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133-508: Rocketship X-M tells the story of a Moon expedition gone awry. Through a series of unforeseen events, the expedition's crew find themselves on the infamous red planet, Mars . During their time on the planet they go on to discover the remnants of a Martian civilization destroyed long ago by atomic war and now reverted to barbarism . Four men and a woman blast into outer space from the White Sands Proving Ground aboard

266-565: A capacitor with each of the thereminist's hands as the other half of the capacitor. These antennas capacitively sense the relative position of the hands and control oscillators for frequency with one hand, and amplitude ( volume ) with the other. The electric signals from the theremin are amplified and sent to a loudspeaker . The sound of the instrument is often associated with eerie situations. The theremin has been used in movie soundtracks such as Miklós Rózsa 's Spellbound and The Lost Weekend , Bernard Herrmann 's The Day

399-526: A lunar eclipse , always illuminated by the Sun, but from Earth the visible illumination shifts during its orbit, producing the lunar phases . The Moon is the brightest celestial object in Earth's night sky . This is mainly due to its large angular diameter , while the reflectance of the lunar surface is comparable to that of asphalt . The apparent size is nearly the same as that of the Sun, allowing it to cover

532-425: A decisive role on local surface temperatures . Parts of many craters, particularly the bottoms of many polar craters, are permanently shadowed, these " craters of eternal darkness " have extremely low temperatures. The Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter measured the lowest summer temperatures in craters at the southern pole at 35 K (−238 °C; −397 °F) and just 26 K (−247 °C; −413 °F) close to

665-434: A few kilometers wide), shallower, and more irregularly shaped than impact craters. They also lack the upturned rims characteristic of impact craters. Several geologic provinces containing shield volcanoes and volcanic domes are found within the near side maria. There are also some regions of pyroclastic deposits , scoria cones and non-basaltic domes made of particularly high viscosity lava. Almost all maria are on

798-451: A first for pop music. Although credited with a "Thereman" [ sic ] on the track "Mysterons" from the album Dummy , Portishead actually used a monophonic synthesizer to achieve theremin-like effects, as confirmed by Adrian Utley , who is credited as playing the instrument; on the songs "Half Day Closing", "Humming", "The Rip", and "Machine Gun" he has actually used a custom-made theremin. Page McConnell , keyboardist of

931-503: A global dipolar magnetic field and only has crustal magnetization likely acquired early in its history when a dynamo was still operating. Early in its history, 4 billion years ago, its magnetic field strength was likely close to that of Earth today. This early dynamo field apparently expired by about one billion years ago, after the lunar core had crystallized. Theoretically, some of the remnant magnetization may originate from transient magnetic fields generated during large impacts through

1064-718: A hospitable environment for future astronauts, protecting them from extreme temperatures, solar radiation, and micrometeorites. However, challenges include accessibility and risks of avalanches and cave-ins. This discovery offers potential for future lunar bases or emergency shelters. The main features visible from Earth by the naked eye are dark and relatively featureless lunar plains called maria (singular mare ; Latin for "seas", as they were once believed to be filled with water) are vast solidified pools of ancient basaltic lava. Although similar to terrestrial basalts, lunar basalts have more iron and no minerals altered by water. The majority of these lava deposits erupted or flowed into

1197-533: A landscape featuring craters of all ages. The Moon was volcanically active until 1.2 billion years ago, which laid down the prominent lunar maria . Most of the mare basalts erupted during the Imbrian period , 3.3–3.7 billion years ago, though some are as young as 1.2 billion years and some as old as 4.2 billion years. There are differing explanations for the eruption of mare basalts, particularly their uneven occurrence which mainly appear on

1330-413: A later meteoroid storm (inaccurately referred to in dialog as meteorites ) both make audible roaring sounds in the soundless vacuum of space that can be heard inside the crew compartment. The clusters of those fast moving meteoroids appear identical in shape and detail (actually, the same prop meteoroids were shot from different angles and positions, then optically printed in tandem, at different sizes, on

1463-434: A near linear region of pitch field can be created over the central two or three octaves of operation. Using optimized pitch field linearisation, circuits can be made where a change in capacitance between the performer and the instrument in the order of 0.01 picofarads produces a full octave of frequency shift. The mixer produces the audio-range difference between the frequencies of the two oscillators at each moment, which

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1596-421: A niche interest in the theremin persisted, mostly among electronics enthusiasts and kit-building hobbyists. One of these electronics enthusiasts, Robert Moog , began building theremins in the 1950s, while he was a high-school student. Moog subsequently published a number of articles about building theremins, and sold theremin kits that were intended to be assembled by the customer. Moog credited what he learned from

1729-682: A pinkish-sepia color. All other scenes are in black-and-white . The RX-M's design was taken from rocket illustrations that appeared in an article in the January 17, 1949 issue of Life magazine. The interior structure of the spaceship's larger second stage is shown as having a long ladder that the crew must climb; it runs "up" through the RX-M's fuel compartment, which has on all sides a series of narrow fuel tanks filled with various propulsion chemicals. By selecting and mixing them together in various proportions, different levels of thrust are attainable from

1862-479: A radius of about 500 kilometres (310 mi). This structure is thought to have developed through the fractional crystallization of a global magma ocean shortly after the Moon's formation 4.5 billion years ago. Crystallization of this magma ocean would have created a mafic mantle from the precipitation and sinking of the minerals olivine , clinopyroxene , and orthopyroxene ; after about three-quarters of

1995-446: A rapid heading beyond the Moon. The increased acceleration causes the crew pass out. Reviving days later, they quickly discover that they have traveled some 50,000,000 miles; the RX-M is now just 50,000 miles away from Mars. Dr. Karl Eckstrom is forced to "pause and observe respectfully while something infinitely greater assumes control". [ At this point the film changes from black and white to tinted red ] The RX-M safely passes through

2128-631: A result of tectonic events. Theremin The theremin ( / ˈ θ ɛr əm ɪ n / ; originally known as the ætherphone , etherphone , thereminophone or termenvox / thereminvox ) is an electronic musical instrument controlled without physical contact by the performer (who is known as a thereminist). It is named after its inventor, Leon Theremin , who patented the device in 1928. The instrument's controlling section usually consists of two metal antennas which function not as radio antennas but rather as position sensors . Each antenna forms one half of

2261-458: A satellite with similar mass and iron content to the Moon into orbit far outside Earth's Roche limit . Even satellites that initially pass within the Roche limit can reliably and predictably survive, by being partially stripped and then torqued onto wider, stable orbits. On November 1, 2023, scientists reported that, according to computer simulations, remnants of Theia could still be present inside

