Misplaced Pages

#88911

123-551: The Franz Joseph University was an important center of science and education in the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy . It was probably best known for its leading role in mathematics, earning the name " Göttingen of the Monarchy". The university attracted mathematicians such as Gyula Farkas , Lipót Fejér , Alfréd Haar , Frigyes Riesz , Ludwig Schlesinger , Béla Szőkefalvi-Nagy and Gyula Vályi . The university

246-645: A blue-water navy was vital for global power projection; Tirpitz had his books translated into German, while Wilhelm made them required reading for his advisors and senior military personnel. However, it was also an emotional decision, driven by Wilhelm's simultaneous admiration for the Royal Navy and desire to surpass it. Bismarck thought that the British would not interfere in Europe, as long as its maritime supremacy remained secure, but his dismissal in 1890 led to

369-592: A grenade at the Archduke's car and injured two of his aides. The other assassins were also unsuccessful. An hour later, as Ferdinand was returning from visiting the injured officers in hospital, his car took a wrong turn into a street where Gavrilo Princip was standing. He fired two pistol shots, fatally wounding Ferdinand and his wife Sophie . According to historian Zbyněk Zeman , in Vienna "the event almost failed to make any impression whatsoever. On 28 and 29 June,

492-540: A guerrilla warfare campaign and only surrendered two weeks after the armistice took effect in Europe. Before the war, Germany had attempted to use Indian nationalism and pan-Islamism to its advantage, a policy continued post-1914 by instigating uprisings in India , while the Niedermayer–Hentig Expedition urged Afghanistan to join the war on the side of Central Powers. However, contrary to British fears of

615-408: A change in policy and an Anglo-German naval arms race began. Despite the vast sums spent by Tirpitz, the launch of HMS  Dreadnought in 1906 gave the British a technological advantage. Ultimately, the race diverted huge resources into creating a German navy large enough to antagonise Britain, but not defeat it; in 1911, Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg acknowledged defeat, leading to

738-613: A direct threat. The 1908–1909 Bosnian Crisis began when Austria annexed the former Ottoman territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina , which it had occupied since 1878. Timed to coincide with the Bulgarian Declaration of Independence from the Ottoman Empire, this unilateral action was denounced by the European powers, but accepted as there was no consensus on how to resolve the situation. Some historians see this as

861-471: A gap between the German armies as they closed on Paris. The French army, reinforced by the British expeditionary corps, seized this opportunity to counter-attack and pushed the German army 40 to 80 km back. Both armies were then so exhausted that no decisive move could be implemented, so they settled in trenches, with the vain hope of breaking through as soon as they could build local superiority. In 1911,

984-595: A group of Romanian gendarmes, students and professors from Sibiu arrived to claim back the university, which Rector Miskolczy refused. After the incidents János Demeter , the newly appointed vice-mayor of Kolozsvár applied to the Soviet commander for permission to the further operation and the ejection of the Romanians. He eventually succeed and Kolozsvár, together with whole Northern Transylvania came into an autonomous status under Soviet suzerainty until 13 March 1945, when

1107-487: A position in their alma mater later. Although it was located in the mid of an ample territory inhabited by compact, Romanian-speaking population, Romanian was not used as a teaching language at this University. In the autumn of 1918, after the collapse of Austria-Hungary and the proclamation of the union of Transylvania with Romania in the Great National Assembly of Alba Iulia on 1 December 1918,

1230-548: A possibility. This was accentuated by British and Russian support for France against Germany during the 1911 Agadir Crisis . German economic and industrial strength continued to expand rapidly post-1871. Backed by Wilhelm II, Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz sought to use this growth to build an Imperial German Navy , that could compete with the British Royal Navy . This policy was based on the work of US naval author Alfred Thayer Mahan , who argued that possession of

1353-621: A result, the establishment of a new Hungarian-language university was granted, however, all the buildings were expropriated by the Romanian-language university and the Hungarian institution had to move to another residence. The decrees that adjusted the status of Hungarian-language university were published on 29 May 1945. The Decree nr. 406. disposed the move of the King Ferdinand I University back to Kolozsvár and also gave

SECTION 10

#1732781018089

1476-834: A revolt in India, the outbreak of the war saw a reduction in nationalist activity. Leaders from the Indian National Congress and other groups believed support for the British war effort would hasten Indian Home Rule , a promise allegedly made explicit in 1917 by Edwin Montagu , the Secretary of State for India . In 1914, the British Indian Army was larger than the British Army itself, and between 1914 and 1918 an estimated 1.3 million Indian soldiers and labourers served in Europe, Africa, and

1599-516: A significant escalation, ending any chance of Austria cooperating with Russia in the Balkans, while also damaging diplomatic relations between Serbia and Italy. Tensions increased after the 1911–1912 Italo-Turkish War demonstrated Ottoman weakness and led to the formation of the Balkan League , an alliance of Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro , and Greece . The League quickly overran most of

1722-478: A war on two fronts; the Schlieffen Plan envisaged using 80% of the army to defeat France, then switching to Russia. Since this required them to move quickly, mobilization orders were issued that afternoon. Once the German ultimatum to Russia expired on the morning of 1 August, the two countries were at war. At a meeting on 29 July, the British cabinet had narrowly decided its obligations to Belgium under

1845-402: A weak Ottoman government, rather than an ambitious Slav power like Bulgaria . Russia had ambitions in northeastern Anatolia while its clients had overlapping claims in the Balkans. These competing interests divided Russian policy-makers and added to regional instability. Austrian statesmen viewed the Balkans as essential for the continued existence of their Empire and saw Serbian expansion as

1968-455: A whole, the Somme offensive led to an estimated 420,000 British casualties, along with 200,000 French and 500,000 Germans. The diseases that emerged in the trenches were a major killer on both sides. The living conditions led to disease and infection, such as trench foot , lice , typhus , trench fever , and the ' Spanish flu '. At the start of the war, German cruisers were scattered across

