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118-418: In 1592 (the 25th year of King Seonjo's reign), when a Japanese army of about 200,000 invaded Joseon, the central military system ranked fifth in the early Joseon period and the regional defense system of jingwan (鎭管) and jeseungbangnyak (制勝方略) failed to fulfill their roles. Therefore, the royal court raised the need for a new military organization and expedited the reorganization of the military system to overcome

236-431: A "sinister grin" attached to the outside. Overall, 158,800 soldiers, laborers, and transport troops (of whom a quarter had firearms) were prepared to take part in the invasion, with roughly a third of the force being armed fighting units (samurai, their attendants, and ashigaru conscripts), while the other two thirds filled a support ion (doctors, priests, secretaries, boatmen, and labourers). The following table shows

354-487: A certain amount of wealth to take the qualification exam. Instead of being treated as a bureaucrat of a certain class and receiving a salary from the state, the military, horses, and servants' food expenses were all on their own. For this reason, the Joseon government, which had to save the budget, tried to increase the number of Gapsa by increasing the lower ranks. As a result, the number of Gapsa increases to 14000 by 1475, but

472-589: A half years. Unlike the Training headquarters, the Royal Guard Command had 11 and 10 officials respectively. While the Do-gam soldiers were Changban guards, these two camps rotated duty every four years, so there were concerns about military training after the rotation. Therefore, in each province, two Wu officials with martial arts abilities were assigned to double as Pachong officials, responsible for

590-417: A position in the imperial tributary system as of 1404. This relationship ended in 1408 when Japan, unlike Korea, chose to end its recognition of China's regional hegemony and cancel any further tribute missions. Membership in the tributary system was a prerequisite for any economic exchange with China. In exiting the system, Japan relinquished its trade relationship with China. One thousand years earlier,

708-440: A problem arose with the overall increase in the burden of military service (Yeokchong, 역총). As U'yeongcheong soldiers performed their rotation duty, King Sukjong (reigned 1674-1720) reduced the size of the regular army to less than 16,000 soldiers and also decreased the number of Bo-in and other military personnel. However, due to difficulties in the national finances, discussions of its abolition emerged. Moreover, concerns arose that

826-461: A samurai to pull his opponent from his horse. If samurai wished to cut his opponent rather than stab, the weapons were the ōdachi , an extremely long sword with a huge handle, or the naginata , a polearm with very sharp curved blade. The most famous of all the samurai weapons was the katana , a sword described by the British military historian Stephen Turnbull as "...the finest edged weapon in

944-417: A significant burden on the national finances, it relatively increased the burden of corvée labor. This led to continuous issues regarding the conscription system. U'yeongcheong operated under a system called "Bangsang gyulryeojae" (번상급료제), which provided soldiers with compensation in the form of 9 dou (斗) of rice per month in exchange for one rotation of duty. For each regular soldier (Jeonggun, 정군), one person

1062-420: A source of revenue for compensation. The Gwanbo system was designed to address the issue of regular soldiers being unable to fulfill their military duty due to the escape of their assigned Bo-in (보인, person responsible for supplying cloth). With this system, U'yeong soldiers received compensation from the military camp while being able to serve their rotation duties at U'yeongcheong. While operating U'yeongcheong,

1180-511: A special trading position as the single checkpoint to Korea for all Japanese ships and had permission from Korea to trade with as many as 50 of its own vessels, the Sō family had a vested interest in preventing conflict with Korea, and delayed the talks for nearly two years. Even when Hideyoshi renewed his order, Sō Yoshitoshi reduced the visit to the Korean court to a campaign to better relations between

1298-594: A tactical sense, therefore, Hideyoshi cannot be considered as one of the commanders, but, as his will drove the whole project along until he died, his political influence cannot be underestimated". The Ming Chinese army was the largest in Asia, with a total of around 845,000 troops. However, in 1592 the Imperial Army was engaged in wars with the Mongols and in crushing a rebellion in the northwest . The Ming army

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1416-609: A ten-month-long military stalemate. With Toyotomi Hideyoshi's death in 1598, limited progress on land, and continued disruption of supply lines by the Joseon Navy, the Japanese forces in Korea were ordered to withdraw back to Japan by the new governing Council of Five Elders . Final peace negotiations between the parties followed, and continued for several years, ultimately resulting in the normalization of relations. In Korean ,

1534-463: A total of five departments, 25 companies, 125 units, and 16,300 soldiers. Each unit consisted of 127 soldiers (1 unit = 3 flags, 1 flag = 3 companies, 1 company = 12 soldiers, including 10 regular soldiers, 1 artillery soldier, and 1 Boeundae soldier). With this reorganization, Eoyeongcheong divided the 125 units into 25 groups, with each group consisting of five units. They rotated every two months, ensuring that approximately 700 soldiers were stationed in

1652-473: A war against China. Upon the ambassadors' return, the Joseon court held serious discussions concerning Japan's invitation, while Hwang Yun-gil reported conflicting estimates of Japanese military strength and intentions. They nonetheless pressed that a war was imminent. Kim Saung-il claimed that Hideyoshi's letter was nothing but a bluff. Moreover, the court, aware only that Japan was in turmoil with various clan armies fighting each other, substantially underrated

1770-489: A withdrawal of Japanese forces towards the coastal regions of the peninsula. The pursuing Ming and Joseon forces, however, failed to dislodge the Japanese from their fortresses and entrenched positions in the southern coastal areas where both sides became locked in a ten-month-long military stalemate. With Toyotomi Hideyoshi's death in September 1598, limited progress on land, and continued disruption of supply lines along

1888-593: The Battle of Shizugatake in 1583, where samurai had fought one another mano a mano , and where Katō demonstrated his skills with a cross-bladed spear with great effect by cutting so many men, whose severed and salted heads were thereafter tied to a stalk of green bamboo and carried by one of Katō's attendants into battle. Katō was a devoted follower of Nichiren Buddhism , a type of Buddhism closely associated with militarism and ultra-nationalism in Japan, and his relations with

2006-618: The Catholic Konishi were extremely unfriendly, to the extent that the two men almost never met during the campaign in Korea. Katō's battle standard was a white pennant which carried a message alleged to have been written by Nichiren himself reading Namu Myōhō Renge Kyō ("Hail to the Lotus of the Divine Law"). The naval commander was Wakisaka Yasuharu , another of the "Seven Spears of Shizugatake", who had been named daimyō of