2394-419: A slightly higher resonant frequency. When a hand approaches the antenna, the natural frequency of that circuit is lowered by the extra capacitance, which detunes the oscillator and lowers its resonant plate current. In the earliest theremins, the radio frequency plate current of the oscillator is picked up by another winding and used to power the filament of another diode-connected triode , which thus acts as

2527-410: A steel guitar and a piccolo trumpet in unison in the solo interlude, but for this performance, thereminist Rob Schwimmer played the solo. Russian composer Dmitri Shostakovich was one of the first to incorporate parts for the theremin in orchestral pieces , including a use in his score for the film Odna ( Russian : Одна , 1931, Leonid Trauberg and Grigori Kozintsev ). While the theremin

2660-475: A study of Ina , a tiny depression in Lacus Felicitatis , found jagged, relatively dust-free features that, because of the lack of erosion by infalling debris, appeared to be only 2 million years old. Moonquakes and releases of gas indicate continued lunar activity. Evidence of recent lunar volcanism has been identified at 70 irregular mare patches , some less than 50 million years old. This raises

2793-502: A texture resembling snow and a scent resembling spent gunpowder . The regolith of older surfaces is generally thicker than for younger surfaces: it varies in thickness from 10–15 m (33–49 ft) in the highlands and 4–5 m (13–16 ft) in the maria. Beneath the finely comminuted regolith layer is the megaregolith , a layer of highly fractured bedrock many kilometers thick. These extreme conditions are considered to make it unlikely for spacecraft to harbor bacterial spores at

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2926-439: A trans-Atlantic flight, 200 times more than on Earth's surface. For further comparison radiation on a flight to Mars is about 1.84 millisieverts per day and on Mars on average 0.64 millisieverts per day, with some locations on Mars possibly having levels as low as 0.342 millisieverts per day. The Moon's axial tilt with respect to the ecliptic is only 1.5427°, much less than the 23.44° of Earth. Because of this small tilt,

3059-424: A variable conductance element changing the output amplitude. The harmonic timbre of the output, not being a pure tone, was an important feature of the theremin. Theremin's original design included audio frequency series/parallel LC formant filters as well as a 3-winding variable-saturation transformer to control or induce harmonics in the audio output. Modern circuit designs often simplify this circuit and avoid

3192-478: A variation of the theremin (pitch antenna only) during performances of " Whole Lotta Love " and " No Quarter " throughout the performance history of Led Zeppelin, an extended multi-instrumental solo featuring theremin and bowed guitar in 1977, as well as the soundtrack for Death Wish II , released in 1982. Brian Jones of the Rolling Stones also used the instrument on the group's 1967 albums Between

3325-467: A woman". Subsequent events prove Eckstrom's "arbitrary decision" to be wrong, placing them all in jeopardy. Lippert's feature was the first film drama to explore the dangers of nuclear warfare and atomic radiation through the lens of science fiction; these became recurrent themes in many 1950s science fiction films that followed. Dalton Trumbo , black-listed during the McCarthy era , script doctored

3458-560: Is also used in popular music genres, such as rock . The theremin was the product of Soviet government-sponsored research into proximity sensors . The instrument was invented in October 1920 by the Russian physicist Lev Sergeyevich Termen, known in the West as Leon Theremin . After a lengthy tour of Europe, during which time he demonstrated his invention to packed houses, Theremin moved to

3591-487: Is approximately correctly stated to be 25,000 mph (11 km/s)). Simultaneously with that turn, the crew cabin rotates within the RX-M's hull, around its lateral axis , so the ship's cabin deck is always facing "down", orienting the audience. Though objects are purposely shown to float free to demonstrate a lack of gravity , none of the five crew members float, apparently unaffected by weightlessness . The RX-M's jettisoned first stage, with its engine still firing, and

3724-489: Is around 3 × 10   atm (0.3  nPa ); it varies with the lunar day. Its sources include outgassing and sputtering , a product of the bombardment of lunar soil by solar wind ions. Elements that have been detected include sodium and potassium , produced by sputtering (also found in the atmospheres of Mercury and Io ); helium-4 and neon from the solar wind; and argon-40 , radon-222 , and polonium-210 , outgassed after their creation by radioactive decay within

3857-532: Is asymmetric, being more dense near the boundary between the Moon's dayside and nightside. Ionizing radiation from cosmic rays , the Sun and the resulting neutron radiation produce radiation levels on average of 1.369 millisieverts per day during lunar daytime , which is about 2.6 times more than on the International Space Station with 0.53 millisieverts per day at about 400 km above Earth in orbit, 5–10 times more than during

3990-406: Is blind, with thick, milky cataracts on both eyes. She screams upon hearing their oxygen mask-distorted voices. The radiation burned tribesmen attack, throwing large rocks and stone axes. Armed with only a revolver and a bolt-action rifle, the explorers defend themselves, purposely missing the primitives. Major Corrigan is killed by a large rock thrown by the primitives. Moments later, Dr. Eckstrom

4123-420: Is distinguished among musical instruments in that it is played without physical contact. The thereminist stands in front of the instrument and moves their hands in the proximity of two metal antennas. While commonly called antennas, they are not used as radio antennae for receiving or broadcasting radio waves, but rather act as plates of capacitors . The distance from one antenna determines frequency (pitch), and

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4256-561: Is estimated from about 500 km (300 miles) to 1,737 km (1,079 miles). While the giant-impact theory explains many lines of evidence, some questions are still unresolved, most of which involve the Moon's composition. Models that have the Moon acquiring a significant amount of the proto-earth are more difficult to reconcile with geochemical data for the isotopes of zirconium, oxygen, silicon, and other elements. A study published in 2022, using high-resolution simulations (up to 10 particles), found that giant impacts can immediately place

4389-551: Is killed by a stone axe. Navigator Chamberlain is badly injured by a large thrown rock. Colonel Graham, Dr. Van Horn, and Chamberlain finally make their way back to the ship. [ At this point the film changes from tinted red to black and white ] As the RX-M nears Earth, the three survivors (Graham, Van Horn, with the unconscious Chamberlain) calculate that they have no fuel to make a landing. Col. Graham contacts their base and reports their dire status to Dr. Fleming, who listens intently and wordlessly over headphones. Col. Graham's report