2091-508: Is known, however, that from 1908 to 1913, military spending by the six major European powers increased by over 50% in real terms. The years before 1914 were marked by a series of crises in the Balkans, as other powers sought to benefit from the Ottoman decline. While Pan-Slavic and Orthodox Russia considered itself the protector of Serbia and other Slav states, they preferred the strategically vital Bosporus straits to be controlled by

2214-574: The Schutzkorps was established, and carried out the persecution of Serbs. The assassination initiated the July Crisis, a month of diplomatic manoeuvring between Austria-Hungary, Germany, Russia, France and Britain. Believing that Serbian intelligence helped organise Franz Ferdinand's murder, Austrian officials wanted to use the opportunity to end their interference in Bosnia and saw war as

2337-641: The World War . In August 1914, the magazine The Independent wrote "This is the Great War. It names itself". In October 1914, the Canadian magazine Maclean's similarly wrote, "Some wars name themselves. This is the Great War." Contemporary Europeans also referred to it as " the war to end war " and it was also described as "the war to end all wars" due to their perception of its unparalleled scale, devastation, and loss of life. The first recorded use of

2460-695: The Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force landed on the island of New Britain , then part of German New Guinea . On 28 October, the German cruiser SMS  Emden sank the Russian cruiser Zhemchug in the Battle of Penang . Japan declared war on Germany before seizing territories in the Pacific, which later became the South Seas Mandate , as well as German Treaty ports on

2583-715: The Babeș-Bolyai University , subsequently Hungarian-language courses gradually reduced. The Hungarian community in Transylvania considered this to undermine their interests, which led to the suicide of the Hungarian pro-rector and a professor. In 1995, Babeș-Bolyai University introduced an educational system backed by the High Commissioner on National Minorities , and based on multiculturalism and multilingualism, with three lines of study (Romanian, Hungarian, and German) at all levels of academic degrees. From

SECTION 20

#1732781018089

2706-847: The First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War , was a global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers . Fighting took place mainly in Europe and the Middle East , as well as in parts of Africa and the Asia-Pacific , and in Europe was characterised by trench warfare ; the widespread use of artillery , machine guns, and chemical weapons (gas); and

2829-721: The Rüstungswende or 'armaments turning point', when he switched expenditure from the navy to the army. This decision was not driven by a reduction in political tensions but by German concern over Russia's quick recovery from its defeat in the Russo-Japanese War and subsequent 1905 Russian Revolution . Economic reforms led to a significant post-1908 expansion of railways and transportation infrastructure, particularly in its western border regions. Since Germany and Austria-Hungary relied on faster mobilisation to compensate for their numerical inferiority compared to Russia,

2952-828: The United States entered the war on the Allied side following Germany's resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare against Atlantic shipping. Later that year, the Bolsheviks seized power in the Russian October Revolution , and Soviet Russia signed an armistice with the Central Powers in December, followed by a separate peace in March 1918. That month, Germany launched an offensive in

3075-659: The World War II , ceded Northern Transylvania , including Kolozsvár back to Hungary. After the arbitration, the Ministry of Education of Romania decided to move the Romanian university from Kolozsvár to Sibiu and ordered to take along all the equipment and publications that are necessary to their operation. The institution was formally taken over by the Franz Jopseh University on 12 September 1940, when

3198-518: The coming elections which could have affected badly the initiations, Tivadar Pauler , Eötvös' successor turned to King Franz Joseph who authorised the Hungarian government to set up the university even before the approval of the Parliament. Shortly after, on 11 June 1872, Prime Minister Menyhért Lónyay together with two other ministers Lajos Tisza (Transport) and Tivadar Pauler (Religion and Education) visited Kolozsvár, where they handed over

3321-487: The hydrophone and depth charges were introduced, destroyers could potentially successfully attack a submerged submarine. Convoys slowed the flow of supplies since ships had to wait as convoys were assembled; the solution was an extensive program of building new freighters. Troopships were too fast for the submarines and did not travel the North Atlantic in convoys. The U-boats sunk more than 5,000 Allied ships, at

3444-821: The tank . After the First Battle of the Marne in September 1914, Allied and German forces unsuccessfully tried to outflank each other, a series of manoeuvres later known as the " Race to the Sea ". By the end of 1914, the opposing forces confronted each other along an uninterrupted line of entrenched positions from the Channel to the Swiss border. Since the Germans were normally able to choose where to stand, they generally held

3567-555: The 1000 mark for the first time. Another milestone came in 1895, when women were permitted to enroll at the university in full student status. For the Hungarian Millennium (1896) the Franz Joseph University became a fully developed, internationally recognized higher education institution. In the coming decades two factors determined the life of the university: the professionally designed buildings and

3690-588: The 1839 Treaty of London did not require it to oppose a German invasion with military force; however, Prime Minister Asquith and his senior Cabinet ministers were already committed to supporting France, the Royal Navy had been mobilised, and public opinion was strongly in favour of intervention. On 31 July, Britain sent notes to Germany and France, asking them to respect Belgian neutrality; France pledged to do so, but Germany did not reply. Aware of German plans to attack through Belgium, French Commander-in-Chief Joseph Joffre asked his government for permission to cross

3813-563: The 1879 Dual Alliance , which became the Triple Alliance when Italy joined in 1882. For Bismarck, the purpose of these agreements was to isolate France by ensuring the three Empires resolve any disputes between themselves. In 1887, Bismarck set up the Reinsurance Treaty , a secret agreement between Germany and Russia to remain neutral if either were attacked by France or Austria-Hungary. For Bismarck, peace with Russia

