devout Roman Catholic , her religion heavily influenced Henrietta Maria's time as queen, particularly the early years of her marriage. In July 1626, she caused huge controversy by stopping at Tyburn to pray for Catholics executed there and later tried to convert her Calvinist nephew Prince Rupert during his stay in England. At first, there
2016-416: A cook, a baker, a pantler, and a tailor. Their removal was part of a plan to control her extravagant expenditure, which resulted in debts that were still being paid off several years later. Charles appointed Jean Caille as her treasurer; he was succeeded by George Carew , then by Sir Richard Wynn in 1629. Despite these reforms and gifts from the king, her spending continued at a high level; in 1627, she
2160-539: A duel with Digby, arresting them both, however, she was unable to prevent a later duel between Digby and Percy, and between Rupert and Percy shortly after that. King Charles was executed by decree of Parliament in 1649; his death left Henrietta Maria almost destitute and in shock, a situation not helped by the French civil war of the Fronde , which left Henrietta Maria's nephew King Louis XIV short of money himself. During
2304-406: A fellow soldier a Roundhead. This contrasted with Cavalier , a word used to describe supporters of the Royalist cause, but which also started out as a pejorative term. The first proponents used it to compare members of the Royalist party with Spanish Caballeros who had abused Dutch Protestants during the reign of Elizabeth I . However, unlike Roundhead, Cavalier was later embraced by those who were
2448-594: A fine for the restoration of their property that was identical to the tax requested by the King. At the Salisbury parliament of March 1297, Edward unveiled his plans for recovering Gascony. The English would mount a two-front attack with the King leading an expedition to Flanders while other barons traveled to Gascony . This plan faced opposition from the most important noblemen— Roger Bigod , marshal and earl of Norfolk , and Humphrey Bohun , constable and earl of Hereford . Norfolk and Hereford argued that they owed
2592-480: A generous pension. Henrietta Maria's return was partially prompted by a liaison between her second son, James, Duke of York, and Anne Hyde, the daughter of Edward Hyde , Charles II's chief minister. Anne was pregnant, and James had proposed marrying her. Henrietta Maria was horrified; she still disliked Edward Hyde, did not approve of the pregnant Anne, and certainly did not want the courtier's daughter to marry her son. However, Charles II agreed and despite her efforts
2736-608: A key patron in Stuart masques, complementing her husband's strong interest in paintings and the visual arts. She performed in various works herself, including as an Amazon in William Davenant 's 1640 "Salmacida Spolia". She was also a patron of English composer Nicholas Lanier , and was responsible for Davenant being appointed the Poet Laureat in 1638. The queen liked physical sculpture and design too, and retained
2880-529: A leader of the baronial reformers, ignored these orders and made plans to hold a parliament in London but was prevented by Bigod. When the king arrived back in England he summoned a parliament which met in July, where Montfort was brought to trial though ultimately cleared of wrongdoing. In April 1261, the pope released the king from his oath to adhere to the Provisions of Oxford, and Henry publicly renounced
3024-463: A major haven for Roman Catholic settlers, was named in honour of Queen Henrietta Maria. The name was carried over into the current U.S. state of Maryland . Henrietta Maria was the youngest daughter of Henry IV of France (Henry III of Navarre) and his second wife, Marie de' Medici , and was named after her parents. She was born at the Palais du Louvre on 25 November 1609, but some historians give her
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#17327809436183168-412: A marriage with Henrietta Maria, the terms of which were negotiated by James Hay, 1st Earl of Carlisle . Henrietta Maria was aged fifteen at the time of her marriage, which was not unusual for royal princesses of the period. Opinions on her appearance vary; her niece Sophia of Hanover commented that the "beautiful portraits of Van Dyck had given me such a fine idea of all the ladies of England that I
3312-453: A menagerie of dogs, monkeys and caged birds. Henrietta Maria's marriage to Charles did not begin well and was not improved by his ejection of her French staff. Initially, their relationship was frigid and argumentative, and Henrietta Maria took an immediate dislike to the Duke of Buckingham , the King's favourite . One of Henrietta Maria's closest companions in the early days of her marriage
3456-565: A new constitution in which the king's powers were given to a council of nine. The new council was chosen and led by three electors (Montfort, Stephen Bersted, bishop of Chichester , and Gilbert de Clare, earl of Gloucester ). The electors could replace any of the nine as they saw fit, but the electors themselves could only be removed by Parliament. Montfort held two other Parliaments during his time in power. The most famous— Simon de Montfort's Parliament —was held in January 1265 amidst threat of
3600-415: A nickname called Roundheads ". The demonstrators included London apprentices, for whom Roundhead was a term of derision, because the regulations which they had agreed to included a provision for closely cropped hair. According to John Rushworth , the word was first used on 27 December 1641 by a disbanded officer named David Hide. During a riot, Hide is reported to have drawn his sword and said he would "cut
3744-610: A pamphlet, before being imprisoned for life. In the late 1630s, the lawyer William Prynne , popular in Puritan circles, also had his ears cut off for writing that women actresses were notorious whores, a clear insult to Henrietta Maria. London society would blame Henrietta Maria for the Irish Rebellion of 1641 , believed to be orchestrated by the Jesuits to whom she was linked in the public imagination. Henrietta Maria herself
3888-565: A period at York, where she was entertained in some style by the Earl of Newcastle . She took the opportunity to discuss the situation north of the border with Royalist Scots, promoting the plans of Montrose and others for an uprising. She also supported the Earl of Antrim 's proposals to settle the rebellion in Ireland and bring forces across the sea to support the king in England. Henrietta Maria continued to argue vigorously for nothing less than
4032-458: A permanent feature of English politics. Thereafter, the king ruled in concert with an active Parliament, which considered matters related to foreign policy, taxation, justice, administration, and legislation. January 1236 saw the passage of the Statute of Merton , the first English statute . Among other things, the law continued barring bastards from inheritance. Significantly, the language of
4176-412: A precedent that taxation was granted in return for the redress of grievances. In 1232, Peter des Roches became the king's chief minister. His nephew, Peter de Rivaux , accumulated a large number of offices, including lord keeper of the privy seal and keeper of the wardrobe ; yet, these appointments were not approved by the magnates as had become customary during the regency government. Under Roches,