2124-548: The Chūgoku region , informed Terumoto of Nobunaga's plan to invade China. In 1585, Hideyoshi told the Portuguese Jesuit Father Gaspar Coelho of his wish to conquer all of East Asia. Hideyoshi asked Coelho to send a message to his master, King Philip II of Spain , who was also King Philip I of Portugal, asking that he make his navy available to help Japan (Ming China, Spain, and Portugal were

2242-598: The Gambeson , or by wearing Scale armour . Pengbaesu ( 팽배수 ; 彭排手 ), heavy infantry specializing in hand-to-hand combat, were the mainstay of early Joseon infantry, wearing Chain mail or Mail and plate armour and armed with a round shield and sword. They responded to nomadic raids with shields and knives in mountain warfare, and in the plains, they built a shield wall to deter the cavalry's attacks. The elite troops and officers, made up of noblemen's sons called Gapsa ( 갑사 ; 甲士 ), They had to have more than

2360-563: The Imjin War , involved two separate yet linked invasions: an initial invasion in 1592 ( Korean :  임진왜란 ; Hanja :  壬辰倭亂 ), a brief truce in 1596, and a second invasion in 1597 ( 정유재란 ; 丁酉再亂 ). The conflict ended in 1598 with the withdrawal of Japanese forces from the Korean Peninsula after a military stalemate in Korea's southern provinces. The invasions were launched by Toyotomi Hideyoshi with

2478-557: The Jeongmyo turmoil. In December of the 6th year of King Injo's reign (1628), a command structure was established with Jejo and Daejang as its pinnacle, and after the Qing invasion of Joseon , the number of soldiers again increased effectively establishing an army camp system. It was further expanded and consolidated during the reign of King Hyojong . Although it was influenced by the political circumstances of factional politics, it resembled

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2596-3518: The Seoaejip (The Anthology of Seoae, 서애집, 西厓集), Jingbirok (The Book of Corrections, 징비록, 懲毖錄), and minor writings as Hwanghwajip ( 황화집 ; 皇華集 ), Jeongchungrok ( 정충록 ; 精忠錄 ). Ryu Seong-ryong was enshrined in the Byeongsan Seowon and Hogye Seowon in Andong , North Gyeongsang Province . Imjin War Joseon Political leaders [REDACTED] King Seonjo [REDACTED] Prince Gwanghae [REDACTED] Ryu Seong-ryong Yun Du-su Military commanders [REDACTED] Yi Sun-sin   † [REDACTED] Yi Eokgi   † [REDACTED] Won Gyun   † [REDACTED] Gwon Yul [REDACTED] Sin Rip   † [REDACTED] Gim Si-min   † Song Sang-hyeon   † Go Gyeong-myeong   † Gim Cheon-il   † Jo Heon   † Yi Il Gwak Jae-u Jeong Gi-ryong Kim Deok-ryeong Yujeong Hyujeong Jeong Mun-bu Gim Chung-seon Ming Political leaders [REDACTED] Wanli Emperor Zhao Zhigao Wang Xijue Inspectors, generals, field commanders Li Rusong Chen Lin Song Yingchang Ma Gui (pr.) Yang Hao Li Shizhen Wu Weizhong Deng Zilong   † Toyotomi regime Political leaders [REDACTED] Emperor Go-Yōzei [REDACTED] Toyotomi Hideyoshi [REDACTED] Toyotomi Hidetsugu Military commanders [REDACTED] Ukita Hideie [REDACTED] Kobayakawa Hideaki [REDACTED] Kobayakawa Takakage [REDACTED] Kobayakawa Hidekane [REDACTED] Ishida Mitsunari [REDACTED] Katō Kiyomasa [REDACTED] Konishi Yukinaga [REDACTED] Mōri Terumoto [REDACTED] Mōri Hidemoto [REDACTED] Mōri Yoshimasa [REDACTED] Nabeshima Naoshige [REDACTED] Hosokawa Tadaoki [REDACTED] Katō Yoshiaki [REDACTED] Shimazu Yoshihiro [REDACTED] Shimazu Toyohisa [REDACTED] Shimazu Tadatsune [REDACTED] Hachisuka Iemasa [REDACTED] Ōtomo Yoshimune [REDACTED] Tachibana Muneshige [REDACTED] Tsukushi Hirokado [REDACTED] Ankokuji Ekei [REDACTED] Ikoma Chikamasa [REDACTED] Ikoma Kazumasa [REDACTED] Kuroda Nagamasa [REDACTED] Fukushima Masanori [REDACTED] Sō Yoshitoshi [REDACTED] Kurushima Michifusa   † [REDACTED] Chōsokabe Motochika [REDACTED] Tōdō Takatora [REDACTED] Arima Harunobu [REDACTED] Akizuki Tanenaga [REDACTED] Itō Suketaka [REDACTED] Kuki Yoshitaka [REDACTED] Wakisaka Yasuharu [REDACTED] Ōmura Yoshiaki [REDACTED] Ōtani Yoshitsugu [REDACTED] Hasegawa Hidekazu [REDACTED] Gamō Ujisato [REDACTED] Ōyano Tanemoto   † [REDACTED] Asano Nagamasa Joseon: 84,500+ –192,000 (including sailors and insurgent fighters) 300 ships (200 scuttled in

2714-535: The Sui and Tang dynasties of China had complicated political and trading relations with the Three Kingdoms of Korea . Ming China, on the other hand, had close trading and diplomatic relations with the Joseon, which remained integrated in the imperial tributary system, but also received tribute and trade from Sō clan of Tsushima , Japan. Ming China and Joseon Korea shared much in common. Both emerged during

2832-422: The daimyōs from acting on any ambitions against his rule. Fighting a war away from Japanese territory would also prevent territorial destruction, and maintain the infrastructure of the state. Such considerations would be consistent with the fact that Hideyoshi was not shōgun and had no links with the imperial bloodline. Stephen Turnbull also suggests personal ambition and megalomania of Hideyoshi as reasons for

2950-669: The tributary states , which also included countries such as the Ryukyu Kingdom , Lan Xang , Đại Việt , and the Ayutthaya Kingdom , in return for accepting the subservient tributary role of a "younger brother". In 1402, the Japanese shogun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu (despite not being the Emperor of Japan ) was conferred the title of "King of Japan" by the Chinese emperor and through this title had similarly accepted