Franz Joseph University - Misplaced Pages Continue

3936-441: The 1913 Treaty of London , which had created an independent Albania while enlarging the territories of Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro and Greece. However, disputes between the victors sparked the 33-day Second Balkan War , when Bulgaria attacked Serbia and Greece on 16 June 1913; it was defeated, losing most of Macedonia to Serbia and Greece, and Southern Dobruja to Romania. The result was that even countries which benefited from

4059-469: The 1939–40 school year, the last the university spent in Szeged. On the other hand, the number of university students rose until 1931–32 with its maximum at 2,160, subsequently decreased to 1,084 for 1939–40. In the final year in Szeged the university had almost as many students (2,460) as in the last year before the relocation (2,570). The Second Vienna Award , signed on 30 August 1940 in the early period of

4182-407: The 47-year span since the foundation, the university had about 10,000 students, of which 68 got honorary doctorate and 28 laureated sub auspiciis Regis . 540 doctoral dissertations were published in print as well. 150 ordinary and extraordinary professors taught in the institution during this period, and about the same number of private professors graduated from the university, of whom more than 30 had

4305-750: The Attila József University, however, together with further higher education institutions they were amalgamated in 2000 to form the University of Szeged . Austro-Hungarian Monarchy Too Many Requests If you report this error to the Wikimedia System Administrators, please include the details below. Request from 172.68.168.133 via cp1102 cp1102, Varnish XID 567932047 Upstream caches: cp1102 int Error: 429, Too Many Requests at Thu, 28 Nov 2024 08:03:38 GMT World War I World War I or

4428-569: The Austrians and Serbs clashed at the battles of the Cer and Kolubara ; over the next two weeks, Austrian attacks were repulsed with heavy losses. As a result, Austria had to keep sizeable forces on the Serbian front, weakening their efforts against Russia. Serbia's victory against Austria-Hungary in the 1914 invasion has been called one of the major upset victories of the twentieth century. In 1915,

4551-646: The Austrians briefly occupied the Serbian capital, Belgrade . A Serbian counter-attack in the Battle of Kolubara succeeded in driving them from the country by the end of 1914. For the first 10 months of 1915, Austria-Hungary used most of its military reserves to fight Italy. German and Austro-Hungarian diplomats scored a coup by persuading Bulgaria to join the attack on Serbia. The Austro-Hungarian provinces of Slovenia , Croatia and Bosnia provided troops for Austria-Hungary. Montenegro allied itself with Serbia. Bulgaria declared war on Serbia on 14 October 1915 and joined in

4674-553: The Balkan Wars, such as Serbia and Greece, felt cheated of their "rightful gains", while for Austria it demonstrated the apparent indifference with which other powers viewed their concerns, including Germany. This complex mix of resentment, nationalism and insecurity helps explain why the pre-1914 Balkans became known as the " powder keg of Europe ". On 28 June 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria , heir presumptive to Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria , visited Sarajevo ,

4797-675: The Bolyai University was separated, in 1948, the University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Târgu Mureș , that can be considered another successor. A fourth successor was the Miklós Horthy University – after the war renamed to Attila József University –, that not only inherited the buildings of the university from the Szeged period but also a number of its professors. In 1951 the Albert Szent-Györgyi Medical University seceded from

4920-404: The Central Powers. However, the pro-German King Constantine I dismissed the pro-Allied government of Eleftherios Venizelos before the Allied expeditionary force arrived. The Macedonian front was at first mostly static. French and Serbian forces retook limited areas of Macedonia by recapturing Bitola on 19 November 1916 following the costly Monastir offensive , which brought stabilisation of

5043-649: The Chinese Shandong peninsula at Tsingtao . After Vienna refused to withdraw its cruiser SMS  Kaiserin Elisabeth from Tsingtao, Japan declared war on Austria-Hungary, and the ship was sunk in November 1914. Within a few months, Allied forces had seized all German territories in the Pacific, leaving only isolated commerce raiders and a few holdouts in New Guinea. Some of the first clashes of

Franz Joseph University - Misplaced Pages Continue

5166-682: The Franz Joseph University as it is and proposed to establish a new Romanian university. Others argued for a gradual Romanianization of the existing university. A third group, led by Onisifor Ghibu , the former superintendent of the Transyilvanian Orthodox schools, called for instant Romanian takeover. After gain control over Transylvania, the area was led by the Governing Council under the presidency of Iuliu Maniu , with its seat in Nagyszeben (Sibiu). Ghibu became

5289-565: The Franz Joseph University ceased its operation after the spring semester of 1945. Although had no legal successors, its buildings and equipment were received by the King Ferdinand I University , which was later renamed to Victor Babeș University . The intellectual values were carried on by the newly established Hungarian-language state university, Bolyai University , which bore the name of Transylvanian Hungarian mathematician János Bolyai . These two were forcibly merged in 1959 to create

5412-435: The Franz Joseph University was closed without legal successor. The Romanian authorities did not disband the university since it might have damaged their negotiation positions in the war closing peace talks. On the other hand, they did not recognize the continuity of the Franz Joseph University, either, because it would have generated debates over the ownership of the university buildings. Thus, although officially not abolished,

5535-623: The German High Seas Fleet was confined to port. German U-boats attempted to cut the supply lines between North America and Britain. The nature of submarine warfare meant that attacks often came without warning, giving the crews of the merchant ships little hope of survival. The United States launched a protest, and Germany changed its rules of engagement. After the sinking of the passenger ship RMS Lusitania in 1915, Germany promised not to target passenger liners, while Britain armed its merchant ships, placing them beyond

5658-640: The German Army increased in size from 1908 to 1914, he changed the allocation of forces between the two wings to 70:30. He also considered Dutch neutrality essential for German trade and cancelled the incursion into the Netherlands, which meant any delays in Belgium threatened the viability of the plan. Historian Richard Holmes argues that these changes meant the right wing was not strong enough to achieve decisive success. The initial German advance in