4320-532: A schedule rather than at the pleasure of the king. The reformers hoped that the provisions would ensure parliamentary approval for all major government acts. Under the provisions, Parliament was "established formally (and no longer merely by custom) as the voice of the community". The theme of reform dominated later parliaments. During the Michaelmas Parliament of 1258, the Ordinance of Sheriffs
4464-696: A shipload of arms for the king, which had been held at the request of Parliament. Defying her astrologers , who predicted disaster, she set to sea again at the end of February. This second attempt was successful and she evaded the Parliamentarian navy to land at Bridlington in Yorkshire with troops and arms. The pursuing naval vessels then bombarded the town, forcing the royal party to take cover in neighbouring fields; Henrietta Maria returned under fire, however, to recover her pet dog Mitte which had been forgotten by her staff. Henrietta Maria paused for
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4608-488: A tax on moveables. In reality, this grant was not made by a parliament but by an informal gathering "standing around in [the king's] chamber". Norfolk and Hereford drew up a list of grievances known as the Remonstrances , which criticized the king's demand for military service and heavy taxes. The maltolt and prises were particularly objectionable due to their arbitrary nature. In August, Bigod and de Bohun arrived at
4752-512: A total victory over Charles's enemies, countering proposals for a compromise. She rejected private messages from Pym and Hampden asking her to use her influence over the king to create a peace treaty, and was impeached by Parliament shortly afterwards. Meanwhile, Parliament had voted to destroy her private chapel at Somerset House and arrest the Capuchin friars who maintained it. In March, Henry Marten and John Clotworthy forced their way into
4896-464: A vassal to the King of France, English kings were suitors to the Parlement of Paris . In the 13th century, the French and English parliaments were similar in their functions; however, the two institutions diverged in significant ways in later centuries. After the 1230s, the normal meeting place for Parliament was fixed at Westminster . Parliaments tended to meet according to the legal year so that
5040-473: A year at Easter in the spring and after Michaelmas in the autumn. Under Edward, the first major statutes amending the common law were promulgated in Parliament: The first Statute of Westminster required free elections without intimidation. This act was accompanied by the grant of a tax on England's wealthy wool trade —a half- mark (6 s 8 d ) on each sack of wool exported. It became known as
5184-690: Is Christopher Beeston , who had not only run his own company of actors known by the Beeston's Boys , but others such as Queen Henrietta's Men . The latter group performed in many courts, such as Hampton Court or the Denmark House. These plays would often be to critical acclaim and great reception of the time, especially from other theatrical figures like Thomas Heywood . In the end – again, such as with other art forms – those who received Henrietta Maria's patronages were always appreciated, and in turn made certain to perform much appreciated shows. During
5328-511: The magna et antiqua custuma (Latin: ' great and ancient custom ' ) and was granted to Edward and his heirs, becoming part of the Crown's permanent revenue until the 17th century. In 1294, Philip IV attempted to recover Aquitaine in the Gascon War . Edward's need for money to finance the war led him to take arbitrary measures. He ordered the seizure of merchants' wool, which
5472-642: The Battle of Langport in July ;– the Parliamentarians effectively destroyed Charles's armies. Finally, in May 1646 Charles sought shelter with a Presbyterian Scottish army at Southwell in Nottinghamshire. With the support of Anne of Austria and the French government, Henrietta Maria settled in Paris, appointing as her chancellor, the eccentric Sir Kenelm Digby , and forming
5616-511: The Carmelites at the French court. By 1622, Henrietta Maria was living in Paris with a household of some 200 staff, and marriage plans were being discussed. Henrietta Maria first met her future husband in 1623 at a court entertainment in Paris, when he was on his way to Spain with the Duke of Buckingham to discuss a possible marriage with Maria Anna of Spain . The proposal fell through when Philip IV of Spain demanded Charles convert to
5760-474: The Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye . Henrietta Maria had been joined by a wide collection of Royalist exiles, including Jermyn, Henry Wilmot , Lord John Byron, George Digby , Henry Percy , John Colepeper and Charles Gerard, who were referred to collectively as the 'Louvre faction'. The Queen's court was beset with factionalism, rivalry and duelling; Henrietta Maria had to prevent Prince Rupert from fighting
5904-611: The Exclusion Crisis of 1678–1681, when the term was superseded by " Whig ", initially another term with pejorative connotations. Likewise, during the Exclusion Bill crisis, the term Cavalier was replaced with " Tory ", an Irish term introduced by their opponents that was also initially a pejorative term. Parliament of England The Parliament of England was the legislature of the Kingdom of England from
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6048-541: The First War of Scottish Independence . This need for money led to what became known as the Model Parliament of November 1295. In addition to magnates who were summoned individually, sheriffs were instructed to send two elected knights from each shire and two elected burgesses from each borough. The Commons had been summoned to earlier parliaments but only with power to consent to what the magnates decided. In
6192-641: The Scottish against Parliament. England's many Puritans and Presbyterians were almost invariably Roundhead supporters, as were many smaller religious groups such as the Independents . However, a number of Roundheads were members of the Church of England , as were most Cavaliers . Roundhead political factions included the proto-anarchist/socialist Diggers , the diverse group known as the Levellers and
6336-543: The Second Barons' War . Montfort defeated the king at the Battle of Lewes in 1264 and became the real ruler of England for the next twelve months. Montfort held a parliament in June 1264 to sanction a new form of government and rally support. This parliament was notable for including knights of the shire who were expected to deliberate fully on political matters, not just assent to taxation. The June Parliament approved
6480-546: The apocalyptic Christian movement of the Fifth Monarchists . Some Puritans (but by no means all of them) wore their hair closely cropped round the head or flat. There was thus an obvious contrast between them and the men of courtly fashion , who wore long ringlets . During the war and for a time afterwards, Roundhead was a term of derision, and in the New Model Army it was a punishable offence to call
6624-479: The royal jewels , and on attempting to persuade Prince Frederick Henry of Orange and King Christian IV of Denmark to support Charles's cause. Henrietta would regularly send letters to Charles from her time in The Hague to her eventual return to England. This was to maintain the couple's dual decision-making beyond simply keeping in touch. She was not well during this period, suffering from toothache, headaches,
