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194-568: The term Illyrians was used to describe the inhabitants of the area as far back as the late 6th century BC by Hecataeus of Miletus . Illyria/Dalmatia stretched from the River Drin (in modern northern Albania ) to Istria ( Croatia ) and the River Sava in the north. The area roughly corresponded to modern northern Albania , Kosovo , Serbia , Slovenia , Montenegro , Bosnia and Herzegovina and coastal Croatia (Dalmatiae). Pannonia

388-525: A 'small water snake'. The Illyrian ethnonym shows a dl > ll shift via assimilation as well as the addition of the suffix - uri(o) which is found in Illyrian toponyms such as Tragurium . Eichner also points out the tribal name's close semantic correspondence to that of the Enchelei which translates to 'eel-people', depicting a similar motif of aquatic snake-like fauna. It is also pointed out that

582-642: A Celtic people mixed with the indigenous Illyrian and Thracian population. The Pannonians have not been known to the Greeks, and it seems that before the 2nd century BC they did not come into contact with the Romans. Almost all the Greek writers referred to the Pannonians with the name Paeones until late Roman times. The Scordisci and Pannonians were considered Illyrian mainly because they belonged to Illyricum since

776-423: A Roman cohort which was keeping watch, putting it to flight. However, the attack was repulsed and the next day the city surrendered. The cohort which had fled was punished by decimation . The spared men were forced to subsist on barley instead of wheat for that summer. Testimus disbanded his troops and told them to scatter. The Romans did not pursue them. Cassius Dio wrote that Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa had conducted

970-520: A Roman town, Segesta was called Siscia . It is now modern Sisak in Croatia . Cassius Dio wrote that after the fall of this city the rest of Pannonia surrendered. After this Octavian left Fufius Geminus there with a small force and returned to Rome. He set out to lead an expedition into Britain and had already reached Gaul in the winter of 34 BC when some of the newly conquered peoples in Pannonia and

1164-521: A campaign against the Dalmatians prior to this campaign. Still in 34 BC, the Romans seized the town of Sunodium at the edge of the forest in which the army of Aulus Gabinius had been entrapped by the Dalmatians in a long and deep gorge between two mountains. After Octavian had burned Sunodium the Dalmatians laid an ambush. However, he was protected by soldiers he had sent to the summits of the mountains to follow him on either side while he passed through

1358-512: A campaign against them, conquered the Breuci and won over other tribes without a battle. Bato the Daesitiate withdrew from Pannonia, occupied the passes leading to Dalmatia and ravaged Dalmatia. In Pannonia there was some brigandage. Velleius Paterculus, wrote that the harsh winter brought rewards because in the following summer all of Pannonia sought peace. The Pannonians laid down their arms at

1552-478: A compact anti-Roman block and that there may have been pro- and anti-Roman factions. Some may have surrendered peacefully and some of them may have been pro-Roman all along. The communities of the region relied on kinship relationships, rather than formal state institutions. This may have led to political competition. Being friendly to the Romans or challenging them could have involved manoeuvres by local elites to strengthen their power-base. Acquiescence or opposition to

1746-644: A conflict between the leaders of the plot murder him, Marcus Junius Brutus , and Gaius Cassius Longinus , and the Caesarians led by the Second Triumvirate which took charge of Rome. This led to the Liberator's Civil War (43–42 BC). Before this civil war Brutus and Cassius fled to the east. They had been assigned the Roman provinces of Macedonia (Greece) and Syria respectively by Caesar. However,

1940-694: A dispersal from the western Balkans towards this region, perhaps via an intermediary group in the Italian peninsula. Different versions of the genealogy of the Illyrians, their tribes and their eponymous ancestor, Illyrius , existed in the ancient world both in fictional and non-fictional Greco-Roman literature. The fact that there were many versions of the genealogical story of Illyrius was ascertained by Ancient Greek historian Appian (1st–2nd century AD). However, only two versions of all these genealogical stories are attested. The first version—which reports

2134-469: A federation. They had up to 12,000 troops led by Versus, who had seized Promona (south of modern Knin , Croatia) from the Liburnians ) and fortified it even though it was a tough mountain stronghold. Versus placed the bulk of his forces in the city and distributed the rest on the nearby hills to obstruct the Roman advance. Octavian begun to build a wall in the plain around the town and two hills held by

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2328-464: A fight and to face danger but slow witted". Illyrian rulers wore bronze torques around their necks. Apart from conflicts between Illyrians and neighbouring nations and tribes, numerous wars were recorded among Illyrian tribes too. The languages spoken by the Illyrian tribes are an extinct and poorly attested Indo-European language group, and it is not clear whether the languages belonged to