5781-462: The German right wing would sweep through the Netherlands and Belgium , then swing south, encircling Paris and trapping the French army against the Swiss border. The plan's creator, Alfred von Schlieffen , head of the German General Staff from 1891 to 1906, estimated that this would take six weeks, after which the German army would transfer to the East and defeat the Russians. The plan was substantially modified by his successor, Helmuth von Moltke

5904-426: The Germans bled heavily as well, with anywhere from 700,000 to 975,000 casualties between the two combatants. Verdun became a symbol of French determination and self-sacrifice. The Battle of the Somme was an Anglo-French offensive from July to November 1916. The opening day on 1 July 1916 was the bloodiest single day in the history of the British Army , which suffered 57,500 casualties, including 19,200 dead. As

6027-405: The Hungarian Royal University of Kolozsvár", arranged the organization and the internal regulations of the university, while the latter one provided the financial background of the institution. On 11 November 1872 the university effectively began its operation with 258 students on four faculties (Legal and Political Studies, Medicine, Philosophy and Sciences). Due to Magyarization policies Romanian

6150-454: The Jews from the institution, Rector László Buza ordered to aid the Jewish students and identify their abusers. Imre Haynal , Dezső Klimkó , Dezső Miskolczy , all of them being professors of medicine, also hid Jews on their clinics in the time of persecution. The war stamped especially the final two school years. The building of the Faculty of Economy was taken by the army, thus the lessons had to be held in another building. On 12 April 1944

6273-565: The Middle East. In all, 140,000 soldiers served on the Western Front and nearly 700,000 in the Middle East, with 47,746 killed and 65,126 wounded. The suffering engendered by the war, as well as the failure of the British government to grant self-government to India afterward, bred disillusionment, resulting in the campaign for full independence led by Mahatma Gandhi . Pre-war military tactics that had emphasised open warfare and individual riflemen proved obsolete when confronted with conditions prevailing in 1914. Technological advances allowed

SECTION 50

#1732781018089

6396-703: The Ottoman Empire , which disturbed the long-standing balance of power in Europe, as well as economic competition between nations triggered by industrialisation and imperialism . Growing tensions between the great powers and in the Balkans reached a breaking point on 28 June 1914, when a Bosnian Serb named Gavrilo Princip assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand , heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne. Austria-Hungary held Serbia responsible, and declared war on 28 July. After Russia mobilised in Serbia's defence, Germany declared war on Russia and France , who had an alliance . The United Kingdom entered after Germany invaded Belgium , whose neutrality it guaranteed, and

6519-545: The Ottomans joined the Central Powers in November. Germany's strategy in 1914 was to quickly defeat France, then to transfer its forces to the east, but its advance was halted in September , and by the end of the year the Western Front consisted of a continuous line of trenches stretching from the English Channel to Switzerland. The Eastern Front was more dynamic, but neither side gained a decisive advantage, despite costly offensives. Italy , Bulgaria , Romania , Greece and others joined in from 1915 onward. In April 1917,

6642-449: The Ottomans' territory in the Balkans during the 1912–1913 First Balkan War , much to the surprise of outside observers. The Serbian capture of ports on the Adriatic resulted in partial Austrian mobilisation, starting on 21 November 1912, including units along the Russian border in Galicia . The Russian government decided not to mobilise in response, unprepared to precipitate a war. The Great Powers sought to re-assert control through

6765-409: The Romanian forces began to occupy the Hungarian territories. They took the control of Kolozsvár on 24 December 1918. Initially, the Romanian authorities did not intervene to the internal affairs of the university and the education could continue. In the Romanian press, however, arguments arose about the fate of the university. Some intellectuals, including Nicolae Iorga , committed themselves to leave

6888-417: The Romanian government gained control over the territory. The Rector's Council called the students to enroll for the new school year between 13–18 November and the professors to return to their duty. The education began on 1 December 1944 with 15 teachers and 628 students in unheated rooms. The university clinics operated without interruption, treating about 800 patients that time. The authorities intervened to

7011-400: The Romanian language into the university education. For its frame three possibilities came up: the Bucharest government suggested to move the Romanian university of Sibiu back to Kolozsvár with an additional Hungarian and a German department to satisfy the minority claims. Another idea was to establish a Romanian section within the Franz Joseph University. The majority of the Hungarians supported

7134-549: The Russian Stavka agreed with the French to attack Germany within fifteen days of mobilisation, ten days before the Germans had anticipated, although it meant the two Russian armies that entered East Prussia on 17 August did so without many of their support elements. By the end of 1914, German troops held strong defensive positions inside France, controlled the bulk of France's domestic coalfields, and inflicted 230,000 more casualties than it lost itself. However, communications problems and questionable command decisions cost Germany

7257-429: The Serbian retreat toward the Adriatic coast in the Battle of Mojkovac on 6–7 January 1916, but ultimately the Austrians also conquered Montenegro. The surviving Serbian soldiers were evacuated to Greece. After the conquest, Serbia was divided between Austro-Hungary and Bulgaria. In late 1915, a Franco-British force landed at Salonica in Greece to offer assistance and to pressure its government to declare war against

7380-455: The West was very successful. By the end of August, the Allied left, which included the British Expeditionary Force (BEF), was in full retreat , and the French offensive in Alsace-Lorraine was a disastrous failure, with casualties exceeding 260,000. German planning provided broad strategic instructions while allowing army commanders considerable freedom in carrying them out at the front, but von Kluck used this freedom to disobey orders, opening

7503-430: The Younger . Under Schlieffen, 85% of German forces in the west were assigned to the right wing, with the remainder holding along the frontier. By keeping his left-wing deliberately weak, he hoped to lure the French into an offensive into the "lost provinces" of Alsace-Lorraine , which was the strategy envisaged by their Plan XVII . However, Moltke grew concerned that the French might push too hard on his left flank and as