4522-472: Is less developed than pitch technique, some thereminists have worked to extend it, especially Pamelia Kurstin with her " walking bass " technique and Rupert Chappelle. The critic Harold C. Schonberg described the sound of the theremin as "[a] cello lost in a dense fog, crying because it does not know how to get home." The first orchestral composition written for theremin was Andrei Pashchenko's Symphonic Mystery , which premiered in 1924. However, most of

4655-442: Is not heard, but Fleming's subtle reactions tells of the crew's odyssey, their discovery of a once advanced civilization destroyed long ago by atomic war, and of the crew fatalities at the hands of Martian descendants reverted to barbarism . Col. Graham and Dr. Van Horn embrace as the RX-M begins its uncontrolled descent, consoling one another in the moments left to them. Through a porthole, they bravely watch their rapid descent into

4788-440: Is on average about 1.9 km (1.2 mi) higher than that of the near side. The discovery of fault scarp cliffs suggest that the Moon has shrunk by about 90 metres (300 ft) within the past billion years. Similar shrinkage features exist on Mercury . Mare Frigoris, a basin near the north pole long assumed to be geologically dead, has cracked and shifted. Since the Moon does not have tectonic plates, its tectonic activity

4921-477: Is simply Moon , with a capital M. The noun moon is derived from Old English mōna , which (like all its Germanic cognates) stems from Proto-Germanic *mēnōn , which in turn comes from Proto-Indo-European *mēnsis 'month' (from earlier *mēnōt , genitive *mēneses ) which may be related to the verb 'measure' (of time). Occasionally, the name Luna / ˈ l uː n ə / is used in scientific writing and especially in science fiction to distinguish

5054-574: Is slow and cracks develop as it loses heat. Scientists have confirmed the presence of a cave on the Moon near the Sea of Tranquillity , not far from the 1969 Apollo 11 landing site. The cave, identified as an entry point to a collapsed lava tube, is roughly 45 meters wide and up to 80 m long. This discovery marks the first confirmed entry point to a lunar cave. The analysis was based on photos taken in 2010 by NASA's Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter . The cave's stable temperature of around 17 °C could provide

5187-476: Is the lowest point on the surface of the Moon. The highest elevations of the Moon's surface are located directly to the northeast, which might have been thickened by the oblique formation impact of the South Pole–Aitken basin. Other large impact basins such as Imbrium , Serenitatis , Crisium , Smythii , and Orientale possess regionally low elevations and elevated rims. The far side of the lunar surface

5320-433: Is the tone that is then wave shaped and amplified and sent to a loudspeaker. To control volume, the performer's other hand acts as the grounded plate of another variable capacitor. As in the tone circuit, the distance between the performer's hand and the volume control antenna determines the capacitance and hence natural resonant frequency of an LC circuit inductively coupled to another fixed LC oscillator circuit operating at

5453-554: The Rocketship X-M special effects miniature. These V-2 inserts created very noticeable continuity issues. In the 1970s the rights to Rocketship X-M were acquired by Kansas City film exhibitor, movie theater owner (and later video distributor) Wade Williams, who set about having some of RX-M ' s special effects scenes reshot in order to improve the film's overall continuity. The VHS tape, LaserDisc , and DVD releases incorporate this re-shot footage. Williams funded

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5586-651: The Solar System , it is the largest and most massive satellite in relation to its parent planet , the fifth largest and most massive moon overall, and larger and more massive than all known dwarf planets . Its surface gravity is about one sixth of Earth's, about half of that of Mars , and the second highest among all Solar System moons, after Jupiter 's moon Io . The body of the Moon is differentiated and terrestrial , with no significant hydrosphere , atmosphere , or magnetic field . It formed 4.51 billion years ago, not long after Earth's formation , out of

5719-431: The grounded plate of a variable capacitor in an L-C (inductance-capacitance) circuit , which is part of the oscillator and determines its frequency. In the simplest designs, the antenna is directly coupled to the tuned circuit of the oscillator and the 'pitch field', that is the change of note with distance, is highly nonlinear, as the capacitance change with distance is far greater near the antenna. In such systems, when

5852-539: The same side of the Moon to always face Earth. The Moon's gravitational pull—and, to a lesser extent, the Sun 's—are the main drivers of Earth's tides . In geophysical terms , the Moon is a planetary-mass object or satellite planet . Its mass is 1.2% that of the Earth, and its diameter is 3,474 km (2,159 mi), roughly one-quarter of Earth's (about as wide as the United States from coast to coast ). Within

5985-465: The violin . Small flutters of the pitch hand can be used to produce a vibrato effect. To produce distinct notes requires a pecking action with the volume hand to mute the volume while the pitch hand moves between positions. Thereminists such as Carolina Eyck use a fixed arm position per octave, and use fixed positions of the fingers to create the notes within the octave, allowing very fast transitions between adjacent notes. Although volume technique

6118-744: The Air , and The Ten Commandments . The theremin is played and identified as such in the Jerry Lewis movie The Delicate Delinquent . The theremin is prominent in the score for the 1956 short film A Short Vision , which was aired on The Ed Sullivan Show the same year that it was used by the Hungarian composer Mátyás Seiber . More recent appearances in film scores include Monster House , Ed Wood , The Machinist and The Electrical Life of Louis Wain (2021), (last three featuring Lydia Kavina ), as well as First Man (2018). A theremin

6251-511: The American rock band Phish , plays the theremin on rare occasions. His last notable performance was on 6 August 2017, the final evening of the band's 13-night residency at Madison Square Garden . When Simon and Garfunkel performed their song " The Boxer " during a concert at Madison Square Garden in December, 2003, they utilized a theremin. The original recording of the song had featured

6384-454: The Buttons and Their Satanic Majesties Request . Tesla guitarist Frank Hannon used a theremin in the band's song "Edison's Medicine" from the 1991 album Psychotic Supper . Hannon is also seen using the instrument in the song's music video at the 2:40 mark. The Lothars are a Boston-area band formed in early 1997 whose CDs have featured as many as four theremins played at once –

6517-723: The Earth Stood Still , and Justin Hurwitz 's First Man , as well as in theme songs for television shows such as the ITV drama Midsomer Murders and the Disney+ series Loki , the latter composed by Natalie Holt . The theremin is also used in concert music (especially avant-garde and 20th- and 21st-century new music ); for example, Mano Divina Giannone is a popular American thereminist who along with his orchestra, The Divine Hand Ensemble, regularly holds said concerts. It