3068-410: The wakō had staged a series of samurai raids into Korea, some of which were so large as to be "mini-invasions". Hideyoshi mistakenly thought his enemies were weak. Hideyoshi planned for a possible war with Korea long before he had completed the unification of Japan. He made preparations on many fronts. As early as 1578, Hideyoshi, then fighting under Oda Nobunaga against Mōri Terumoto for control of

3186-655: The "Man-gi-yo-ran," in the 6th year of Sukjong (1680), the Yongjong Manho was appointed as the Eo-yeongcheong Pachong, but when it became an independent Jin in the 34th year of Yeongjo (1758), it is said that the Cheomsa became the Cheonchong again. The reason why Yeongjongdo belonged to Eo-yeongcheong is unknown, but it is thought to be related to the record that a defense post was placed here for

3304-489: The "great general gun" and the folang zhi ( 佛朗支 ), the latter being breech-loaded artillery guns. One of the Chinese commanders was Li Rusong , a man who has been traditionally disparaged in Japanese accounts. In Turnbull's estimate, he was "one of Ming China's most accomplished generals". Although Li was defeated at the Battle of Pyokjeyek, his defeat was temporary. He was an able strategist who achieved his goal of forcing

3422-467: The 14th century after the end of the Yuan dynasty , embraced Confucian ideals in society, and faced similar threats ( Jurchen raiders and wokou ). Both had competing internal political factions, which would influence decisions made prior to and during the war. Because of close trade and common enemies, Joseon and Ming had a friendly alliance. By the last decade of the 16th century, Toyotomi Hideyoshi ,

3540-402: The Chinese infantry were the crossbow and the arquebus, while the cavalry were usually mounted archers. Chinese infantry wore conical iron helmets and suits of armor made from leather or iron. According to Turnbull, "Chinese field artillery and siege cannon were the finest in the region". Chinese artillery was made from cast iron, and were divided into several types, the most important being

3658-411: The Chinese tributary system. Hideyoshi replied with another letter, but since it was not presented by a diplomat in person as expected by custom, the court ignored it. After this denial of his second request, Hideyoshi proceeded to launch his armies against Korea in 1592. At the core of the Japanese military were the samurai , the military caste of Japan who dominated Japanese society. Japanese society

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3776-705: The Five Guards system established in the early days of the country. During the reign of King Injo, the Royal Guard Command (Eoyeongcheong, 어영청) was established. Injo, who ascended to the throne in 1623 through the Injo Coup, had to devise measures against the pressure from the Later Jin Dynasty (Houjin, 후금). Therefore, in 1624 (the 2nd year of Injo's reign), Yi Gwi (이귀) was appointed as the Royal Guard Commander (Eoyeongsa, 어영사) to protect

3894-732: The Hwanhwa Campaign, the number increased to around 1,000. Thus, the Royal Guard Command became responsible for the defense of the capital as well as the core of the central army, along with the Hwando Garrison, which was responsible for the defense of the capital. However, due to financial difficulties, they could not be stationed in Seoul like the Hwando Garrison. Instead, they were divided into units of 500 soldiers, who took turns being stationed and provided with Boins (support personnel) to cover their expenses. The Royal Guard Command

4012-591: The Hyanggun, some of which were deployed for special occasions such as Pyohagun or Sumungun, while others, such as Chijungbokmagun, only served when necessary, and Hyangkisa, which had the name but were actually Sumugun. To maintain the U'yeong Army, the Bop (保) was established, consisting of 17,475 Jabo (資保, reserve) personnel, 51,750 Gwanbo (官保, officials), 980 Byulpajinbo (special assault troops reserve), and 3,729 Kisabo (기사보, knights reserve), totaling 72,359 personnel, which

4130-466: The Japanese fighting troops sent into Korea were ashigaru (light infantry), who were usually conscripted peasants armed with spears, tanegashima (Japanese arquebuses), or yumi (Japanese bows). Unlike the samurai with their expensive suits of armor, the ashigaru wore cheap suits of iron armour around their chests. The ashigaru armed with arquebuses were trained to fight in the European style, with

4248-424: The Japanese forces in the south, which weakened the Japanese hold in the cities they occupied. Afterwards, with supply difficulties hampering both sides, neither the Japanese nor the combined Ming and Joseon forces were able to mount a successful offensive or gain any additional territory, resulting in a military stalemate in the areas between Hanseong and Kaesong . The war continued in this manner for five years, and

4366-539: The Japanese forces saw overwhelming success on land, capturing both Hanseong , the capital of Korea, and Pyongyang , and completing the occupation of large portions of the Korean Peninsula in three months. The Japanese forces, well-trained, confident, and experienced after the numerous battles and conflicts of the Sengoku period , typically held the field in most land engagements. This success on land, however,

4484-541: The Japanese out of Korea, and Japanese accounts focusing on his defeat at Pyokjeyek served to distract from his achievements. Another Chinese naval commander was Chen Lin , a native of Guangdong who proved pivotal in defeating Japan and defending Korea. After helping win the war, Chen was celebrated as a hero in Korea and China. Chen subsequently became the founder of the Gwangdong Jin clan of Korea, and today, his descendants are spread across China and Korea. Chen

4602-406: The Korean military, Hideyoshi sent an assault force of 26 ships to the southern coast of Korea in 1587. On the diplomatic front, Hideyoshi began to establish friendly relations with China long before he had completed the unification of Japan. He also helped to police the trade routes against the wokou. In 1587, Hideyoshi sent his first envoy, Yutani Yasuhiro ( 柚谷康広 ) , to Korea, which was during

4720-815: The Korean-Chinese allied forces side in the Siege of Pyongyang . He suggested of establishment the Hunnyeon Dogam (훈련도감, 訓鍊都監, Military Training Agency ). In 1598, he was ousted by the Northerners faction. But King Seonjo rehabilitated him. However, he refused to take office as a minister in 1600. Nevertheless, in 1602, he was honored with the second rank of Hoseong Gongsin ( 호성공신 ; 扈聖功臣 ), and appointed again as Pungwon Buwongun . After which he spent his time on political writing until his death in 1607. Ryu's major writings are preserved in

4838-514: The Koreans had come to pay a tributary homage to Japan. For this reason, the ambassadors were not given the formal treatment that was due to diplomatic representatives. In the end, the Korean ambassadors asked for Hideyoshi to write a reply to the Korean king, for which they waited 20 days at the port of Sakai . The letter, redrafted as requested by the ambassadors on the ground that it was too discourteous, invited Korea to submit to Japan and join in