6768-479: The shires and boroughs were recognised as communes (Latin communitas ) with a unified constituency capable of being represented by knights of the shire and burgesses . Initially, knights and burgesses were summoned only when new taxes were proposed so that representatives of the communes (or the Commons) could report back home that taxes were lawfully granted. The Commons were not regularly summoned until
6912-439: The 1290s, after the so-called Model Parliament of 1295. Of the thirty parliaments between 1274 and 1294, knights only attended four and burgesses only two. Early parliaments increasingly brought together social classes resembling the estates of the realm of continental Europe: the landed aristocracy (barons and knights), the clergy, and the towns. Historian John Maddicott points out that "the main division within parliament
7056-455: The 13th century until 1707 when it was replaced by the Parliament of Great Britain . Parliament evolved from the great council of bishops and peers that advised the English monarch . Great councils were first called Parliaments during the reign of Henry III ( r. 1216–1272 ). By this time, the king required Parliament's consent to levy taxation. Originally a unicameral body,
7200-554: The 1630s, was forced to flee to the Continent after the First Army Plot of 1641. Henrietta Maria encouraged Charles to take a firm line with Pym and his colleagues. She was widely believed to have encouraged Charles to arrest his Parliamentary enemies in January 1642, although no hard proof of this exists. The Marquis de La Ferté-Imbault, the French ambassador, was keen to avoid any damage to French prestige by an attack on
7344-490: The 1640s had difficulty writing or speaking the language. Combined with her Catholicism, this made her unpopular among English contemporaries who feared "Papist" subversion and conspiracies such as the Gunpowder Plot . Henrietta Maria has been criticised as being an "intrinsically apolitical, undereducated and frivolous" figure during the 1630s; others have suggested that she exercised a degree of personal power through
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#17327809436187488-573: The 1640s, the kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland were dominated by a sequence of conflicts termed the English Civil War or the Wars of the Three Kingdoms ; within England, the conflict centred on the rival Royalist and Parliamentarian factions. Queen Henrietta Maria became heavily involved in this conflict that resulted in her husband's death and her exile in France. There have been various schools of thought as to Henrietta Maria's role in
7632-576: The 1670s back Wedgwood's case somewhat, as there is documentation of Henrietta Maria's rather forward trades with France for money and arms. Reinterpretation in the 1970s argued that Henrietta Maria's political role was more limited, suggesting that the King took more decisions himself personally. Quinton Bone concludes that, despite having a very close personal relationship with Henrietta Maria, Charles rarely listened to her on matters of state politics. A third, more recent model argues that Henrietta Maria did indeed exercise political power and influence during
7776-615: The Catholic Church and live in Spain for a year as pre-conditions for the marriage. As Philip was aware, such terms were unacceptable, and when Charles returned to England in October, he and Buckingham demanded King James declare war on Spain. Searching elsewhere for a bride, Charles sent his close friend Henry Rich, 1st Earl of Holland , to Paris in 1624. A Francophile and godson of Henry IV of France , Holland strongly favoured
7920-617: The Crown to finance the Third Crusade , ransom Richard I , and pay for the series of Anglo-French wars fought between the Plantagenet and Capetian dynasties . In 1188, a precedent was established when the great council granted Henry II the Saladin tithe . In granting this tax, the great council was acting as representatives for all taxpayers. The likelihood of resistance to national taxes made consent politically necessary. It
8064-739: The King would be in England, Ormonde, with his usual bluntness, retorted that if she had never been trusted the King need never have left England. Co-location began to bring the factions together, but Henrietta Maria's influence was waning. In 1654, Charles II moved his court on to Cologne , eliminating the remaining influence of Henrietta Maria in St-Germain. Henrietta Maria increasingly focused on her faith and on her children, especially Henrietta (whom she called "Minette"), James and Henry . Henrietta Maria attempted to convert both James and Henry to Catholicism, her attempts with Henry angering both Royalists in exile and Charles II. Henriette, however,
8208-599: The Lincoln parliament of 1301, the King heard complaints that the charters were not followed and calls for the dismissal of his chief minister, the treasurer Walter Langton . Demands for appointment of ministers by "common consent" were heard for the first time since Henry III's death. To this, Edward angrily refused, saying that every other magnate in England had the power "to arrange his household, to appoint bailiffs and stewards" without outside interference. He did offer to right any wrongs his officials had committed. Notably,
8352-534: The Model Parliament, the writ of summons invested shire knights and burgesses with power to provide both counsel and consent. By 1296, the King's efforts to recover Gascony were creating resentment among the clergy, merchants, and magnates. At the Bury St Edmunds parliament in 1296, the lay magnates and Commons agreed to pay a tax on moveable property. The clergy refused, citing the recent papal bull Clericis Laicos , forbidding secular rulers from taxing
8496-428: The Provisions in May. Most of the barons were willing to let the king reassume power provided he ruled well. By 1262, Henry had regained all of his authority, and Montfort left England. The barons were now divided mainly by age. The elder barons remained loyal to the king, but younger barons coalesced around Montfort, who returned to England in the spring of 1263. The royalist barons and rebel barons fought each other in
8640-527: The Queen's Head of the Robes and confidante. She acquired several court dwarves, including Jeffrey Hudson and "little Sara". Henrietta Maria established her presence at Somerset House , Greenwich Palace , Oatlands , Nonsuch Palace , Richmond Palace and Holdenby as part of her jointure lands by 1630. She added Wimbledon House in 1639, which was bought for her as a present by Charles. She also acquired
8784-438: The Queen, but was equally unimpressed by Charles's record on relations with France. He advised caution and reconciliation with Pym. The arrest was bungled, and Pym and his colleagues escaped Charles's soldiers, possibly as a result of a tip-off from Henrietta Maria's former friend Lucy Hay. With the anti-royalist backlash now in full swing, Henrietta Maria and Charles retreated from Whitehall to Hampton Court . The situation
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#17327809436188928-539: The Scots, however, promising a Presbyterian government in England with the exception of Charles's own household. The result was the Second Civil War , which despite Henrietta Maria's efforts to send it some limited military aid, ended in 1648 with the defeat of the Scots and Charles's capture by Parliamentary forces. In France, meanwhile, a "hothouse" atmosphere had developed amongst the royal court in exile at