6650-452: The Earth and the material accreted and formed the Moon just beyond the Earth's Roche limit of ~ 2.56  R 🜨 . Giant impacts are thought to have been common in the early Solar System. Computer simulations of giant impacts have produced results that are consistent with the mass of the lunar core and the angular momentum of the Earth–Moon system. These simulations show that most of

6783-520: The Earth's moon from others, while in poetry "Luna" has been used to denote personification of the Moon. Cynthia / ˈ s ɪ n θ i ə / is another poetic name, though rare, for the Moon personified as a goddess, while Selene / s ə ˈ l iː n iː / (literally 'Moon') is the Greek goddess of the Moon. The English adjective pertaining to the Moon is lunar , derived from the Latin word for

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6916-429: The Earth, due to gravitational anomalies from impact basins. Its shape is more elongated than current tidal forces can account for. This 'fossil bulge' indicates that the Moon solidified when it orbited at half its current distance to the Earth, and that it is now too cold for its shape to restore hydrostatic equilibrium at its current orbital distance. The Moon is by size and mass the fifth largest natural satellite of

7049-469: The Earth-Moon system might be explained by the post-impact mixing of the vaporized material that formed the two, although this is debated. The impact would have released enough energy to liquefy both the ejecta and the Earth's crust, forming a magma ocean. The liquefied ejecta could have then re-accreted into the Earth–Moon system. The newly formed Moon would have had its own magma ocean ; its depth

7182-530: The Earth. The newly formed Moon settled into a much closer Earth orbit than it has today. Each body therefore appeared much larger in the sky of the other, eclipses were more frequent, and tidal effects were stronger. Due to tidal acceleration , the Moon's orbit around Earth has become significantly larger, with a longer period. Following formation, the Moon has cooled and most of its atmosphere has been stripped. The lunar surface has since been shaped by large impact events and many small ones, forming

7315-584: The Martian atmosphere and lands. The next morning the crew, clad in aviation oxygen masks due to the low oxygen levels, begin exploring the desolate surface. They come across physical evidence of a now dead advanced Martian civilization : a partially buried-in-the-sand, stylized, Art Deco (or Tiki culture ) like metal face sculpture and in the distance Moderne architecture -like ruins. Their Geiger counter registers dangerous radiation levels, keeping them well away. These dangerous levels make it clear that there

7448-504: The Moon approximately 10 minutes, taking 5 minutes to rise, and 5 minutes to fall. On average, 120 kilograms of dust are present above the Moon, rising up to 100 kilometers above the surface. Dust counts made by LADEE 's Lunar Dust EXperiment (LDEX) found particle counts peaked during the Geminid , Quadrantid , Northern Taurid , and Omicron Centaurid meteor showers , when the Earth, and Moon pass through comet debris. The lunar dust cloud

7581-458: The Moon derived from the impactor, rather than the proto-Earth. However, models from 2007 and later suggest a larger fraction of the Moon derived from the proto-Earth. Other bodies of the inner Solar System such as Mars and Vesta have, according to meteorites from them, very different oxygen and tungsten isotopic compositions compared to Earth. However, Earth and the Moon have nearly identical isotopic compositions. The isotopic equalization of

7714-495: The Moon for longer than just one lunar orbit. The topography of the Moon has been measured with laser altimetry and stereo image analysis . Its most extensive topographic feature is the giant far-side South Pole–Aitken basin , some 2,240 km (1,390 mi) in diameter, the largest crater on the Moon and the second-largest confirmed impact crater in the Solar System . At 13 km (8.1 mi) deep, its floor

7847-466: The Moon formed around 50 million years after the origin of the Solar System . Historically, several formation mechanisms have been proposed, but none satisfactorily explains the features of the Earth–Moon system. A fission of the Moon from Earth's crust through centrifugal force would require too great an initial rotation rate of Earth. Gravitational capture of a pre-formed Moon depends on an unfeasibly extended atmosphere of Earth to dissipate

7980-455: The Moon is a crescent\decrescent, [REDACTED] \ [REDACTED] , for example in M ☾ 'lunar mass' (also M L ). The lunar geological periods are named after their characteristic features, from most impact craters outside the dark mare , to the mare and later craters, and finally the young, still bright and therefore readily visible craters with ray systems like Copernicus or Tycho . Isotope dating of lunar samples suggests

8113-558: The Moon's solar illumination varies much less with season than on Earth and it allows for the existence of some peaks of eternal light at the Moon's north pole , at the rim of the crater Peary . The surface is exposed to drastic temperature differences ranging from 120 °C to −171 °C depending on the solar irradiance . Because of the lack of atmosphere, temperatures of different areas vary particularly upon whether they are in sunlight or shadow, making topographical details play

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8246-403: The Moon, lūna . Selenian / s ə l iː n i ə n / is an adjective used to describe the Moon as a world, rather than as a celestial object, but its use is rare. It is derived from σελήνη selēnē , the Greek word for the Moon, and its cognate selenic was originally a rare synonym but now nearly always refers to the chemical element selenium . The element name selenium and

8379-420: The RX-M (Rocketship Expedition-Moon) on humanity's first expedition to the Moon . Halfway there, after surviving their jettisoned and runaway first stage and a meteoroid storm, their engines suddenly quit. Recalculating fuel ratios and swapping around their multiple, different fuels corrects the problem, supposedly allowing continuing to the Moon. When the engines are reignited, the RX-M careens out of control on

8512-423: The RX-M's engines. The crew ladder ends at a round pressure hatch in the middle of a bulkhead floor that leads to the crew's upper living and control compartment. Instruments and technical equipment were supplied by Allied Aircraft Company of North Hollywood. The five Mars explorers wear U.S. military surplus clothing, including overalls and aviator's leather jackets. It has been noted in other film reviews that

8645-494: The Solar System relative to their primary planets. The Moon's diameter is about 3,500 km, more than a quarter of Earth's, with the face of the Moon comparable to the width of either Mainland Australia , Europe or the Contiguous United States (which excludes Alaska , etc.). The whole surface area of the Moon is about 38 million square kilometers, comparable to North and South America combined,

8778-467: The Solar System, categorizable as one of its planetary-mass moons , making it a satellite planet under the geophysical definitions of the term . It is smaller than Mercury and considerably larger than the largest dwarf planet of the Solar System, Pluto . While the minor-planet moon Charon of the Pluto-Charon system is larger relative to Pluto, the Moon is the largest natural satellite of