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4956-559: The Koreans to resist. Konishi had converted to Catholicism in 1583, and was known to the Spanish and Portuguese as Dom Agostinho. Katō Kiyomasa , who led the Second Division into Korea, was known in Japan as Toranosuke ("the young tiger") and to the Koreans as the "devil general", on account of his ferocity. Katō was one of the " Seven Spears of Shizugatake ", a group of seven samurai who distinguished themselves in combat at

5074-574: The Ming court in response to raids by Sino-Japanese pirates known as the wakō . By seeking to invade China, Hideyoshi was in effect claiming for Japan the role traditionally played by China in East Asia as the center of the East Asian international order. He rallied support in Japan as a man of relatively humble origins who owed his position to his military might. Finally, during the 1540s–1550s,

5192-475: The Ming. In 1597, Japan renewed its offensive by invading Korea a second time. The pattern of the second invasion largely mirrored that of the first. The Japanese had initial successes on land, capturing several cities and fortresses, only to be halted and forced to withdraw to the southern coastal regions of the peninsula. However, the pursuing Ming and Joseon forces were unable to dislodge the Japanese from these positions, where both sides again became locked in

5310-657: The Northerners. Ryu Seong-ryong was a Southerner (claiming exile, instead of death, for Jeong Cheol , the leader of the Westerners rival faction). He was in the rank of provincial Dochechalsa ( 도체찰사 ; 都體察使 ) when the Imjin War broke out. In 1592 he was appointed Yeonguijeong , the Chief State Councillor. Ryu Seongryong accompanied the royal family from Hanseong to Uiju . In this capacity, he oversaw all military units and called leaders like Yi Sun-sin and Gwon Yul to battle. He also fought on

5428-817: The Sok'o Law (束伍法). Then, in December 1704 (King Sukjong's 30th year), it was reorganized into 1 Yeong (營, battalion) consisting of 5 Bu, 1 Bu consisting of 5 Sa (司, offices), and 1 Sa consisting of 5 Cho (哨, posts), totaling 125 Cho with a total strength of 16,300 personnel. Furthermore, the basic unit of the Sok'o Law, which is the Cho's military organization (軍摠), was composed of 127 personnel (1 Cho = 3 Gi, 1 Gi = 3 Dae, 1 Dae = 10 Jeonggun, 1 Hwabyeong, and 1 Bokmagun). These Hyanggun (향군) soldiers were divided into 25 rotations, with 5 Cho serving in rotation for two months, resulting in approximately 700 soldiers stationed in Seoul. In addition to

5546-604: The Tijungbomagun, which only worked when necessary, and the Hyanggisa, who were supposed to be Sufo-gun. In a sense, it can be said that it was a military camp form that was centered around the 6th province Hyanggun and included rotational soldiers and salaried soldiers who performed rotational duties. Subsequently, during the reign of King Hyojong, as part of the Northern Expedition plan, the U'yeong Corps

5664-450: The U'yeong Corps. However, after King Hyojong, the enthusiasm for northern expeditions waned, and the power struggle between factions intensified, complicating the change of government. This increased the burden of maintaining Eoyeongcheong, ultimately leading to a change in the guard system to the rotational system of the local militias (Xiangjun) in the six provinces, excluding Pyeongan and Hamgyeong. During King Hyojong's reign, Eoyeongcheong

5782-708: The basic troops, which were the Hyanggun, there were 150 Knights (기사), 160 Byulpajin (別破陣, special assault troops), various Kyungpyoha-gun (경표하군, soldiers responsible for guarding the capital) numbering 781, 40 Sumungun (守門軍, gatekeepers), 16 Gunposujik (軍鋪守直, military storekeepers), 301 Bonabyeong (本牙兵, palace guards), 87 Hyeonrokabyeong (懸錄牙兵, elite guards), 50 Chijungbokmagun (輜重卜馬軍, logistics and transport troops), 100 Yanghwajinabyeong (楊花津牙兵, special task force), 9 Kyosa (敎師, instructors), 40 Gyeombulpajin (兼別破陣, dual-purpose assault troops), 700 Hyangkisa (鄕騎士, local knights), and 56 Pyohagun (標下軍, troops responsible for flags). There were various types of miscellaneous troops in addition to

5900-445: The beginning of the Royal Guard Command. However, King Injo's expedition plan was not carried out. Nevertheless, the troops recruited by Yi Gwi were not disbanded, and when Yi Gwi retired from Gaeseong in the first month of 1624 (King Injo's 2nd year), he continued to lead them as the Royal Guard Command, escorting the king. The basic military command structure, included two Langdang officials in charge of military affairs, in addition to

6018-486: The benefit of exemption from corvée labor. The soldiers serving in the rotating guard duty of Eoyeongcheong were given three Boeun each. One Boeun was solely allocated for the expenses incurred during guard duty (資保), while the other two Boeun were used to cover the expenses during their stay in Seoul, resulting in a total of 80,000 Boeun for the soldiers at that time. Furthermore, the Xiangjun themselves, which constituted

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6136-556: The capital at all times. The restructuring of Eoyeongcheong aimed not only to establish uniformity with the Geumwiyeong, which was organized as a unified Xiangjun, but also to strengthen the defense of the capital by maintaining a standing reserve force of around 700 soldiers in Seoul. The Royal Guard Command's main duty is to protect the King, the palaces, and the capital city and they were divided into groups taking turns. Eoyeongcheong

6254-583: The center for the mobilization of the invasion forces. In 1592, Hideyoshi sent a letter to the Philippines demanding tribute from the Spanish governor general and stating that Japan had already received tribute from Korea (which was a misunderstanding) and the Ryukyus. As for the military preparations, the construction of as many as 2,000 ships may have begun as early as 1586. To estimate the strength of

6372-1067: The city walls of Hanseong and suppress rebellions. After the Qing invasion of Joseon , their number increased to about 7,000 and they were divided into eight units. The Royal Guard Command was organized into five divisions (부, bu), separate three bureaus (별삼사, byeolsamsa), and separate central outposts (별중초, byeoljungcho). In terms of military organization, in addition to the basic troops of each province, including Gakdo Hyanggun with 125 seconds, there were 150 knights, 160 Byulpa-jin (with 10 members each taking turns as Huapo-gun), and various other famous and unknown troops such as Gyeongbyeongha-gun with 981 members, Sumungun with 40 members, Gunpuchujeok-gun with 16 members, Bonya soldiers with 310 members, Geonryugoya soldiers with 87 members, Tijungbomagun with 50 members, Yanghwa Jinha soldiers with 100 members, 10 instructors, 40 combined pajeon, 700 local knights, and 56 Gyeongbyeong soldiers. There were also various troops, including those who received 9 dou of rice like Pyohagun and Sumungun and worked as Changban guards, as well as