9072-502: The agenda. Beginning around the 1220s, the concept of representation, summarised in the Roman law maxim quod omnes tangit ab omnibus approbetur (Latin for ' what touches all should be approved by all ' ), gained new importance among the clergy, and they began choosing proctors to represent them at church assemblies and, when summoned, at Parliament. As feudalism declined and the gentry and merchant classes increased in influence,
9216-408: The aim of capturing Henrietta Maria and thereby acquiring a valuable bargaining counter over Charles. By June, Essex's forces had reached Exeter. Henrietta Maria had had another difficult childbirth, and the king had to personally appeal to their usual physician, de Mayerne, to risk leaving London to attend to her. The Queen was in considerable pain and distress, but decided that the threat from Essex
9360-455: The appointment of royal ministers, an action that normally was considered a royal prerogative . Historian John Maddicott writes that the "effect of the minority was thus to make the great council an indispensable part of the country's government [and] to give it a degree of independent initiative and authority which central assemblies had never previously possessed". The regency government officially ended when Henry turned sixteen in 1223, and
9504-712: The bishops themselves promised an aid but would not commit the rest of the clergy. Likewise, the barons promised to assist the king if he was attacked but would not commit the rest of the laity to pay money. For this reason, the lower clergy of each diocese elected proctors at church synods , and each county elected two knights of the shire . These representatives were summoned to Parliament in April 1254 to consent to taxation. The men elected as shire knights were prominent landholders with experience in local government and as soldiers. They were elected by barons, other knights, and probably freeholders of sufficient standing. By 1258,
9648-498: The chapel with troops and destroyed the altarpiece by Rubens , smashed many of the statues and made a bonfire of the queen's religious canvases, books and vestments. Travelling south in the summer, she met Charles at Kineton , near Edgehill, before travelling on to the royal capital in Oxford . The journey through the contested Midlands was not an easy one, and Prince Rupert was sent to Stratford-upon-Avon to escort her. Despite
9792-478: The church without papal permission. In January 1297, a convocation of the clergy met at St Paul's in London to consider the matter further but ultimately could find no way to pay the tax without violating the papal bull. In retaliation, the King outlawed the clergy and confiscated clerical property on 30 January. On 10 February, Robert Winchelsey , archbishop of Canterbury, responded by excommunicating anyone acting against Clericis Laicos . Most clergy paid
9936-526: The civil war period and the degree of her responsibility for the ultimate Royalist defeat. The traditional perspective on the Queen has suggested that she was a strong-willed woman who dominated her weaker-willed husband for the worse; the historian Wedgwood, for example, highlights Henrietta Maria's steadily increasing ascendancy over Charles, observing that "he sought her advice on every subject, except religion" and indeed complained that he could not make her an official member of his council. Some recounting from
10080-436: The conflict, less so directly but more as a result of her public actions and deeds, which constrained and influenced the choices available to Charles. By the end of the 1630s, relations between the English factions had become increasingly tense. Arguments over religion, society, morals, and political power became increasingly evident in the years before war broke out. Henrietta Maria's strong views on religion and social life at
10224-480: The country. The witan had a role in making and promulgating legislation as well as making decisions concerning war and peace. They were also the venues for state trials , such as the trial of Earl Godwin in 1051. After the Norman Conquest of 1066, the king received regular counsel from the members of his curia regis ( Latin for ' royal court ' ) and periodically enlarged the court by summoning
10368-464: The country/kingdom. Most Roundheads sought constitutional monarchy in place of the absolute monarchy sought by Charles; however, at the end of the English Civil War in 1649, public antipathy towards the king was high enough to allow republican leaders such as Oliver Cromwell to abolish the monarchy completely and establish the Commonwealth of England . The Roundhead commander-in-chief of
10512-494: The couple spending their first night together at St Augustine's Abbey near Canterbury on 13 June 1625. As a Roman Catholic, Henrietta Maria was unable to participate in the Church of England ceremony on 2 February 1626 when Charles was crowned in Westminster Abbey . A suggestion she be crowned by Daniel de La Mothe-Houdancourt, the bishop of Mende who accompanied her to England, was unacceptable, although she
10656-406: The couple were married. That same September, Henrietta's third son, Henry Stuart, Duke of Gloucester , died of smallpox in London at age 20. He had accompanied his brother King Charles II to England in May and had participated in the King's triumphal progress through London. More death was to follow: on Christmas Eve, Henrietta's elder daughter Mary also died of smallpox in London, leaving behind
10800-542: The court meant that, by 1642, she had become a "highly unpopular queen who apparently never successfully commanded intense personal respect and loyalty from most of her subjects". Henrietta Maria remained sympathetic to her fellow Catholics, and in 1632 began construction of a new Catholic chapel at Somerset House . The old chapel had been deeply unpopular amongst Protestants, and there had been much talk amongst London apprentices of pulling it down as an anti-Catholic gesture. Although modest externally, Henrietta Maria's chapel
10944-564: The courts were also in session: January or February for the Hilary term , in April or May for the Easter term , in July, and in October for the Michaelmas term . Most parliaments had between forty and eighty attendees. Meetings of Parliament always included: The lower clergy ( deans , cathedral priors, archdeacons , parish priests ) were occasionally summoned when papal taxation was on
11088-421: The designer Inigo Jones as her surveyor of works during the 1630s. Like Charles, she was enthusiastic about garden design , although not horticulture itself, and employed André Mollet to create a baroque garden at Wimbledon House. She patronized Huguenot sculptor Hubert Le Sueur , while her private chapel was plain on the outside, but its interior included gold and silver reliquaries, paintings, statues,
11232-511: The difficulties of the journey, Henrietta Maria greatly enjoyed herself, eating in the open air with her soldiers and meeting friends along the way. She arrived in Oxford bringing fresh supplies to great acclaim; poems were written in her honour, and Jermyn , her chamberlain, was given a peerage by the king at her request. Henrietta Maria spent the autumn and winter of 1643 in Oxford with Charles, where she attempted, as best she could, to maintain