2522-414: A garrison and to assign to the Romans the highest hills while they would occupy the lower ones. When the garrison entered and ordered them to lay down their arms they shut their wives and children in their council chamber and placed guards with orders to set fire to the building if they lost the fight they decided to undertake. They attacked from the lower positions and they were routed. The guards set fire to

2716-496: A great part of Dalmatia and seized Salona (near today's Solin , near Split, Croatia ), one of the major towns in Dalmatia. Later the Roman settlement of Colonia Martia Iulia Salona was founded, probably after the Roman civil wars. In 59 BC the lex Vatinia assigned to the consul, Julius Caesar , the proconsulship of Gallia Cisalpina (in northern Italy) and Illyricum and the command of three legions based at Aquileia for

2910-639: A group of Indo-European-speaking people who inhabited the western Balkan Peninsula in ancient times. They constituted one of the three main Paleo-Balkan populations, along with the Thracians and Greeks . The territory the Illyrians inhabited came to be known as Illyria to later Greek and Roman authors, who identified a territory that corresponds to most of Albania , Montenegro , Kosovo , much of Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina , western and central Serbia and some parts of Slovenia between

3104-514: A kingdom established on the north-western borders of Upper Macedonia . From the 5th century BC onwards, the term Illyrian was already applied to a large ethnic group whose territory extended deep into the Balkan mainland. Ancient Greeks clearly considered the Illyrians as a completely distinct ethnos from both the neighboring Thracians and the Macedonians . Most scholars hold that

3298-524: A period of five years. When the proconsul of Gallia Narbonensis died, the senate also gave Caesar the proconsulship of that province and the command on a legion which was stationed there, also for five years. Caesar took on his proconsulships in 58 BC. Only Gallia Narbonensis was a province in the sense of a formal administrative unit. The other two were provinces in the sense of areas of military command which were assigned to high military commanders in areas where there were rebellions or threats of attacks. In

3492-562: A policy of scorched earth to starve the Pannonians. According to Cassius Dio, Bato the Breucian overthrew Pinnes, the king of the Breuci. He became suspicious of his subject tribes and demanded hostages from the Pannonian garrisons. Bato the Daesitiate defeated him in battle and pinned him in a stronghold. He was handed over to Bato the Daesitiate and he was executed. After this many Pannonians rose in revolt. Marcus Plautius Silvanus conducted

3686-587: A powerful fleet the Ardiaei had invaded the Greek cities of Epidamnos (modern Durrës , Albania ) Pharos ( Stari Grad , Croatia ), the island of Corfu and attacked Elis and Messenia in the Peloponnese and Phoenice in Epirus, a hub of Roman trade. Numerous attacks on Italian ships prompted Rome to intervene. The Romans freed the Greek cities and attacked the Ardiaei. Peace terms were agreed. In 220 BC

3880-404: A praetorian prefecture. It included the dioceses of Pannonia , (western Hungary, a strip of land in northern Croatia along the River Sava , and Vojvodina , in northern Serbia ), Dacia (modern western, central and northern Bulgaria , central and southern Serbia , Montenegro , northern Albania and the north part of North Macedonia ) and Macedonia (Greece). Hence, Illyricum came to cover

4074-532: A senatorial province to being an imperial province. Velleius Paterculus wrote that the Pannonian war started by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Vinicius and that Tiberius ended it. Florus mentioned a victory of Vinicius over the Pannonians living between the rivers Sava and Drava . Cassius Dio noted in two separate passages that a rebellion by the Pannonians in 14 BC was suppressed quickly, and that in late 13 BC Augustus gave Agrippa, his most important ally, supreme command and sent him to Pannonia (this suggests that

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4268-468: A separate Pannonia existed at least since the reign of Nero. However, Šašel-Kos notes that an inscription attests a governor of Illyricum under the reign of Claudius (43–51 AD) and in a military diploma published in the late 1990s, dated July 61 AD, units of auxiliaries from the Pannonian part of the province were mentioned as being stationed in Illyricum. Some other diplomas from the reign of Nero attest

4462-580: A small group of people on the coast, the Illyrioi / Illyrii (first mentioned by Pseudo-Skylax and later described by Pliny the Elder ), and thereafter applied to all of the people of the region; this has been explained by the substantial evidence of Minoan and Mycenaean contact in the valley where the Illyrioi/Illyrii presumably lived. According to the latter hypothesis the label Illyrians