6490-403: The combined strength and abilities of many Japanese armies at the time. Some, including King Seonjo, argued that Ming should be informed about the dealings with Japan, as failure to do so could make Ming suspect Korea's allegiance, but the court finally concluded to wait further until the appropriate course of action became definite. In the end, Hideyoshi's diplomatic negotiations did not produce

6608-541: The crown as Taejo of Joseon, thus establishing a new dynasty. In search of a justification for its rule given the lack of a royal bloodline, the new regime received recognition from China and integration into the Imperial Chinese tributary system within the context of the Mandate of Heaven . Within this tributary system, China assumed the role of a "big brother", with Korea maintaining the highest position among

6726-473: The defense of the capital area in the "Seokdaedae-ryeok" and then abolished. The financial foundation of Eoyeongcheong relied on the Boeun system. Expanding and strengthening this central military force posed a significant financial burden. To address this, the government established "Boman" for them. If they were of good character, they were assigned one "Boman," and if they were of lower status, they were granted

6844-445: The desired result with Korea. The Joseon Court approached Japan as a country inferior to Korea, and saw itself as superior according to its favored position within the Chinese tributary system. It mistakenly evaluated Hideyoshi's threats of invasions to be no better than the common wokou Japanese pirate raids. The Korean court handed to Shigenobu and Genso, Hideyoshi's third embassy, King Seonjo's letter rebuking Hideyoshi for challenging

6962-511: The dreams of his late lord, Oda Nobunaga , and to mitigate the possible threat of civil disorder or rebellion posed by the large number of now-idle samurai and soldiers in unified Japan. It is also possible that Hideyoshi might have set a more realistic goal of subjugating the smaller neighbouring states (the Ryukyu Islands , Taiwan , and Korea) and treating the larger or more distant countries as trading partners, because throughout

7080-407: The emperors of China as their overlords and paid tribute in exchange for being allowed to trade with China. Japan had usually resisted the demand to pay tribute to China, but shōgun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu had acknowledged the emperor of China as his overlord in return for access to the huge Chinese market. Japan's right to pay tribute and, with it, the right to trade with China was ended in the 1540s by

7198-408: The establishment of Eoyeongcheong. But due to the delay in the King's departure, Lee Gui stepped down from his position and returned to civilian life. King Injo’s plan for his own home was not put into action. However, the soldiers recruited by Lee Gwi were not disbanded, and Lee Gwi, who had retired from Gaeseong exile in the first month of 1624 (the 2nd year of King Injo's reign), was assigned to guard

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7316-612: The excessive promotion of non-military officials, which can be seen as a concern of the Joseon Dynasty. The main camp of Eo-yeongcheong was located east of Namseo Myeongjeokbong's Nammun Gate, and as its scale expanded, Shinwon was established in Iryeon, Dongwon was installed outside Seoninmun Gate, but when the king was in Gyeonghuigung Palace, it was stationed outside Kaiyangmun Gate. In addition, North Second Camp

7434-491: The first invasion (1592–1593) is called the "Japanese Disturbance of Imjin" ( 倭亂 ), where 1592 is an imjin year in the sexagenary cycle . The second invasion (1597–1598) is called the "Second War of Jeong-yu" ( 丁酉 ). Collectively, the invasions are referred to as the "Imjin War". In Chinese , the wars are referred to as the " Wanli Korean Campaign", after the reigning Chinese emperor . In Japanese ,

7552-507: The forces of Gotō Sumiharu, who held the fief of Fukue (assessed at 140,000 koku ) on the Gotō archipelago . Family records show he led a force of 705, with 27 horses, 220 of which were fighting men, while 485 filled a support role. The breakdown of the fighting contingent was the following: Another daimyō whose military service quota has been preserved in a written record is Shimazu Yoshihiro , whose contribution consisted of: The majority of

7670-625: The fundamental military command system. There were also 12 Kyo-nyeom officials responsible for military training, such as the Kyo-nyeom officials and 10 Flag officers, as well as 15 headquarters officers, 11 officers from the Chulsin, 52 officers from the Gwajeonbyeong, 30 separate warriors, 1 horse doctor, and 300 Jae-gyeong officers. Among them, some were established as needed, but like the training headquarters, there were also concerns about

7788-548: The height of its power. Under the rule of the Wanli Emperor , Ming China quickly interpreted the Japanese invasions as a challenge and threat to the Imperial Chinese tributary system . The Ming's interest was also to keep the war confined to the Korean peninsula and out of its own territory. They entered into the conflict by dispatching reinforcements to attack from the north. In the engagements that followed,

7906-405: The history of warfare". Samurai never carried shields, with the katana being used to deflect blows. By 1592, the armor of the samurai was lamellae made from iron or leather scales tied together which had been modified to include solid plate to help protect the samurai from bullets. Samurai engaged in psychological warfare by wearing an iron mask into battle with a mustache made of horsehair and

8024-399: The initial phase of the war) Ming: 1st. (1592–93) 48,000 Japan 1st. (1592) 158,800 (including labourers and sailors) 700 transport ships 300 warships 2nd. (1597–98) 141,900 Joseon: 1,000,000+ civilian and military deaths (including 260,000+ troops killed or wounded) 50,000–60,000 captives The Japanese invasions of Korea , commonly known as

8142-556: The intent of conquering the Korean Peninsula and China proper , which were ruled by the Joseon and Ming dynasties, respectively. Japan quickly succeeded in occupying large portions of the Korean Peninsula, but the contribution of reinforcements by the Ming, as well as the disruption of Japanese supply fleets along the western and southern coasts by the Joseon Navy , forced the Japanese forces to withdraw from Pyongyang and

8260-431: The invasion of Korea, Hideyoshi sought for legal tally trade with China. Hideyoshi's need for military supremacy as a justification for his rule, which lacked shōgunal background, could have, on an international level, been eventually transformed into an order with Japan's neighboring countries below Japan. Hideyoshi did not take the title of Shōgun on the grounds that he lacked the necessary Minamoto descent, but since it

8378-483: The invasion. Hideyoshi had, in a series of wars, conquered Japan and now wanted to turn to bigger things, noting that he spoke not only of his desire to "slash his way" into Korea to invade China, but also the Philippines , and India . Furthermore, for thousands of years, China had been the intellectual, economic, military, and political center of East Asia, and traditionally, the states of East Asia had acknowledged