11376-457: The ensuing, and final, Third English Civil War the whole of the Royalist circle now based itself from St-Germain, with Henrietta Maria's followers being joined by the old Royalist circle who had been with her son Charles II at the Hague , including Ormonde and Inchiquin and Clarendon , whom she particularly disliked. She also quarrelled with Ormonde: when she said that if she had been trusted
11520-483: The entourage of her favourite François de Bassompierre . Orazio and his daughter Artemisia Gentileschi were responsible for the huge ceiling paintings of the Queen's House at Greenwich. The Italian Guido Reni was another favourite artist, along with the miniature painters Jean Petitot and Jacques Bourdier. Anthony van Dyck was another very important painter she would often commission, either as gifts for others or for personal appreciation. Henrietta Maria became
11664-518: The exchequer protesting that the irregular tax "was never granted by them or the community" and declared they would not pay it. The outbreak of the First War of Scottish Independence necessitated that both the king and his opponents put aside their differences. At the October 1297 parliament, the council agreed to concessions in the king's absence. In exchange for a new tax, the Confirmatio Cartarum reconfirmed Magna Carta, abolished
11808-440: The excuse of his absence from the realm and Welsh attacks in the marches, Henry ordered the justiciar, Hugh Bigod , to postpone the parliament scheduled for Candlemas 1260. This was an apparent violation of the Provisions of Oxford; however, the provisions were silent on what should happen if the king were outside the kingdom. The king's motive was to prevent the promulgation of further reforms through Parliament. Simon de Montfort ,
11952-436: The first Civil War, Thomas Fairfax , remained a supporter of constitutional monarchy, as did many other Roundhead leaders such as Edward Montagu, 2nd Earl of Manchester , and Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex ; however, this party was outmanoeuvred by the more politically adept Cromwell and his radicals, who had the backing of the New Model Army and took advantage of Charles' perceived betrayal of England in his alliance with
12096-435: The first time in 1628 but lost her first child shortly after birth in 1629, following a very difficult labour. In 1630, the future Charles II was born successfully, however, following another complicated childbirth aided by the noted physician Theodore de Mayerne . Henrietta Maria effectively took over Buckingham's role as Charles's closest friend and advisor. Despite the ejection of the French staff in 1626, Charles's court
12240-469: The government revived practices used during King John's reign and that had been condemned in Magna Carta, such as arbitrary disseisins , revoking perpetual rights granted in royal charters, depriving heirs of their inheritances, and marrying heiresses to foreigners. Both Roches and Rivaux were foreigners from Poitou . The rise of a royal administration controlled by foreigners and dependent solely on
12384-439: The happiness of thy company." Henrietta Maria, as her relationship with her husband grew stronger, split with Lucy Hay in 1634. The specific reasons are largely unclear although the two had had their differences before. Hay was an ardent Protestant, for example, and led a rather more dissolute life than the Queen; Henrietta Maria may also have felt rather overshadowed by the confident and beautiful Hay and because she now had such
12528-483: The king military service in foreign lands but only if the king were present. Therefore, they would not go to Gascony unless the King went as well. Norfolk and Hereford were supported by around 30 barons, and the parliament ended without any decision. After the Salisbury parliament ended, Edward ordered the seizure of wool (see prise ) and payment of a new maltolt. In July 1297, a writ declared that "the earls, barons, knights, and other laity of our realm" had granted
12672-444: The king stirred resentment among the magnates, who felt excluded from power. Several barons rose in rebellion, and the bishops intervened to persuade the king to change ministers. At a great council in April 1234, the king agreed to remove Rivaux and other ministers. This was the first occasion in which a king was forced to change his ministers by a great council or parliament. The struggle between king and Parliament over ministers became
12816-469: The king's tenants-in-chief . The greater tenants ( archbishops , bishops , abbots , earls , and barons ) were summoned by individual writ , but lesser tenants were summoned by sheriffs . These were not representative or democratic assemblies. They were feudal councils in which barons fulfilled their obligation to provide counsel to their lord the king. Councils allowed kings to consult with their leading subjects, but such consultation rarely resulted in
12960-576: The king's advisers, Archbishop William Laud and Thomas Wentworth, Earl of Strafford . Pym then turned his attention to Henrietta Maria as a way of placing further pressure on Charles. The Grand Remonstrance , passed by Parliament at the end of 1641, for example, did not mention the Queen by name, but it was clear to all that she was part of the Roman Catholic conspiracy the remonstrance referred to and condemned. Henrietta Maria's confidant Henry Jermyn , who had himself converted to Catholicism in
13104-510: The king. In 1267, some of the reforms contained in the 1259 Provisions of Westminster were revised in the form of the Statute of Marlborough passed in 1267. This was the start of a process of statutory reform that continued into the reign of Henry's successor. Edward I ( r. 1272–1307 ) learned from the failures of his father's reign the usefulness of Parliament for building consensus and strengthening royal authority. Parliaments were held regularly throughout his reign, generally twice
13248-451: The late 1630s – they were certainly more open in court society. Charles came under increasing criticism for his failure to act to stem the flow of high-profile conversions. Henrietta Maria even gave a requiem mass in her private chapel for Father Richard Blount, S.J. upon his death in 1638. She also continued to act in Masque plays throughout the 1630s, which met with criticism from
13392-582: The magnates demanded the adult king confirm previous grants of Magna Carta made in 1216 and 1217 to ensure their legality. At the same time, the king needed money to defend his possessions in Poitou and Gascony from a French invasion. At a great council in 1225, a deal was reached that saw Magna Carta and the Charter of the Forest reissued in return for taxing a fifteenth (7 percent) of movable property. This set
13536-557: The maltolt, and formally recognised that "aids, mises , and prises" needed the consent of Parliament. Edward soon broke the agreements of 1297, and his relations with Parliament remained strained for the rest of his reign as he sought further funds for the war in Scotland. At the parliament of March 1300, the king was forced to agree to the Articuli Super Cartas , which gave further concessions to his subjects. At
13680-702: The matter, "and from those contestations the two terms of Roundhead and Cavalier grew to be received in discourse, ... they who were looked upon as servants to the king being then called Cavaliers , and the other of the rabble contemned and despised under the name of Roundheads ." After the Anglican Archbishop William Laud made a statute in 1636 instructing all clergy to wear short hair, many Puritans rebelled to show their contempt for his authority and began to grow their hair even longer (as can be seen on their portraits ) though they continued to be known as Roundheads. The longer hair