SECTION 60

#1732781018089

7626-446: The aggressor, German Chancellor Bethmann Hollweg delayed the commencement of war preparations until 31 July. That afternoon, the Russian government were handed a note requiring them to "cease all war measures against Germany and Austria-Hungary" within 12 hours. A further German demand for neutrality was refused by the French who ordered general mobilization but delayed declaring war. The German General Staff had long assumed they faced

7749-407: The attack by the Austro-Hungarian army under Mackensen's army of 250,000 that was already underway. Serbia was conquered in a little more than a month, as the Central Powers, now including Bulgaria, sent in 600,000 troops in total. The Serbian army, fighting on two fronts and facing certain defeat, retreated into northern Albania . The Serbs suffered defeat in the Battle of Kosovo . Montenegro covered

7872-408: The autonomy of the university first in January 1945, when in virtue of the report of the "purging committee" 29 professors were declared to be removed from their office because of their "antidemocratic, chauvinist or fascist" behaviour. The Rector's Council stated in its response that they would like to get a specific reasoning for each of the named teachers to ensure their right to defend themselves. It

7995-477: The best way of achieving this. However, the Foreign Ministry had no solid proof of Serbian involvement. On 23   July, Austria delivered an ultimatum to Serbia, listing ten demands made intentionally unacceptable to provide an excuse for starting hostilities. Serbia ordered general mobilization on 25   July, but accepted all the terms, except for those empowering Austrian representatives to suppress "subversive elements" inside Serbia, and take part in

8118-483: The border and pre-empt such a move. To avoid violating Belgian neutrality, he was told any advance could come only after a German invasion. Instead, the French cabinet ordered its Army to withdraw 10 km behind the German frontier, to avoid provoking war. On 2 August, Germany occupied Luxembourg and exchanged fire with French units when German patrols entered French territory; on 3   August, they declared war on France and demanded free passage across Belgium, which

8241-427: The campaign saw the first use of anti-aircraft warfare after an Austrian plane was shot down with ground-to-air fire, as well as the first medical evacuation by the Serbian army. Upon mobilisation, in accordance with the Schlieffen Plan , 80% of the German Army was located on the Western Front, with the remainder acting as a screening force in the East. Rather than a direct attack across their shared frontier,

8364-525: The capital of the recently annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina . Cvjetko Popović , Gavrilo Princip , Nedeljko Čabrinović , Trifko Grabež , Vaso Čubrilović ( Bosnian Serbs ) and Muhamed Mehmedbašić (from the Bosniaks community), from the movement known as Young Bosnia , took up positions along the Archduke's motorcade route, to assassinate him. Supplied with arms by extremists within the Serbian Black Hand intelligence organisation, they hoped his death would free Bosnia from Austrian rule. Čabrinović threw

8487-466: The chance of a decisive outcome, while it had failed to achieve the primary objective of avoiding a long, two-front war. As was apparent to several German leaders, this amounted to a strategic defeat; shortly after the First Battle of the Marne , Crown Prince Wilhelm told an American reporter "We have lost the war. It will go on for a long time but lost it is already." On 30 August 1914, New Zealand occupied German Samoa (now Samoa ). On 11 September,

8610-414: The cost of 199 submarines. World War I also saw the first use of aircraft carriers in combat, with HMS  Furious launching Sopwith Camels in a successful raid against the Zeppelin hangars at Tondern in July 1918, as well as blimps for antisubmarine patrol. Faced with Russia in the east, Austria-Hungary could spare only one-third of its army to attack Serbia. After suffering heavy losses,

8733-415: The creation of new independent states, including Poland , Finland , the Baltic states , Czechoslovakia , and Yugoslavia . The League of Nations was established to maintain world peace, but its failure to manage instability during the interwar period contributed to the outbreak of World War II in 1939. Before World War II , the events of 1914–1918 were generally known as the Great War or simply

8856-449: The creation of strong defensive systems largely impervious to massed infantry advances, such as barbed wire , machine guns and above all far more powerful artillery , which dominated the battlefield and made crossing open ground extremely difficult. Both sides struggled to develop tactics for breaching entrenched positions without heavy casualties. In time, technology enabled the production of new offensive weapons, such as gas warfare and

8979-965: The crowds listened to music and drank wine, as if nothing had happened." Nevertheless, the impact of the murder of the heir to the throne was significant, and has been described by historian Christopher Clark as a "9/11 effect, a terrorist event charged with historic meaning, transforming the political chemistry in Vienna". Austro-Hungarian authorities encouraged subsequent anti-Serb riots in Sarajevo . Violent actions against ethnic Serbs were also organised outside Sarajevo, in other cities in Austro-Hungarian-controlled Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Slovenia. Austro-Hungarian authorities in Bosnia and Herzegovina imprisoned approximately 5,500 prominent Serbs, 700 to 2,200 of whom died in prison. A further 460 Serbs were sentenced to death. A predominantly Bosniak special militia known as

9102-542: The deed of foundation. He also permitted the institution to bear his name and from then it was officially known as the Royal Hungarian Franz Joseph University . In addition, this date marked the end of the temporary status of the university and the beginning of large-scale construction projects. Subsequently, a quick progression started: the number of students increased from 258 in the inaugural year to 500 in 1885 and in 1898 it exceeded

9225-695: The expansion of the French colonial empire . In 1873, Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors , which included Austria-Hungary , Russia and Germany. After the 1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War , the League was dissolved due to Austrian concerns over the expansion of Russian influence in the Balkans , an area they considered to be of vital strategic interest. Germany and Austria-Hungary then formed

9348-516: The first time on the Western Front. Several types of gas soon became widely used by both sides and though it never proved a decisive, battle-winning weapon, it became one of the most feared and best-remembered horrors of the war. In February 1916, the Germans attacked French defensive positions at the Battle of Verdun , lasting until December 1916. Casualties were greater for the French, but