8496-561: The island of Awaji in the Seto Inland Sea in 1585, where he learned much about seafaring as the island is located close to whirlpools which are notoriously dangerous for sailors. Toyotomi Hideyoshi never left Japan, remaining near Kyoto; however, the idea of conquering China was his obsession, and throughout the war, he refused to accept defeat, treating the war as simply a question of willpower, believing if only his samurai fought hard enough, he could take China. Turnbull writes: "In

8614-668: The king as Eoyongsa (御營使). The establishment and operation of Royal Guard Command can be seen as significant due to the movement to identify and improve the problems within the Training Department and implement new military reforms. Eoyeonggun (the Royal Army) soon emerged to provide protection when King Injo sought refuge in Gongju during the rebellion led by Yi Gwal. The number of soldiers in Eoyeonggun increased when

8732-685: The king, along with the Military Training Agency. Amidst the chaotic domestic situation caused by the Imjin War and the deteriorating relationship with the Later Jin Dynasty on the international stage in 1623, the U'yeong Corps was established. King Injo, who advocated a strong policy towards the Jurchens, prepared for an expedition to Gaeseong under the plan of Chinjaengju. As part of this plan, Yi Gwi selected and trained around 260 Hwabogun (firearm troops). This marked

8850-480: The king, marking the beginning of the Royal Guard Army (Eoyeonggun, 어영군). To strengthen the king's protection there, seven skilled soldiers were selected from nearby mountainous regions for large towns, four for medium-sized towns, and two for small towns. After Yi Gwal's Rebellion (이괄), the Royal Guard Army began to settle as the central army responsible for both the capital's defense and the protection of

8968-756: The main naval powers of the time). However, Philip refused Hideyoshi, preferring not to upset China. The defeat of the Odawara -based Hōjō clan in 1590 finally brought about the second unification of Japan, and Hideyoshi began preparing for the next war. Beginning in March 1591, the Kyūshū daimyōs and their labor forces constructed Nagoya Castle in Nagoya, Saga (modern-day Karatsu, Saga , not to be confused with present-day Nagoya city in Aichi Prefecture ), as

9086-409: The mainstream of Geumwiyeong, were maintained by the local militias in the six provinces and brought benefits to the national finances. Looking at the number of Boeun assigned to the Geumwiyeong soldiers at that time, 17,475 were allocated to civilian officials (資保), 50,175 to government officials (官保), 780 to Beopajeon soldiers (別破陣保), and 3,729 to cavalry soldiers (騎士保), totaling 67,650. This means that

9204-429: The majority of the Joseon army was focused on defending the northern provinces from Japanese offensives, while also supporting Ming army campaigns to recapture territory occupied by the Japanese. Consequently, it was the combination of these Ming-led land campaigns and Joseon-led naval warfare that eventually forced the Japanese army to withdraw from Pyongyang to the south, where the Japanese continued to occupy Hanseong and

9322-633: The men trained to fire their guns in formation to create a volley of fire, then to go down on their knees to reload, while the men behind them fired, and the cycle repeated over and over again. The commander of the Japanese First Division and overall commander of the invasion force was Konishi Yukinaga , a daimyō of Uto from Higo Province in Kyushu , chosen as commander of the invasion force more because of his diplomatic skills than military skills, as Toyotomi Hideyoshi did not expect

9440-425: The military headquarters. However, after King Hyojong's reign, it became difficult to maintain the operational system due to financial constraints. The recruitment-based system was changed to a compulsory system where the Hyanggun (local defense forces) from the six provinces, excluding Pyeongan and Hamgyeong, were obliged to carry out rotations. This change led to a significant increase in the number of Boins supporting

9558-566: The mission), returning to Korea the following year. Thereafter he held posts including Inspector of Classics ( 경연검토관 ; 經筵檢討官 ) and devoted himself to editing, being granted a royal sabbatical ( 사가독서 ; 賜暇讀書 ). Subsequently, he held posts including Gyori (교리, ranked 5a) and Eunggyo (응교, 應敎, ranked 4a). He was appointed Jikjehak ( 직제학 ; 直提學 ) in 1575 and Bujehak ( 부제학 ; 副提學 ) in 1576. Continually he held posts including Doseongji (都承旨), Daesaheon ( 대사헌 ; 大司憲 ) and Daejehak ( 대제학 ; 大提學 ). In 1590, he

9676-458: The most preeminent daimyō , had unified all of Japan in a brief period of peace. Since he came to hold power in the absence of a legitimate successor of the Minamoto lineage necessary for the imperial shōgun commission, he sought military power to legitimize his rule and to decrease his dependence on the imperial family. It is also suggested that Hideyoshi planned an invasion of China to fulfill

9794-464: The north. During the reign of King Jeongjong in 1400, the private army system was overthrown, and during the reign of King Sejo in 1457, a unit called Five Guards ( 오위 ; 五衛 ; Owi ) was formed, which continued until the Imjin War. In the early days of the war, Joseon had a conscripted light infantry, standing army, and an elite cavalry-oriented organization, especially Horse Archer. It

9912-465: The northern provinces. Afterwards, with righteous armies (Joseon civilian militias) conducting guerrilla warfare against the occupying Japanese forces and supply difficulties hampering both sides, neither force was able to mount a successful offensive or gain any additional territory, resulting in a military stalemate. The first phase of the invasion ended in 1596, and was followed afterwards by ultimately unsuccessful peace negotiations between Japan and

10030-577: The number of Boeun allocated to the Xiangjun soldiers was about four times that of the Geumbok soldiers. As a result, each infantry soldier received one Boeun, and each Boeundae soldier received two Boeun to cover their equipment needs. The government allocated a significantly higher number of Boeun to government officials, providing 1 liang of travel funds (旅需錢) and 9 du of monthly provisions for each soldier (increased to 3 du for those serving as auxiliary servants). While this large number of Boeun didn't impose

10148-488: The power of the arquebus greatly contributed to the failures of the Korean army early in the war. In April 1590, the Korean ambassadors, including Hwang Yun-gil and Kim Saung-il, left for Kyoto , where they waited for two months while Hideyoshi was finishing his campaign against the Hojo clan . Upon his return, they exchanged ceremonial gifts and delivered King Seonjo's letter to Hideyoshi. Hideyoshi mistakenly assumed that