8911-426: The Sun completely during a total solar eclipse . From Earth about 59% of the lunar surface is visible over time due to cyclical shifts in perspective ( libration ), making parts of the far side of the Moon visible. The Moon has been an important source of inspiration and knowledge for humans, having been crucial to cosmography , mythology, religion , art, time keeping , natural science , and spaceflight . In 1959,

9044-531: The United States, often sharing the bill with Paul Robeson . Joseph Whiteley (1894-1984) performed under the stage name Musaire and his 1930 RCA Theremin can be seen, played and heard at the Musical Museum , Brentford, England. During the 1930s, Lucie Bigelow Rosen was also taken with the theremin and together with her husband Walter Bigelow Rosen provided both financial and artistic support to

9177-618: The United States, where he patented his invention in 1928. Subsequently, Theremin granted commercial production rights to RCA . Although the RCA Thereminvox (released immediately following the Stock Market Crash of 1929 ) was not a commercial success, it fascinated audiences in America and abroad. Clara Rockmore , a well-known thereminist, toured to wide acclaim, performing a classical repertoire in concert halls around

9310-560: The Williams' re-shot replacement scene that has the five explorers heading away from a convincing RX-M effects miniature standing on a barren Martian plain. A new bridging scene, set at the end of the Mars sequence, showing the surviving explorers hurriedly returning to the RX-M, is also missing from Image's DVD. Retro Hugo Award : Rocketship X-M was nominated in 2001 for the 1951 Retro Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation , being one of

9443-427: The antenna is removed, the oscillator moves up in frequency. To partly linearise the pitch field, the antenna may be wired in series with an inductor to form a series tuned circuit , resonating with the parallel combination of the antenna's intrinsic capacitance and the capacitance of the player's hand in proximity to the antenna. This series tuned circuit is then connected in parallel with the parallel tuned circuit of

9576-413: The combined American landmass having an area (excluding all islands) of 37.7 million square kilometers. The Moon's mass is 1/81 of Earth's, being the second densest among the planetary moons, and having the second highest surface gravity , after Io , at 0.1654  g and an escape velocity of 2.38 km/s ( 8 600  km/h; 5 300  mph) . The Moon is a differentiated body that

9709-402: The complexity of two heterodyne oscillators by having a single pitch oscillator, akin to the original theremin's volume circuit. This approach is usually less stable and cannot generate the low frequencies that a heterodyne oscillator can. Better designs (e.g., Moog, Theremax) may use two pairs of heterodyne oscillators, for both pitch and volume. Important in theremin articulation is the use of

9842-476: The composition "Equatorial" for two theremin cellos and percussion in 1934. His work was a stated influence throughout the career of Frank Zappa , who also composed for theremin. Maverick composer Percy Grainger chose to use ensembles of four or six theremins (in preference to a string quartet) for his two earliest experimental Free Music compositions (1935–1937) because of the instrument's complete 'gliding' freedom of pitch. Musician Jean-Michel Jarre used

9975-433: The crust and mantle. The absence of such neutral species (atoms or molecules) as oxygen , nitrogen , carbon , hydrogen and magnesium , which are present in the regolith , is not understood. Water vapor has been detected by Chandrayaan-1 and found to vary with latitude, with a maximum at ~60–70 degrees; it is possibly generated from the sublimation of water ice in the regolith. These gases either return into

10108-480: The debris from a giant impact between Earth and a hypothesized Mars-sized body called Theia . The lunar surface is covered in lunar dust and marked by mountains , impact craters , their ejecta , ray-like streaks , rilles and, mostly on the near side of the Moon, by dark maria ("seas"), which are plains of cooled lava . These maria were formed when molten lava flowed into ancient impact basins. The Moon is, except when passing through Earth's shadow during

10241-447: The dense mare basaltic lava flows that fill those basins. The anomalies greatly influence the orbit of spacecraft about the Moon. There are some puzzles: lava flows by themselves cannot explain all of the gravitational signature, and some mascons exist that are not linked to mare volcanism. The Moon has an external magnetic field of less than 0.2 nanoteslas , or less than one hundred thousandth that of Earth . The Moon does not have

10374-514: The depressions associated with impact basins , though the Moon's largest expanse of basalt flooding, Oceanus Procellarum , does not correspond to an obvious impact basin. Different episodes of lava flows in maria can often be recognized by variations in surface albedo and distinct flow margins. As the maria formed, cooling and contraction of the basaltic lava created wrinkle ridges in some areas. These low, sinuous ridges can extend for hundreds of kilometers and often outline buried structures within

10507-550: The development and popularisation of the instrument. In 1938, Theremin left the United States, though the circumstances related to his departure are in dispute. Many accounts claim he was taken from his New York City apartment by NKVD agents (preceding the KGB ), taken back to the Soviet Union and made to work in a sharashka laboratory prison camp at Magadan, Siberia. He reappeared 30 years later. In his 2000 biography of

10640-426: The distance from the other controls amplitude (volume). Higher notes are played by moving the hand closer to the pitch antenna. Louder notes are played by moving the hand away from the volume antenna. Most frequently, the right hand controls the pitch and the left controls the volume, although some performers reverse this arrangement. Some low-cost theremins use a conventional, knob-operated volume control and have only

10773-468: The energy of the passing Moon. A co-formation of Earth and the Moon together in the primordial accretion disk does not explain the depletion of metals in the Moon. None of these hypotheses can account for the high angular momentum of the Earth–Moon system. The prevailing theory is that the Earth–Moon system formed after a giant impact of a Mars -sized body (named Theia ) with the proto-Earth . The oblique impact blasted material into orbit about

10906-422: The expansion of plasma clouds. These clouds are generated during large impacts in an ambient magnetic field. This is supported by the location of the largest crustal magnetizations situated near the antipodes of the giant impact basins. The Moon has an atmosphere so tenuous as to be nearly vacuum , with a total mass of less than 10 tonnes (9.8 long tons; 11 short tons). The surface pressure of this small mass

11039-506: The experience as leading directly to his groundbreaking synthesizer , the Moog . (Around 1955, a colleague of Moog's, electronic music pioneer Raymond Scott , purchased one of Moog's theremin subassemblies to incorporate into a new invention, the Clavivox , which was intended to be an easy-to-use keyboard theremin.) Since the release of the film Theremin: An Electronic Odyssey in 1993,

11172-399: The explorers are wearing gas masks, but gas masks would include goggles to protect the eyes. Due to the thin Martian atmosphere, the explorers are actually wearing military "Oxygen Breathing Apparatuses" (OBA) like those used by military firefighters. Various scientific curiosities and errors are seen during the film: With less than 15 minutes to go until launch, the RX-M's crew are still in