9471-620: The former buildings of the Franz Joseph University to the Romanian institution. At the same time, pursuant to the Decree nr. 407. a new Hungarian-language State University was created in Kolozsvár with four faculties. This latter one got housed in the Regina Maria Lyceum, a single building replacing the university's former forty-part building complex. The exams scheduled for June were yet held, subsequently after 73 years of operation

9594-558: The former buildings of the county council to the university and announced the availability of the teaching positions. The 39 member teaching staff was selected from over 120 applicants, on the recommendation of Ágoston Trefort , the Minister of Religion and Education of the new government; King Franz Joseph appointed the 34 ordinary and 5 extraordinary professors on 29 September and 17 October 1872, respectively. They took their oath to Ministerial Commissioner Imre Mikó on 19 October 1872 in

9717-595: The front. Serbian and French troops finally made a breakthrough in September 1918 in the Vardar offensive , after most German and Austro-Hungarian troops had been withdrawn. The Bulgarians were defeated at the Battle of Dobro Pole , and by 25 September British and French troops had crossed the border into Bulgaria proper as the Bulgarian army collapsed. Bulgaria capitulated four days later, on 29 September 1918. The German high command responded by despatching troops to hold

9840-544: The gala hall of the Roman Catholic Lyceum and subsequently the university authorities were formed. On the same occasion Áron Berde was elected for rector and Sámuel Brassai for prorector of the university. Meanwhile, on 12 October 1872 the Parliament passed the draft law and enacted as the Articles XIX and XX of 1872. The first one, titled "Regarding the establishment and provisional organization of

9963-542: The globe, some of which were subsequently used to attack Allied merchant shipping . These were systematically hunted down by the Royal Navy, though not before causing considerable damage. One of the most successful was the SMS ; Emden , part of the German East Asia Squadron stationed at Qingdao , which seized or sank 15 merchantmen, a Russian cruiser and a French destroyer. Most of the squadron

10086-549: The high ground, while their trenches tended to be better built; those constructed by the French and English were initially considered "temporary", only needed until an offensive would destroy the German defences. Both sides tried to break the stalemate using scientific and technological advances. On 22 April 1915, at the Second Battle of Ypres , the Germans (violating the Hague Convention ) used chlorine gas for

10209-466: The international legal norms, the autonomy of the university and their former oath to the King of Hungary. As the negative answer arrived, on 12 May 1919, Ghibu, together with prefect Valentine Poruřiu, professor Nicolae Drăganu, accompanied by commander Ion Vasiliu went to the rector's office and proclaimed that on behalf the Governing Council they take over the university. Schneller first refused to give up

10332-435: The introductions of tanks and aircraft . World War I was one of the deadliest conflicts in history , resulting in an estimated 10 million military dead and more than 20 million wounded , plus some 10 million civilian dead from causes including genocide . The movement of large numbers of people was a major factor in the deadly Spanish flu pandemic. The causes of World War I included the rise of Germany and decline of

10455-470: The investigation and trial of Serbians linked to the assassination. Claiming this amounted to rejection, Austria broke off diplomatic relations and ordered partial mobilisation the next day; on 28 July, they declared war on Serbia and began shelling Belgrade . Russia ordered general mobilization in support of Serbia on 30 July. Anxious to ensure backing from the SPD political opposition by presenting Russia as

10578-820: The joint forces of the Transylvanian Hungarian churches (the Roman Catholics, the Calvinists and the Unitarians) made efforts to establish a new local Hungarian university, however, the Ministry of Cults and Instruction declared that a possible Hungarian higher education institution can be set up only in another Transylvanian town. At the same time, in June 1920 the Treaty of Trianon officially ceded Transylvania to Romania. Under these circumstances,

10701-518: The keys of the main gate and the rector's office were received. At the same time the organizational work began in Budapest. Since the relocation of the university to Szeged was only temporary, given the appropriate conditions, it was obvious to move it back to Kolozsvár. However, it needed an official framework. The new university bill was presented on 2 October 1940 and was passed two weeks later. Governor Horthy gave his signature on 18 October, and

10824-539: The monarchy the 18 million-strong population could choose between 5 universities. To manage this situation, the Hungarian government proposed to establish a new university either in Pozsony (Bratislava) or Kolozsvár , eventually choosing the latter one. On 11 May 1870, József Eötvös , Minister of Religion and Education of Hungary presented a set of law proposals to the Hungarian Parliament regarding

10947-688: The new law was published as the Article XXVIII of 1940 on the following day. Its 11 paragraph disposed not only the reinstation of the university but also arranged to set up a fifth faculty, namely the Faculty of Economy. Simultaneously it decreed to establish the Hungarian Royal Miklós Horthy University in Szeged to replace the moving Franz Joseph University. Governor Horthy signed the professors' commission on 19 October, who took their oath four days later, in

11070-417: The new prime minister, who managed to extend the Romanian administration to Northern Transylvania starting from 13 March. Following this move, a shift in the status quo occurred, and the negotiating positions of the Hungarian university significantly worsened. A delegation of the Romanian university led by Rector Emil Petrovici arrived to Kolozsvár on 11 April and negotiation talks took place on 16–17 April. As

11193-465: The ocean, even to neutral ships. Since there was limited response to this tactic, Germany expected a similar response to its unrestricted submarine warfare. The Battle of Jutland in May/June 1916 was the only full-scale clash of battleships during the war, and one of the largest in history. The clash was indecisive, though the Germans inflicted more damage than they received; thereafter the bulk of

11316-427: The operation on four faculties using its earlier structure. For the first year the position of every former professors and assistant professors were reserved, however, there were some who resigned, stayed in Transylvania, got another position in Budapest or deceased. So thus, in the second year there were 44 departments led by ordinary professors and one led by extraordinary professor, supported by 25 private lecturers. In