10266-435: The promise of a Korean embassy to Japan in exchange for a group of Korean rebels which had taken refuge in Japan. In 1587, Hideyoshi had ordered the adopted father of Yoshitoshi and the daimyō of Tsushima Island , Sō Yoshishige ( 宗義調 ) , to offer the Joseon Dynasty an ultimatum of submitting to Japan and participating in the conquest of China, or facing the prospect of open war with Japan. However, as Tsushima Island enjoyed

10384-478: The rebellion was suppressed and King Injo returned to Hwando. However, instead of disbanding them, they were divided into groups taking turns guarding the king. Thus, Eoyeonggun began to establish itself as the central military force responsible not only for defending the capital but also for protecting the royal authority. At one point, Eoyeonggun was also part of the Chongyungsa, but its numbers increased during

10502-566: The reign of King Gwanghae , advocated a strong policy towards the Later Jin and recognized the need for countermeasures. In such a situation, rather than waiting for the Later Jin's invasion, the Seoin faction actively planned a military expedition against them. To implement this plan, King Injo himself would go to Gaeseong as the expedition's leader. Lee Gwi (李貴), a prominent figure in Gaeseong,

10620-593: The rule of King Seonjo , to re-establish diplomatic relations between Korea and Japan (broken since the wokou raid in 1555). Hideyoshi hoped to use this as a foundation to induce the Korean court to join Japan in a war against China. Yasuhiro, with his warrior background and an attitude disdainful of the Korean officials and their customs, failed to receive the promise of future ambassadorial missions from Korea. Around May 1589, Hideyoshi's second embassy, consisting of Sō Yoshitoshi , Yanagawa Shigenobu ( 柳川調信 ) , and Buddhist monk Genso ( 玄蘇 ) , reached Korea and secured

10738-711: The short-term rotation of soldiers might lead to insufficient compensation, resulting in an increase in crimes within the capital. The issue of how U'yeongcheong soldiers were treated was also connected to the problem of military weakening. It merged with the Chongyungcheong (총융청) and Geumwiyeong (금위영) in 1881 (King Gojong's 18th year) to become the Jangeoyeong (장어영), and then changed to Chong'oyeong (총어영) in 1884, before being abolished in 1894. Ryu Seong-ryong Ryu Seong-ryong ( Korean :  류성룡 ; Hanja :  柳成龍 ; 7 November 1542 – May 1607),

10856-495: The southern regions with the exception of the southwestern Jeolla Province . The pursuing Ming and Joseon armies attempted to advance further into the south, but were halted by the Japanese army at the Battle of Byeokjegwan . Subsequently, the Japanese armies launched a counterattack in an attempt to reoccupy the northern provinces but were repelled by the defending Joseon army at Haengju fortress . Additionally, Joseon's civilian-led armies actively waged guerrilla warfare against

10974-513: The teachings of Confucius and Mencius at the age of 8. In 1564 the 19th year of Myeongjong , he passed the Samasi examination, and in 1566 he passed the Mun-gwa at a special examination, and then took the post of Gwonji bujeongja ( 권지부정사 ; 權知副正字 ). He held various other positions and in 1569 he joined the imperial birthday mission to Ming as a Seojanggwan (서장관, 書狀官, the third of

11092-503: The training of the local Hyanggun soldiers within their respective jurisdictions. The Eo-yeongcheong had a Kan-gwan-byulbeo, which was responsible for other administrative matters established in Yongjongjin. There was one Junggun, one Pachong, one Chogwan, 160 Bongyeong-gun officers, 300 Daebyeon-gun officers, 8 Kyo-nyeom officials, 15 Flag officers, 18 Byulpa-jin, and 5 Beotae-gun officers were placed, totaling 731 people. According to

11210-426: The two countries. Near the end of the ambassadorial mission, Yoshitoshi presented King Seonjo a brace of peafowl and matchlock guns—the first advanced firearms to come to Korea. Ryu Seong-ryong , a high-ranking scholar official, suggested that the military put the arquebus (a matchlock firearm) into production and use, but the Korean court failed to appreciate its merits. This lack of interest and underestimation of

11328-527: The use of weapons such as gongbang (棍棒), deungpae (籐牌), nangseon (狼筅), jangchang (長鎗), dangpa (鐺鈀), and ssangsudo (雙手刀). The Royal Guard Command was established In response to the turbulent domestic situation caused by the Injo Coup of 1623 and increasing pressure from the Later Jin Dynasty . King Injo took a hard line against the later kings. Particularly, the Seoin faction of the Injo administration, unlike during

11446-543: The war is called Bunroku no eki ( 文禄の役 ) . Bunroku referring to the Japanese era name spanning the period from 1592 to 1596. The second invasion (1597–1598) is called Keichō no eki ( 慶長の役 ) . During the Edo period (17–19th centuries), the war was also called Kara iri ( 唐入り ) ("entry into China" or, more accurately, "entry into Tang ", the dynasty whose name is synonymous with China ). Japan's ultimate purpose

11564-489: The war. The organization of the new military institution played a significant role in the Ming Dynasty's military tactics. During the Imjin War, when 40,000 Ming soldiers came to assist Joseon, General Nak Sang-ji (駱尙志) of the Ming Dynasty mentioned the importance of military training to Ryu Seong-ryong (柳成龍). Upon receiving the permission of King Seonjo, Liu Sung-ryong trained Nak Sang-ji in military tactics, including

11682-478: The western and southern coasts by the Joseon navy, the remaining Japanese forces in Korea were ordered to withdraw back to Japan by the new governing Council of Five Elders . Final peace negotiations between the parties followed afterwards and continued for several years, ultimately resulting in the normalization of relations. In 1392, General Yi Seonggye led a successful coup to take political power in Korea from U of Goryeo . Seonggye's followers forced him to take

11800-486: Was a scholar-official of the Joseon period of Korea. He held many responsibilities, including the Chief State Councillor position in 1592. He was a member of the "Eastern faction" and a follower of Yi Hwang . Ryu was born in Hahoe Maeul , Andong , Gyeongsang Province (today a UNESCO World Heritage Site ), to a yangban family of the P'ungsan Ryu clan. Ryu is said to have been so precocious that he absorbed

11918-409: Was a seasonal military camp that operated only from October 15 to February 15 each year, during the ice formation period when incursions by the Later Jin were a concern. During Hyojong's reign, they were divided into six units, with each unit stationed for two months to avoid the previous practice of winter-only deployments. Therefore, each guard had to serve in rotation approximately once every three and