13824-481: The more Puritan wing of English society. In most of these masques she chose roles designed to advance ecumenism , Catholicism and the cult of Platonic love . The result was an increasing intolerance of Henrietta Maria in Protestant English society, gradually shifting towards hatred. In 1630, Alexander Leighton , a Scottish doctor, was flogged, branded and mutilated for criticising Henrietta Maria in
13968-406: The number of petitions increased, they came to be directed to particular departments (chancery, exchequer, the courts) leaving the king's council to concentrate on the most important business. Parliament became "a delivery point and a sorting house for petitions". From 1290 to 1307, Gilbert of Rothbury was placed in charge of organising parliamentary business and record-keeping—in effect a clerk of
14112-407: The parliament of February 1305 included ones related to crime. In response, Edward issued the trailbaston ordinance. The state trial of Nicholas Seagrave was conducted as part of this parliament as well. Harmonious relations continued between king and Parliament even after December 1305 when Pope Clement V absolved the King of his oath to adhere to Confirmatio Cartarum . The last parliament of
14256-407: The parliaments . Kings could legislate outside of Parliament through legislative acta (administrative orders drafted by the king's council as letters patent or letters close ) and writs drafted by the chancery in response to particular court cases. But kings could also use Parliament to promulgate legislation. Parliament's legislative role was largely passive—the actual work of law-making
14400-510: The petition on behalf of "the prelates and leading men of the kingdom acting for the whole community" was presented by Henry de Keighley , knight for Lanchashire . This indicates that knights were holding greater weight in Parliament. The last four parliaments of Edward's' reign were less contentious. With Scotland nearly conquered, royal finances improved and opposition to royal policies decreased. A number of petitions were considered at
14544-540: The pleasant court life that they had enjoyed before the war. The queen lived in the Warden's lodgings in Merton College , adorned with the royal furniture which had been brought up from London. The queen's usual companions were present: Denbigh, Davenant, her dwarves; her rooms were overrun by dogs, including Mitte. The atmosphere in Oxford was a combination of a fortified city and a royal court, and Henrietta Maria
14688-595: The poor start to his marriage on these advisors, primarily her principal confidante Madame St. George . He ordered their dismissal on 26 June 1626, greatly upsetting Henrietta Maria, while some refused to leave, including the Bishop of Mendes who cited orders from the French king. In the end, they were physically ejected, but she managed to retain her chaplain and confessor , Robert Phillip , along with seven of her French staff, her nurse Françoise de Monbodiac, Madame Garnier, her dresser Marguerite Courtin, Madame de Vantelet ,
14832-722: The power to vote to elect their representatives—the burgesses—to the House of Commons. Over the centuries, the English Parliament progressively limited the power of the English monarchy , a process that arguably culminated in the English Civil War and the High Court of Justice for the trial of Charles I . Since the unification of England in the 10th century, kings had convened national councils of lay magnates and leading churchmen. The Anglo-Saxons called such councils witans . These councils were an important way for kings to maintain ties with powerful men in distant regions of
14976-430: The preamble describes the legislation as "provided" by the magnates and "conceded" by the king, which implies that this was not simply a royal measure consented to by the barons. In 1237, Henry asked Parliament for a tax to fund his sister Isabella's dowry. The barons were unenthusiastic, but they granted the funds in return for the king's promise to reconfirm Magna Carta, add three magnates to his personal council, limit
15120-518: The queen's old favourite, Prince Rupert, had already been living in The Hague for some years. The Hague was a major centre for banking and finance; the queen intended to raise funds in aid of her husband there. In August 1642, when the Civil War finally began, Henrietta Maria was in Europe at The Hague , raising money for the Royalist cause. Henrietta Maria focused on raising money on the security of
15264-519: The rashness of the following decisions were partially due to the desire to rejoin Charles I in person, as his recent decision-making and disregard of her advising caused her to grow very concerned. The first attempt to cross from The Hague was not an easy one; battered by storms, her ship came close to sinking and was forced to return to port. Henrietta Maria used the delay to convince the Dutch to release
15408-437: The reign was held at Carlisle in 1307. It approved the marriage of the King's son to Isabella of France . Legislation attacking papal provisions and papal taxation was also ratified. Henrietta Maria of France Henrietta Maria of France ( French : Henriette Marie ; 25 November 1609 – 10 September 1669) was Queen of England , Scotland and Ireland from her marriage to King Charles I on 13 June 1625 until Charles
15552-671: The relationship between the king and the baronage had reached a breaking point over the Sicilian business , in which Henry had promised to pay papal debts in return for the pope's help securing the Sicilian crown for his son, Edmund. At the Oxford Parliament of 1258 , reform-minded barons forced a reluctant king to accept a constitutional framework known as the Provisions of Oxford : Parliament now met regularly according to
15696-445: The rights belonging to the king's subjects. King John ( r. 1199–1216 ) alienated the barons by his partiality in dispensing justice, heavy financial demands and abusing his right to feudal incidents, reliefs , and aids . In 1215, the barons forced John to abide by a charter of liberties similar to charters issued by earlier kings (see Charter of Liberties ) . Known as Magna Carta (Latin for ' Great Charter ' ), it
15840-415: The romance tradition in their writings in order to spread the influence of religion." The new queen brought with her a huge quantity of expensive possessions, including jewellery, ornate clothes, 10,000 livres ' worth of plate, chandeliers, pictures and books. She was also accompanied by a large and costly retinue, including her ladies-in-waiting , twelve Oratorian priests, and her pages. Charles blamed
15984-457: The royal prerogative of purveyance , and protect land tenure rights. But Henry was adamant that three concerns were exclusively within his royal prerogative: family and inheritance matters, patronage, and appointments. Important decisions were made without consulting Parliament, such as in 1254 when the king accepted the throne of the Kingdom of Sicily for his younger son, Edmund Crouchback . He also clashed with Parliament over appointments to