11439-476: The plan of a separate Romanian-language university. After long debates and negotiations, on 9 March 1945 a University Block of three autonomous higher education institutes was proposed, including a Hungarian-language university, a Romanian-language university, and a Technical University with lessons in both languages. However, because the political change shortly after, the project never materialized. On 6 March 1945 King Michael of Romania appointed Petru Groza as

11562-530: The presence of Bálint Hóman , Minister of Religion and Education. The opening ceremony took place on 24 October 1940. The last period of the history of the Franz Joseph University lasted for five years, during which time on 85 departments over 100 professors instructed. The number of students were around 2,500 in these years, including Jews (3% of the students in 1943–44) and Romanians (4.8%). When extremist groups in October–November 1943 called for removal of

11685-587: The professors. On 12 December 1919 the university council gave its support to the relocation plan and sent Prorector Schneller to Szeged to get informed about the further conditions. Following the visit of the delegation led by Schneller in January 1920, the council accepted the idea of moving, which eventually realized after the Treaty of Trianon irrevocably sealed the fate of Kolozsvár and the university. The Council of Ministers of Hungary decided on 1 February 1921 upon

11808-801: The protection of the " cruiser rules ", which demanded warning and movement of crews to "a place of safety" (a standard that lifeboats did not meet). Finally, in early 1917, Germany adopted a policy of unrestricted submarine warfare , realising the Americans would eventually enter the war. Germany sought to strangle Allied sea lanes before the United States could transport a large army overseas, but, after initial successes, eventually failed to do so. The U-boat threat lessened in 1917, when merchant ships began travelling in convoys , escorted by destroyers . This tactic made it difficult for U-boats to find targets, which significantly lessened losses; after

11931-439: The quality of the scientific workshops in them. In the 1890s the founding generation of teachers left, and a second generation occurred. While the first generation were not only chosen based on their accomplishments – many of them specialized just while teaching in the university –, the new generation had to meet strict criteria. It was almost mandatory to have a doctorate, honorary title or something above average academic work, thus

12054-401: The refusal would be considered as giving up his position and waiving from all his rights. In the case he had taken the oath, the professors had got two years to learn Romanian to maintain their position in the university. However, first the faculties and subsequently the university council rejected the oath, pleading the unclear political situation (Transylvania de jure still belonged to Hungary),

12177-421: The relatively the low number and weakly equipped buildings. An improvement of the situation started from 1922, when Kuno von Klebelsberg , Minister of Religion and Education and MP of Szeged fought out huge sums to raise buildings and get all the necessaries. The city of Szeged contributed to the project as well. When the Franz Joseph University settled in Szeged, the university did not have a library, either, as it

12300-460: The relocation of the Franz Joseph University to Szeged. The relevant bill was presented to the parliament on 27 May 1921, which unanimously voted in favour of the proposition on 17 June. The Article XXV of 1921, published on 26 June, provided temporary housing of the university in Szeged. The teaching staff arrived to Szeged on 22 September 1922, and with the opening ceremony on 10 October the new school year began. The Franz Joseph University continued

12423-465: The remaining students and professors also left Romania and moved to Budapest, joining those who fled earlier. The city of Szeged contested for a higher education institution since the end of the 18th century. When the Franz Joseph University was left without a home, Szilveszter Somogyi mayor of Szeged appealed on 19 May 1919 to the teachers and students to come to Szeged. He offered buildings for academic institutions, student homes and 40 apartments for

12546-423: The reorganization of the Hungarian higher education system and the establishment of a new university in Kolozsvár. The negotiations were scheduled for January 1871, however, because of Eötvös' illness and death in early February, shortly before the decision of the parliamentary commission, the issue was postponed. It was not until 1872 when the talks continued. Considering the slow process, and the uncertain outcome of

12669-412: The school year 1931–32 the number of departments reached their peak with 62, but after the economical crisis it fell back to 47 in 1934–35. The complete scientific and teaching staff was around 200 people. At the beginning, the subsidy was very low and often arrived late. Another problem was the gradual inflation and as a consequence the exponential rise of the expenditures. The university also suffered of

12792-410: The secretary of public education of this body and convinced the council of his point of view, including the president, who was on the moderate side at the beginning. Following the approval of the council, Ghibu organized the seizure of the buildings and equipment. On 9 May 1919 Rector István Schneller was called upon to swear oath to King Ferdinand I and the Governing Council. He was also warned that

12915-462: The students fled from the prospected Soviet-Romanian occupation as well. In such circumstances a group of Hungarian intellectuals in Kolozsvár (bishops, politicians, writers, poets) turned to Rector Dezső Miskolczy on 14 September and asked to still stay in place. Miskolczy convened the university council on the next day to discuss the issue. The council eventually decided to remain in Kolozsvár stating they can better fulfil their mission by staying with

13038-493: The teaching staff was actually made of scientists. The first period in the university's life ended with the school year of 1918–19, following the World War I , of which the Franz Joseph University also took its part: 3,661 students joined the forces and 193 of them died on the fronts. Additionally, the university clinics and the newly built Pasteur-building were declared military hospitals and operated with about 1,500 beds. In

13161-469: The term First World War was in September 1914 by German biologist and philosopher Ernst Haeckel who stated, "There is no doubt that the course and character of the feared 'European War' ... will become the first world war in the full sense of the word." For much of the 19th century, the major European powers maintained a tenuous balance of power , known as the Concert of Europe . After 1848, this

13284-691: The threat posed by the closing of this gap was more important than competing with the Royal Navy. After Germany expanded its standing army by 170,000 troops in 1913, France extended compulsory military service from two to three years; similar measures were taken by the Balkan powers and Italy, which led to increased expenditure by the Ottomans and Austria-Hungary. Absolute figures are difficult to calculate due to differences in categorising expenditure since they often omit civilian infrastructure projects like railways which had logistical importance and military use. It