12036-525: Was appointed Uuijeong (Third State Councillor), honored with the third rank of Gwanguk Gongsin ( 광국공신 ; 光國功臣 ), and appointed as Pungwon Buwongun ( 풍원부원군 ; 豊原府院君 ). In 1591, he was promoted to Jwauijeong (Second State Councillor) and Ijo Panseo (이조판서, Minister of Personnel, the first ranked of the six Ministries). However, the Easterners faction split into the Southerners and

12154-516: Was appointed as Eoyungsa (御戎使) and had him select and train about 260 fire artillery troops. The defense of the capital city would be entrusted to Han Jun-geon, a high-ranking officer, while Lee Gui would be appointed as the resident commander and the commander of the Royal Guard in Kaesong. The appointment of officers to prepare for a potential Later Jin invasion became the pioneering measure for

12272-450: Was assigned as a "Jabo" (자보) who was responsible for supplying cloth. The Jabo, similar to the conscription system in early Joseon, provided military uniforms and covered the expenses of soldiers' rotation duty, while the regular soldiers were assigned to agricultural work during their rotation period. Additionally, for each regular soldier, two "Gwanbo" (관보) were assigned, and they paid military service taxes to U'yeongcheong, which constituted

12390-466: Was capable of considerable feats of organization, for example bringing 400 artillery guns across 480 km of harsh landscape to provide firepower against the Mongols. The core of the Ming army was the infantry, divided into five sections; those armed with guns, swords, archers with fire arrows , archers with ordinary arrows, and spearmen, backed up by the cavalry and artillery. The basic weapons for

12508-463: Was constrained by the naval campaigns of the Korean navy which would continue to raid Japanese supply fleets in its coastal waters, hampering the Japanese advances as supply lines were disrupted along the Western Korean coast and Japanese naval reinforcements were repelled. These trends, with some exceptions on both sides, held true throughout much of the conflict. In 1592, Ming China was at

12626-421: Was divided into four castes : samurai, peasants, artisans, and merchants, in that order. The samurai caste owned most of the land in Japan, had the sole right to carry swords and to execute on the spot any commoner who was insufficiently deferential, and were allowed to own horses and ride into battle. The standard samurai weapon by 1592 was the yari , a spear meant to stab, often with a cross-blade that allowed

12744-444: Was followed by a brief interlude between 1596 and 1597 during which Japan and the Ming engaged in ultimately unsuccessful peace talks. In 1597, Japan renewed its offensive by invading Korea a second time. The pattern of the second invasion largely mirrored that of the first. The Japanese had initial successes on land, but the contribution of the Ming forces, as well as the Joseon navy's disruption of Japanese supply fleets, resulted in

12862-492: Was given the nickname Guangdong Master for his naval and military accomplishments. Officers in the Joseon Army and Navy came exclusively from the aristocracy, but unlike the high militarist Japanese aristocracy trained to be soldiers from their youth onward, for the Joseon aristocracy, scholarship was valued and war was disparaged as something unworthy of a Confucian gentleman-scholar. The quality of Korean generalship

12980-660: Was located in Saejik-dong, but when the king was in Gyeonghuigung Palace, it was stationed outside Mudeomun Gate. In addition, Jipchun Camp was located outside Jipchunmun Gate, and the South Granary, which stored provisions, was located in Namsodong. Immediately after its establishment, the Royal Guard Command pledged allegiance to Princess Bacheonju during Yi Gwal's Rebellion . They recruited artillerymen from various regions and expanded to about 600 soldiers, and after

13098-442: Was nearly four times the size of the Hyanggun. Military personnel in the U'yeong Army were appointed as Suryeong (수령, military leaders) capable of martial arts training in each region, serving as Gyeompachong (兼把摠, dual-commanders) in charge of their training. However, when the Geumwiyeong was established during King Sukjong's reign, in December of the 30th year (1704), Eoyeongcheong was reorganized along with Geumwiyeong, resulting in

13216-467: Was organized with five departments, three separate offices, and one separate central outpost. Additionally, separate cavalry units called Bomyeongdwi and artillery units called Beopajeon were established within Eoyeongcheong. The Royal Guard Command was initially organized into 5 Bu (部, divisions), Byul Samsa (別三司, separate three offices), and Byul Jungcho (別中哨, separate central posts) according to

13334-411: Was significantly expanded. In 1652 (King Hyojong's 3rd year), Hyojong appointed military specialist Yi Hwan as the U'yeongdaejang and sought to enhance the strength of the U'yeong Corps as one of the primary projects for military expansion into a year-round military camp. As a result, the number was increased to 21,000, more than triple the previous size. Instead, 21 groups of 1,000 troops were stationed at

13452-523: Was specialized in dealing with nomadic looters. However, as the Joseon army was easily defeated in the early days of the Imjin War, the Joseon government felt limited in the Five Guard system and switched to the Five Army Camps system. Light infantry protected their chests by wearing eomsimgap ( 엄심갑 ; 掩心甲 ), which was made of leather over a cloth robe that served a similar function to

13570-662: Was temporarily under the command of the Chongnongsa (Commander-in-Chief), but in December 1628, immediately after the Jingbi War, their number increased to 5,000, and they became a separate unit as a Chong (headquarters), with the Royal Guard General (Commander of the Royal Guard Command) at its pinnacle, establishing a military system. The Royal Guards Command had 260 artillery troops to defend

13688-470: Was the invasion of Ming China. However, during the war, as the reality that the conflict was largely confined to the Korean Peninsula seeped in, Toyotomi Hideyoshi would soon alter his original objectives. In 1592, with an army of more than 160,000 soldiers and approximately 700 ships, Toyotomi Hideyoshi launched what would end up being the first of two invasions of Korea , with the intent of conquering Joseon Korea and eventually, Ming China . Initially,

13806-409: Was very common in 16th-century Japan for genealogists to "discover" that someone had illustrious ancestry for the right price, that suggests that Hideyoshi was planning on creating a new office for himself to replace the bakufu . Hideyoshi was also tempted by an external conflict to prevent internal rebellion within Japan, which would keep his newly formed state united against a common enemy, and prevent

13924-514: Was very variable, with some Korean officers being able and others being men who had not devoted much time to the study of war, preferring archery, writing, practicing their calligraphy, and reading Confucian classics. At the end of the period of chaos after the collapse of the Yuan Dynasty, Joseon was mainly focused on dealing with the looting of the Jurchen people and Japanese pirates in

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