16128-494: The smaller pieces, but she was portrayed in the English press as selling off the crown jewels to foreigners to buy guns for a religious conflict, adding to her unpopularity at home. She urged Charles, then in York , to take firm action and secure the strategic port of Hull at the earliest opportunity, angrily responding to his delays in taking action. At the beginning of 1643, Henrietta Maria attempted to return to England. Part of
16272-472: The status of fundamental law after John's reign. The word parliament comes from the French parlement first used in the late 11th century, meaning ' parley ' or ' conversation ' . In the mid-1230s, it became a common name for meetings of the great council. The word was first used with this meaning in 1236. In the 13th century, parliaments were developing throughout north-western Europe. As
16416-412: The summer of 1628 the two were extremely close friends, with Hay one of the queen's ladies-in-waiting. In August 1628, Buckingham was assassinated, leaving a gap in the royal court. Henrietta Maria's relationship with her husband promptly began to improve and the two forged deep bonds of love and affection, marked by various jokes played by Henrietta Maria on Charles. Henrietta Maria became pregnant for
16560-612: The target of the epithet and used by them to describe themselves. "Roundheads" appears to have been first used as a term of derision toward the end of 1641, when the debates in Parliament in the Clergy Act 1640 were causing riots at Westminster . The Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition quotes a contemporary authority's description of the crowd that gathered there: "They had the hair of their heads very few of them longer than their ears, whereupon it came to pass that those who usually with their cries attended at Westminster were by
16704-480: The three great offices of chancellor , justiciar , and treasurer . The barons believed these three offices should be restraints on royal misgovernment, but the king promoted minor officials within the royal household who owed their loyalty exclusively to him. In 1253, while fighting in Gascony, Henry requested men and money to resist an anticipated attack from Alfonso X of Castile . In a January 1254 Parliament,
16848-424: The throat of those round-headed dogs that bawled against bishops"; however, Richard Baxter ascribes the origin of the term to a remark made by Queen Henrietta Maria , the wife of Charles I, at the trial of Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford , earlier that year. Referring to John Pym , she asked who the roundheaded man was. The principal advisor to Charles II , Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon , remarked on
16992-423: Was Lucy Hay , wife of James Hay who helped negotiate the marriage and who was now a gentleman of the bedchamber to Charles. Lucy was a staunch Protestant, a noted beauty and a strong personality. Many contemporaries believed her to be a mistress to Buckingham, rumours which Henrietta Maria would have been aware of, and it has been argued that Lucy was attempting to control the new queen on his behalf. Nonetheless, by
17136-553: Was Parliament's main tool in disputes with the king. Nevertheless, the king was still able to raise lesser amounts of revenue from sources that did not require parliamentary consent, such as: Henry III ( r. 1216–1272) became king at nine years old after his father, King John, died during the First Barons' War . During the king's minority, England was ruled by a regency government that relied heavily on great councils to legitimise its actions. Great councils even consented to
17280-541: Was allowed to watch her husband's coronation at a discreet distance. This went down badly with the London crowds, while England's pro-French policy gave way rapidly to a policy of supporting French Huguenot uprisings, and then a disengagement from European politics, as internal problems grew. After an initially difficult period, she and Charles formed a close partnership and were devoted to each other, but Henrietta Maria never fully assimilated into English society. She did not speak English before her marriage, and as late as
17424-454: Was based on three assumptions important to the later development of Parliament: Clause 12 stated that certain taxes could only be levied "through the common counsel of our kingdom", and clause 14 specified that this common counsel was to come from bishops, earls, and barons. While the clause stipulating no taxation "without the common counsel" was deleted from later reissues, it was nevertheless adhered to by later kings. Magna Carta would gain
17568-595: Was brought up a Catholic. Henrietta Maria had founded a convent at Chaillot in 1651, and she lived there for much of the 1650s. Henrietta Maria returned to England following the Restoration in October 1660 along with her daughter Henrietta. She did not return to much public acclaim – Samuel Pepys counted only three small bonfires lit in her honour, and described her as a "very little plain old woman [then aged 50], and nothing more in her presence in any respect nor garb than any ordinary woman". She took up residence once more at Somerset House , supported by
17712-434: Was convenient for kings to present the great council as a representative body capable of consenting on behalf of all within the kingdom. Increasingly, the kingdom was described as the communitas regni (Latin for ' community of the realm ' ) and the barons as their natural representatives. But this development also created more conflict between kings and the baronage as the latter attempted to defend what they considered
17856-544: Was done by the king and council, specifically the judges on the council who drafted statutes. Completed legislation was then presented to Parliament for ratification. Kings needed Parliament to fund their military campaigns. On the basis of Magna Carta, Parliament asserted for itself the right to consent to taxation, and a pattern developed in which the king would make concessions (such as reaffirming liberties in Magna Carta) in return for tax grants. Withholding taxation
18000-433: Was executed on 30 January 1649. She was mother of his sons Charles II and James II and VII . Under a decree of her husband, she was known in England as Queen Mary , but she did not like this name and signed her letters "Henriette" or "Henriette Marie". Henrietta Maria's Roman Catholicism made her unpopular in England, and also prohibited her from being crowned in a Church of England service; therefore, she never had
18144-541: Was frequently stressed with worry. By early 1644, however, the king's military situation had started to deteriorate. Royalist forces in the north came under pressure, and after the Royalist defeat at the battle of Alresford in March, the royal capital at Oxford was less secure. The queen was pregnant with Henrietta and the decision was taken for her to withdraw safely west to Bath . Charles travelled as far as Abingdon with her before returning to Oxford with his sons. It
18288-504: Was getting weaker and he desperately needed Henrietta Maria to raise additional funds and troops from the continent. The campaigns of 1645 went poorly for the Royalists, however, and the capture, and subsequent publishing, of the correspondence between Henrietta Maria and Charles in 1645 following the Battle of Naseby proved hugely damaging to the royal cause. In two decisive engagements – the Battle of Naseby in June and