11305-1182: The exposed ones. Conversely, mare lava has obscured many impact melt sheets and pools. Impact melts are formed when intense shock pressures from collisions vaporize and melt zones around the impact site. Where still exposed, impact melt can be distinguished from mare lava by its distribution, albedo, and texture. Sinuous rilles , found in and around maria, are likely extinct lava channels or collapsed lava tubes . They typically originate from volcanic vents , meandering and sometimes branching as they progress. The largest examples, such as Schroter's Valley and Rima Hadley , are significantly longer, wider, and deeper than terrestrial lava channels, sometimes featuring bends and sharp turns that again, are uncommon on Earth. Mare volcanism has altered impact craters in various ways, including filling them to varying degrees, and raising and fracturing their floors from uplift of mare material beneath their interiors. Examples of such craters include Taruntius and Gassendi . Some craters, such as Hyginus , are of wholly volcanic origin, forming as calderas or collapse pits . Such craters are relatively rare, and tend to be smaller (typically

11438-506: The film score, which includes pages from Grofé's original hand-written score and photos related to the film production. Because production issues had delayed the release of George Pal 's high-profile Destination Moon , Rocketship X-M was quickly shot in just 18 days on a $ 94,000 budget; it was then rushed into theaters 25 days before the Pal film, while taking full advantage of Destination Moon ' s high-profile national publicity. Given

11571-540: The film's Red Planet sequence, adding the horror of an atomic war having occurred on Mars; his name does not appear in the film credits. Rocketship X-M was rushed to market to be in theaters before the more lavishly produced but delayed Destination Moon that was finally released 25 days later. A lack of both time and budget forced RX-M ' s producers to omit special effects scenes and substitute stock footage of American V-2 rocket launches and flight to complete some sequences that otherwise would have been made using

11704-621: The film's explorers, and a new, screen accurate Rocketship X-M effects miniature was built. The new replacement shots consist of the RX-M flying through space; it landing tail first on the Red Planet; a different shot of the crew heading away from the RX-M to explore the stark Martian surface; the surviving explorers quickly returning to their nearby spaceship, and the RX-M later blasting off from Mars into space. These six replacement shots were filmed near Los Angeles in color, then converted to black-and-white and re-tinted where necessary to match

11837-402: The film's master negative). A point is made in dialog that the RX-M is carrying more than "double" the amount of rocket fuel and oxygen needed to make a successful round trip and landing on the Moon; while impractical for various reasons, this detail becomes a convenient, then necessary plot device in making the later Mars story line more believable. Several scenes in Rocketship X-M involving

11970-503: The film's minimal special effects budget and limited shooting days, the surface of Mars was much easier to simulate using remote Southern California locations than creating the airless and cratered surface of the Moon. The location where the crew exits the spacecraft and begins to explore is Zabriskie Point in Death Valley National Park. The film's original 1950 theatrical release prints had all Mars scenes tinted

12103-450: The first human-made objects to leave Earth and reach another body arrived at the Moon, with the flyby of the Soviet Union 's Luna 1 and the intentional impact of Luna 2 . In 1966, the Moon became the first extraterrestrial body with a soft landing by Luna 9 and a orbital insertion by Luna 10 were achieved . On July 20, 1969, humans for the first time landed on the Moon and any extraterrestrial body, at Mare Tranquillitatis with

12236-427: The flood lavas that erupted onto the surface from partial melting in the mantle confirm the mafic mantle composition, which is more iron-rich than that of Earth. The crust is on average about 50 kilometres (31 mi) thick. The Moon is the second-densest satellite in the Solar System, after Io . However, the inner core of the Moon is small, with a radius of about 350 kilometres (220 mi) or less, around 20% of

12369-402: The free running frequency of the oscillator, and small changes in antenna capacitance have greatest effect. Under this condition, the effective inductance in the tank circuit is at its minimum and the oscillation frequency is at its maximum. The steepening rate of change of shunt impedance with hand position compensates for the reduced influence of the hand being further away. With careful tuning,

12502-471: The instrument has enjoyed a resurgence in interest and has become more widely used by contemporary musicians. Even though many theremin sounds can be approximated on many modern synthesizers, some musicians continue to appreciate the expressiveness, novelty, and uniqueness of using an actual theremin. The film itself has received positive reviews. Both theremin instruments and kits are available. The Open Theremin, an open hardware and open software project,

12635-622: The instrument in his concerts Oxygène In Moscow in 1997 and Space of Freedom in Gdańsk in 2005, providing also a short history of Leon Theremin's life. The five-piece Spaghetti Western Orchestra use a theremin as a replacement for Edda Dell'Orso's vocals in their interpretation of Ennio Morricone 's "Once Upon a Time in the West". Other notable contemporary theremin players include Pamelia Kurstin , Peter Theremin , Natasha Theremin , Katica Illényi . and Lydia Kavina , Dutch classical musician Thorwald Jørgensen has been described as "one of

12768-618: The interaction between the RX-M's sole female crew member, scientist Dr. Lisa Van Horn, her male crew, the launch site staff, and the press corps provide cultural insights into early 1950s sexist attitudes toward women. One notable scene involves Van Horn and expedition leader (and fellow scientist) Dr. Karl Eckstrom rushing to recalculate fuel mixtures after their initial propulsion problems. When they come up with different figures, expedition leader Eckstrom insists they must proceed using his numbers. Van Horn objects to this arbitrary decision, but submits, and Eckstrom forgives her for "momentarily being

12901-544: The introduction of Kevin Murphy and Frank Conniff to their long-running performance roles as Tom Servo and TV's Frank, respectively. Moon The Moon is Earth 's only natural satellite . It orbits at an average distance of 384,400 km (238,900 mi), about 30 times the diameter of Earth. Tidal forces between Earth and the Moon have synchronized the Moon's orbital period ( lunar month ) with its rotation period ( lunar day ) at 29.5 Earth days, causing

13034-609: The inventor, Theremin: Ether Music and Espionage , Albert Glinsky suggested he had fled to escape crushing personal debts, and was then caught up in Stalin's political purges. In any case, Theremin did not return to the United States until 1991. After a flurry of interest in America following the end of the Second World War , the theremin soon fell into disuse with serious musicians, mainly because newer electronic instruments were introduced that were easier to play. However,