13407-407: The university, but at 11 am, under duress, he finally signed the handover record. The next day each department was taken over by a professional commissioner. The new Romanian university (initially named Superior Dacia University , later King Ferdinand I University ) was opened on 3 November 1919, and officially inaugurated on 1–2 February 1920 in the presence of King Ferdinand I. On 9 August 1919 it

13530-408: The university. The new school year opened on 17 September, subsequently Iván Rakovszky , Minister of Religion and Education of Hungary approvingly noted the determination of the university. The Soviet troops occupied Kolozsvár without facing any resistance on 11 October 1944. Their commander, Rodion Malinovsky immediately instructed every institution to continue their operation. On the following day

13653-611: The urgent closure of the university was ordered. On 2 June the Orthopedic Hospital of the university got a direct hit and two months later the Hungarian government commanded the rescuing of the institutes of Kolozsvár. The university archives, together with the more valuable instruments were put on trucks and were moved to the Festetics Palace in Keszthely . The bigger part of the teaching staff (about 80%) and

13776-593: The war ended with the Armistice of 11 November 1918 . The Paris Peace Conference of 1919–1920 imposed settlements on the defeated powers, most notably the Treaty of Versailles , by which Germany lost significant territories, was disarmed, and was required to pay large war reparations to the Allies. The dissolution of the Russian, German, Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman Empires redrew national boundaries and resulted in

13899-601: The war involved British, French, and German colonial forces in Africa. On 6–7 August, French and British troops invaded the German protectorates of Togoland and Kamerun . On 10 August, German forces in South-West Africa attacked South Africa; sporadic and fierce fighting continued for the rest of the war. The German colonial forces in German East Africa , led by Colonel Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck , fought

14022-477: The west , which despite initial successes left the German Army exhausted and demoralised. A successful Allied counter-offensive from August 1918 caused a collapse of the German front line. By early November, Bulgaria, the Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary had each signed armistices with the Allies, leaving Germany isolated. Facing a revolution at home , Kaiser Wilhelm   II abdicated on 9 November, and

14145-437: Was all left behind in Kolozsvár. The new university library in Szeged was created from private donations, and contributions of libraries and institutions of Budapest; for the end of the 1930s the library had over 250,000 volumes. From 1928 onwards the institute offered both university and college education. The size of the students of this latter group shows a gradual increase: from the initial 75 their number grew to over 500 for

14268-400: Was also made known that the only listed person currently in Kolozsvár is Árpád Gyergyay, who will be notified within 24 hours. The authorities dragged Gyergyay through the mire, but could not confute anything. The list was published in the press as well with purpose of discouraging the return of the listed professors. In the meantime, Romanians of Northern Transylvania urged the introduction of

14391-483: Was announced that those who were not born in or were not residents of Kolozsvár before 1914 are facing a possible expulsion. Considering this, and that only a small proportion of the Hungarian students were able to speak Romanian on the level they needed to enroll at the new Romanian university, many decided to flee from the city. Those who remained were effectively expelled from mid-October 1919. In December 1919 there were already 20 university professors in Budapest. In 1920

14514-403: Was challenged by Britain's withdrawal into so-called splendid isolation , the decline of the Ottoman Empire , New Imperialism , and the rise of Prussia under Otto von Bismarck . Victory in the 1870–1871 Franco-Prussian War allowed Bismarck to consolidate a German Empire . Post-1871, the primary aim of French policy was to avenge this defeat, but by the early 1890s, this had switched to

14637-601: Was founded five years after the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 , according to which Hungary and Transylvania were reunited. It also resulted increased demands for higher education, for which Hungary did not have a sufficient number of institutions – the overall population of Hungary and Transylvania exceeded 14 million with only one university in Pest , contrarily on the Cisleithanian part of

14760-447: Was not included as a language of education. However, a chair for Romanian language and literature was permitted. During its first decade the work in the university went under very difficult circumstances. The budget was barely enough to maintain the institution and the appropriate buildings and equipment were also missing. A process of changing in this situation began on 4 January 1881, when, after repeated requests King Franz Joseph issued

14883-654: Was refused. Early on the morning of 4   August, the Germans invaded, and Albert I of Belgium called for assistance under the Treaty of London . Britain sent Germany an ultimatum demanding they withdraw from Belgium; when this expired at midnight, without a response, the two empires were at war. Germany promised to support Austria-Hungary's invasion of Serbia, but interpretations of what this meant differed. Previously tested deployment plans had been replaced early in 1914, but those had never been tested in exercises. Austro-Hungarian leaders believed Germany would cover its northern flank against Russia. Beginning on 12 August,

15006-667: Was returning to Germany when it sank two British armoured cruisers at the Battle of Coronel in November 1914, before being virtually destroyed at the Battle of the Falkland Islands in December. The SMS Dresden escaped with a few auxiliaries, but after the Battle of Más a Tierra , these too were either destroyed or interned. Soon after the outbreak of hostilities, Britain began a naval blockade of Germany . This proved effective in cutting off vital supplies, though it violated accepted international law. Britain also mined international waters which closed off entire sections of

15129-781: Was the foundation of German foreign policy but in 1890, he was forced to retire by Wilhelm II . The latter was persuaded not to renew the Reinsurance Treaty by his new Chancellor , Leo von Caprivi . This gave France an opening to agree the Franco-Russian Alliance in 1894, which was then followed by the 1904 Entente Cordiale with Britain. The Triple Entente was completed by the 1907 Anglo-Russian Convention . While not formal alliances, by settling long-standing colonial disputes in Asia and Africa, British support for France or Russia in any future conflict became

#88911