18432-404: Was given power to correct abuses of their officials. The Michaelmas Parliament of 1259 enacted the Provisions of Westminster , a set of legal and administrative reforms designed to address grievances of freeholders and even villeins , such as abuses related to the murdrum fine. Henry III made his first move against the baronial reformers while in France negotiating peace with Louis IX . Using
18576-463: Was heavily influenced by French society; French was usually used in preference to English, being considered a more polite language. Charles regularly wrote letters to Henrietta Maria, addressed "Dear Heart." These letters showcase the loving nature of their relationship. On 11 January 1645, for example, Charles wrote, "And dear Heart, thou canst not but be confident that there is no danger which I will not hazzard, or pains that I will not undergo, to enjoy
18720-423: Was increasingly depressed and anxious in France, from where she attempted to convince Charles to accept a Presbyterian government in England as a means of mobilising Scottish support for the re-invasion of England and the defeat of Parliament. In December 1647, she was horrified when Charles rejected the "Four Bills" offered to him by Parliament as a peace settlement. Charles had secretly signed "The Engagement" with
18864-534: Was issued as letters patent that forbade sheriffs from taking bribes. At the Candlemas Parliament of 1259, the baronial council and the twelve representatives enacted the Ordinance of the Magnates . In this ordinance, the barons promised to observe Magna Carta and other reforming legislation. They also required their own bailiffs to observe similar rules as those of royal sheriffs, and the justiciar
19008-487: Was less between lords and commons than between the landed and all others, lower clergy as well as burgesses". Specialists could be summoned to Parliament to provide expert advice. For example, Roman law experts were summoned from Cambridge and Oxford to the Norham parliament of 1291 to advise on the disputed Scottish succession . At the Bury St Edmunds parliament of 1296, burgesses "who best know how to plan and lay out
19152-400: Was less than a year old. As a child, she was raised under the supervision of the royal governess Françoise de Montglat . Henrietta Maria was trained, along with her sisters, in riding, dancing, and singing, and took part in court plays. Although tutored in reading and writing, she was not known for her academic skills. As part of her religious training, the princess was heavily influenced by
19296-608: Was more common among the "Independent" and "high-ranking" Puritans, which included Cromwell, especially toward the end of the Protectorate, while the "Presbyterian" (non-Independent) faction, and the military rank and file, continued to abhor long hair. By the end of that period, some Independent Puritans were again derisively using the term Roundhead to refer to the Presbyterian Puritans. Roundhead remained in use to describe those with republican tendencies until
19440-588: Was much more elaborate inside and was opened in a particularly grand ceremony in 1636. This caused great alarm amongst many in the Protestant community. Henrietta Maria's religious activities appear to have focused on bringing a modern, 17th-century European form of Catholicism to England. To some extent, it worked, with numerous conversions amongst Henrietta Maria's circle; historian Kevin Sharpe argues that there may have been up to 300,000 Catholics in England by
19584-402: Was only released after payment of the unpopular maltolt , a tax never authorised by Parliament. Church wealth was arbitrarily seized, and the clergy were further asked to give half of their revenues to the king. They refused but agreed to a smaller sum. Over the next couple years, parliaments approved new taxes, but it was never enough. More money was needed to put down a Welsh rebellion and win
19728-451: Was open about her beliefs, obstructing plans to require the eldest sons of Catholic families to be raised as Protestants, and also facilitated Catholic marriages, a criminal offence under English law at the time. An extension of this openness resulted in the Queen beginning to practise a sub-religion within her friend group, that being Précieuses . This was heavily inspired by the French's version of Devout Humanism, "whose proponents drew on
19872-428: Was rarely seen in London, as Charles and she had largely withdrawn from public society during the 1630s, both because of their desire for privacy and because of the cost of court pageants. By 1641, an alliance of Parliamentarians under John Pym had begun to place increasing pressure on Charles, himself embattled after the failure of several wars. The Parliamentary faction achieved the arrest and subsequent execution of
20016-601: Was secretly borrowing money, and her accounts show large numbers of expensive dresses purchased during the pre-war years. There were fears over her health, and in July 1627 she travelled with her physician Théodore de Mayerne to take the medicinal spring waters at Wellingborough in Northamptonshire, while Charles visited Castle Ashby House . Over the next few years, the Queen's new household began to form around her. Henry Jermyn became her favourite and vice-chamberlain in 1628. The Countess of Denbigh became
20160-518: Was steadily moving towards open war, and in February Henrietta Maria left for The Hague , both for her own safety and to attempt to defuse public tensions about her Catholicism and her closeness to the king. The Hague was the seat of Henrietta's prospective son-in-law, William II of Orange , and the queen was to accompany the bride, her 10-year-old daughter Mary, to her new home. Also, her widowed sister-in-law Elizabeth , mother of
20304-474: Was surprised to see that the queen, who I had seen as so beautiful and lean, was a woman well past her prime. Her arms were long and lean, her shoulders uneven, and some of her teeth were coming out of her mouth like tusks.... She did, however, have pretty eyes, nose, and a good complexion..." A proxy marriage was held at Notre-Dame de Paris on 1 May 1625, where Duke Claude of Chevreuse stood as proxy for Charles, shortly after Charles succeeded as king, with
20448-407: Was the last time the two saw each other. Henrietta Maria eventually continued southwest beyond Bath to Exeter , where she stopped, awaiting her imminent labour. Meanwhile, however, the Parliamentarian generals the Earl of Essex and William Waller had produced a plan to exploit the situation. Waller would pursue and hold down the king and his forces, while Essex would strike south to Exeter with
20592-458: Was too great; leaving newborn Henrietta in Exeter because of the risks of the journey, she stayed at Pendennis Castle , then took to sea from Falmouth in a Dutch vessel for France on 14 July. Despite coming under fire from a Parliamentarian ship, she instructed her captain to sail on, reaching Brest in France and the protection of her French family. By the end of the year, Charles's position
20736-496: Was uncertainty about the new Queen's name, and one historian has said of this "... Henriette or Henrietta seeming altogether too fanciful for English taste". After prayers had been offered for her as "Queen Henry", the king determined the question by announcing that she was to be known publicly as "Queen Mary". He himself liked to call her "Maria". In using the name of Queen Mary, the English would also have been reminded of Charles's grandmother, Mary, Queen of Scots . Henrietta Maria
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