13167-471: The lander Eagle of the United States ' Apollo 11 mission. Five more crews were sent between then and 1972, each with two men landing on the surface. The longest stay was 75 hours by the Apollo 17 crew. Since then, exploration of the Moon has continued robotically, and crewed missions are being planned to return beginning in the late 2020s. The usual English proper name for Earth's natural satellite

13300-421: The magma ocean had crystallized, lower-density plagioclase minerals could form and float into a crust atop. The final liquids to crystallize would have been initially sandwiched between the crust and mantle, with a high abundance of incompatible and heat-producing elements. Consistent with this perspective, geochemical mapping made from orbit suggests a crust of mostly anorthosite . The Moon rock samples of

13433-521: The mantle could be responsible for prolonged activities on the far side in the Orientale basin. The lighter-colored regions of the Moon are called terrae , or more commonly highlands , because they are higher than most maria. They have been radiometrically dated to having formed 4.4 billion years ago, and may represent plagioclase cumulates of the lunar magma ocean. In contrast to Earth, no major lunar mountains are believed to have formed as

13566-406: The mare. Another result of maria formation is the creation of concentric depressions along the edges, known as arcuate rilles . These features occur as the mare basalts sink inward under their own weight, causing the edges to fracture and separate. In addition to the visible maria, the Moon has mare deposits covered by ejecta from impacts. Called cryptomares, these hidden mares are likely older than

13699-427: The midst of a leisurely press conference being held at a base building. From its launch pad, the RX-M blasts straight up, and once it leaves the Earth's atmosphere, the ship makes a hard 90-degree turn to place the RX-M into Earth orbit. Its speed at an altitude of 360 miles is stated to be 3,400 mph (1.5 km/s); in fact at that height orbital velocity is 18,783 mph (8.397 km/s) (though escape velocity

13832-526: The most important exponents of classical music on the theremin". In 2019 in Kobe, Japan, the Matryomin ensemble, a group of 289 theremin players that included Natasha Theremin, Masha Theremin and Peter Theremin, the daughter, granddaughter and great-grandson of the inventor, achieved a Guinness world record as the largest ensemble of the instrument. The name Matryomin is a portmanteau by its inventor of

13965-524: The near side of the Moon, and cover 31% of the surface of the near side compared with 2% of the far side. This is likely due to a concentration of heat-producing elements under the crust on the near side, which would have caused the underlying mantle to heat up, partially melt, rise to the surface and erupt. Most of the Moon's mare basalts erupted during the Imbrian period , 3.3–3.7 billion years ago, though some being as young as 1.2 billion years and as old as 4.2 billion years. In 2006,

14098-440: The near-side. Causes of the distribution of the lunar highlands on the far side are also not well understood. Topological measurements show the near side crust is thinner than the far side. One possible scenario then is that large impacts on the near side may have made it easier for lava to flow onto the surface. The Moon is a very slightly scalene ellipsoid due to tidal stretching, with its long axis displaced 30° from facing

14231-537: The original film footage. (Unlike the DVD release, the earlier LaserdDisc of Rocketship X-M contains extra bonus material documenting the making of the film and the creation of this new footage.) The film's production and the making of these new scenes were also presented in RX-M feature articles in both Starlog magazine and later expanded in the first issue (1979) of Starlog ' s spin-off magazine CineMagic . Prints of

14364-418: The original theatrical release version of RX-M are still stored in Williams' Kansas City film vaults. They have not been converted to a home video format. Image's 50th Anniversary DVD release (2000), under license from Williams, is oddly missing two of his re-filmed Mars scenes: Lippert's original matte painting scene, which has tiny matted-in figures leaving an obviously painted RX-M, is retained instead of

14497-409: The oscillation frequency. Close to the resonant frequency of the antenna circuit, the effective inductance is small, and the effect on the oscillator is greatest; farther from it, the effective inductance is larger, and fractional change on the oscillator is reduced. When the hand is distant from the antenna, the resonant frequency of the antenna series circuit is at its highest; i.e., it is closest to

14630-493: The pitch antenna. The theremin uses the heterodyne principle to generate an audio signal. The instrument's pitch circuitry includes two radio frequency oscillators set below 500 kHz to minimize radio interference. One oscillator operates at a fixed frequency. The frequency of the other oscillator is almost identical, and is controlled by the performer's distance from the pitch control antenna. The performer's hand has significant body capacitance , and thus can be treated as

14763-432: The possibility of a much warmer lunar mantle than previously believed, at least on the near side where the deep crust is substantially warmer because of the greater concentration of radioactive elements. Evidence has been found for 2–10 million years old basaltic volcanism within the crater Lowell, inside the Orientale basin. Some combination of an initially hotter mantle and local enrichment of heat-producing elements in

14896-587: The prefix seleno- (as in selenography , the study of the physical features of the Moon) come from this Greek word. Artemis , the Greek goddess of the wilderness and the hunt, came to also be identified as the goddess of the Moon ( Selene ) and was sometimes called Cynthia , after her birthplace on Mount Cynthus . Her Roman equivalent is Diana . The names Luna, Cynthia, and Selene are reflected in technical terms for lunar orbits such as apolune , pericynthion and selenocentric . The astronomical symbol for

15029-605: The present. Lothar and the Hand People were the first rock band known to perform live with a theremin in November 1965. In fact, Lothar was the name they gave to their Moog theremin. The Beach Boys ' 1966 single " Good Vibrations "—though it does not technically contain a theremin—is the most frequently cited example of the instrument in pop music. The song actually features a similar-sounding instrument invented by Paul Tanner called an Electro-Theremin . Upon release,

15162-410: The production of new footage to replace the stock V-2 shots and a few missing scenes. All new footage was produced for Wade Williams Productions by Bob Burns III , his wife Kathy Burns, former Disney designer/artist Tom Scherman, Academy Award winner Dennis Muren , Emmy Award nominee Michael Minor , and Academy Award winner Robert Skotak. Costumes were re-made that closely replicated those worn by

15295-436: The radius of the Moon. Its composition is not well understood, but is probably metallic iron alloyed with a small amount of sulfur and nickel; analyzes of the Moon's time-variable rotation suggest that it is at least partly molten. The pressure at the lunar core is estimated to be 5 GPa (49,000 atm). On average the Moon's surface gravity is 1.62  m/s ( 0.1654  g ; 5.318  ft/s ), about half of

15428-471: The regolith because of the Moon's gravity or are lost to space, either through solar radiation pressure or, if they are ionized, by being swept away by the solar wind's magnetic field. Studies of Moon magma samples retrieved by the Apollo missions demonstrate that the Moon had once possessed a relatively thick atmosphere for a period of 70 million years between 3 and 4 billion years ago. This atmosphere, sourced from gases ejected from lunar volcanic eruptions,

15561-459: The salvation of humanity, "A new spaceship, the RX-M-2, begins construction tomorrow". The pioneering exploration continues. The evocative soundtrack was written by American composer Ferde Grofé , who used a theremin in portions of the score. This was the first use of an electronic musical instrument in a science fiction film. The theremin would later become strongly identified with the genre in

15694-478: The science fiction films eligible during calendar year 1950, exactly 50 years after the film's first release. (50 years, 75 years, or 100 years prior is the eligibility requirement governing the awarding of Retro Hugos.) The film was featured in the second-season premiere episode of the cult film-lampooning television series Mystery Science Theater 3000 . Rocketship X-M stands as an important episode in that show's history, showcasing iconic set redesigns as well as

15827-495: The sheet music was lost after its second performance. Other concert composers who have written for theremin include Bohuslav Martinů , Percy Grainger , Christian Wolff , Joseph Schillinger , Moritz Eggert , Iraida Yusupova , Jorge Antunes , Vladimir Komarov, Anis Fuleihan , and Fazıl Say . Another large-scale theremin concerto is Kalevi Aho 's Concerto for Theremin and Chamber Orchestra "Eight Seasons" (2011), written for Carolina Eyck . Edgard Varèse completed

15960-533: The single prompted an unexpected revival in theremins and increased the awareness of analog synthesizers . In response to requests by the band, Moog Music began producing its own brand of ribbon-controlled instruments which would mimic the sound of a theremin. Frank Zappa also included the theremin on the albums Freak Out! (1966) and We're Only in It for the Money (1967). Jimmy Page of Led Zeppelin used

16093-460: The surface gravity of Mars and about a sixth of Earth's. The Moon's gravitational field is not uniform. The details of the gravitational field have been measured through tracking the Doppler shift of radio signals emitted by orbiting spacecraft. The main lunar gravity features are mascons , large positive gravitational anomalies associated with some of the giant impact basins, partly caused by

16226-411: The variable pitch oscillator. With the antenna circuit disconnected, the oscillator is tuned to a frequency slightly higher than the stand alone resonant frequency of the antenna circuit. At that frequency, the antenna and its linearisation coil present an inductive impedance; and when connected, behaves as an inductor in parallel with the oscillator. Thus, connecting the antenna and linearising coil raises

16359-417: The volume control antenna. Unlike touched instruments, where simply halting play or damping a resonator in the traditional sense silences the instrument, the thereminist must "play the rests, as well as the notes", as Clara Rockmore observed. If the pitch hand is moved between notes, without first lowering the volume hand, the result is a "swooping" sound akin to a swanee whistle or a glissando played on

16492-403: The wilds of Nova Scotia . The press is later informed by a shaken Dr. Fleming that the entire crew has perished. When they ask if the mission was a failure, he confidently responds with conviction, stating that all theories about crewed spaceflight and exploration have now been proven. He continues, underscoring the point that a dire warning has been received from the crew that could very well mean

16625-446: The winter solstice in the north polar crater Hermite . This is the coldest temperature in the Solar System ever measured by a spacecraft, colder even than the surface of Pluto . Blanketed on top of the Moon's crust is a highly comminuted (broken into ever smaller particles) and impact gardened mostly gray surface layer called regolith , formed by impact processes. The finer regolith, the lunar soil of silicon dioxide glass, has

16758-574: The words matryoshka and theremin . The theremin concerto "Dancefloor With Pulsing" by the French composer Regis Campo was written for Carolina Eyck and premiered with the Brussels Philharmonic in 2018. Theremins and theremin-like sounds started to be incorporated into popular music from the end of the 1940s (with a series of Samuel Hoffman / Harry Revel collaborations) and has continued, with various degrees of popularity, to

16891-526: The years to come. During the film's post-production, Grofé's score was conducted by film and TV composer/arranger Albert Glasser . Later on, the soundtrack would have its first release in 1977 on LP (runtime 37:16) from Starlog Records (SR-1000). The album contains a bonus track not used in the film. The CD version of the soundtrack was released in 2012 and was produced by Monstrous Movie Music (MMM-1965) in an edition limited to 1000 copies. The CD's 16-page illustrated booklet contains extensive information about

17024-546: Was developed by Swiss microengineer Urz Gaudenz, using the original heterodyne oscillator architecture for a good playing experience, combined with Arduino . Using a few extra components, a MIDI interface can be added to the Open Theremin, enabling a player to use their theremin to control different instrument sounds. The theremin's singular operation method has been praised for providing an accessible route to music-making for people with disabilities. The theremin

17157-424: Was initially in hydrostatic equilibrium but has since departed from this condition. It has a geochemically distinct crust , mantle , and core . The Moon has a solid iron-rich inner core with a radius possibly as small as 240 kilometres (150 mi) and a fluid outer core primarily made of liquid iron with a radius of roughly 300 kilometres (190 mi). Around the core is a partially molten boundary layer with

17290-475: Was not used for the soundtrack of Forbidden Planet , for which Bebe and Louis Barron built disposable oscillator circuits and a ring modulator to create the electronic tonalities used in the film. Los Angeles–based thereminist Charles Richard Lester is featured on the soundtrack of Monster House and has performed the US premiere of Gavriil Popov's 1932 score for Komsomol – Patron of Electrification with

17423-490: Was not widely used in classical music performances, the instrument found great success in many motion pictures, notably, Spellbound , The Red House , The Lost Weekend (all three of which were written by Miklós Rózsa , the composer who pioneered the use of the instrument in Hollywood scores), The Spiral Staircase , Rocketship X-M , The Day the Earth Stood Still , The Thing from Another World , Castle In

17556-419: Was once an atomic war on Mars in the distant past. Finding cave refuge, the crew notice in the distance the primitive human descendants of that civilization emerging from behind boulders and creeping toward them. Amazed, Dr. Eckstrom comments "From Atomic Age to Stone Age ". Soon after leaving, two of the explorers encounter a dark-haired woman who has lost her footing and rolled down a hill toward them; she

17689-401: Was twice the thickness of that of present-day Mars . The ancient lunar atmosphere was eventually stripped away by solar winds and dissipated into space. A permanent Moon dust cloud exists around the Moon, generated by small particles from comets. Estimates are 5 tons of comet particles strike the Moon's surface every 24 hours, resulting in the ejection of dust particles. The dust stays above

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