4656-409: A speech he attributes to Brasidas , in which he recounts that the mode of rulership among the Illyrian tribes is that of dynasteia —which Thucidides used in reference to foreign customs—neither democratic, nor oligarchic. Brasidas then goes on to explain that in the dynasteia the ruler rose to power "by no other means than by superiority in fighting". Pseudo-Scymnus (2nd century BC) in reference to

4850-416: A steep and rugged road. The Iapydes hid in the woods and ambushed him. However, Octavian had sent contingents to occupy the ridges on both sides of the road. These descended on them and defeated them. They then abandoned the town of Terponus and fled to the thickets. Octavian seized the city, but did not burn it, hoping that they would surrender, which they did. He then advanced on Metulus (near Ogulin ), which

5044-637: A strong reputation for piracy especially common during the regency of king Agron and later queen Teuta . They used fast and maneuverable ships of types known as lembus and liburna which were subsequently used by the Ancient Macedonians and Romans. Livy described the Illyrians along with the Liburnians and Istrians as nations of savages in general noted for their piracy. Illyria appears in Greco-Roman historiography from

5238-558: A tribute and handed over hostages. They agreed and Publius Vatinius was sent to impose a light tribute and receive the hostages with three legions and a large cavalry unit. After the murder of Caesar in 44 BC and the ensuing instability in Rome, the Illyrians no longer feared Roman power. They ignored Vatinius and when he tried to use force they routed five cohorts led by Baebius, one of his lieutenants, who also died. Vatinius fled to Dyrrhachium ( Durrës , Albania). Once more Caesar did not pursue

5432-560: A tribute equivalent to half the taxes paid to the now deposed king, excluding the cities and tribe which had allied with them. In 156 BC the Dalmatae made an attack of the Illyrian subjects of Rome (this source by Appian is considered ambiguous) and refused to see Roman ambassadors. The consul Gaius Marcius Figulus undertook a campaign against them. While he was preparing his camp the Dalmatae overpowered his guards and drove him out of

5626-702: A triumph. In another passage he noted "Lucius Cotta (the other consul for that year) and Caecilius Metellus seemed to have subjugated the Segestani . He also noted that both the Iapydes and the Segestani revolted again shortly afterward. Caecilius Metellus was given the agnomen Dalmanticus, In 115 BC the consul Marcus Aemilius Scaurus , conducted operations in Gallia Cisalpina against the Ligures in

5820-458: A victory inscription in Saturnian verse , two fragments of which were found in 1906. In a passage Appian wrote that in 119 BC the consul Lucius Caecilius Metellus Dalmaticus waged war against the Dalmatae even though they had not done anything wrong because he wanted a triumph. They received him as a friend and he wintered among them at the town of Salona . He returned to Rome and was awarded

6014-439: Is Velleius Paterculus , which was incorporated into the second book of Roman History . Another ancient source about it is the biography of Octavius Augustus by Pliny the Elder . The two leaders of uprising were Bato the Breucian and Bato the Daesitiate . Geographically, the name 'Illyria' came to mean Roman Illyricum which from the 4th century to the 7th century signified the prefecture of Illyricum . It covered much of

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6208-548: Is a matter of debate among scholars, and includes the hypothesis of the origin of the Albanian language from an Illyrian language , which is often supported by scholars for obvious geographic and historical reasons but not proven. While the Illyrians are largely recorded under the ethnonyms of Illyrioi ( Ἰλλυριοί ) and Illyrii, these appear to be misspelt renditions by Greek or Latin-speaking writers. Based on historically attested forms denoting specific Illyrian tribes or

6402-475: Is a very likely scenario as the native troops would have been recruited from a wide area. A Roman force which was sent against the rebels was defeated. Bato the Breucian, the military leader of the Breuci , the largest tribe in southern Pannonia, marched on Sirmium ( Sremska Mitrovica , in today's Serbia ). He was defeated by Aulus Caecina Severus , the governor of the neighbouring Roman province of Moesia . Bato

6596-465: Is likely that these campaigns were also linked to the instability of the region. Cassius Dio noted in passim that in 39 BC Gaius Asinius Pollio suppressed a rebellion of the Parthini after a few battles. In 35 BC Octavian campaigned against the Iapydes who had carried out raids against Aquileia , plundered Tergestus ( Trieste ) and had destroyed Pola ( Pula ) in the previous year. He marched along

6790-453: Is therefore unlikely that they involved any conquests. The relations of the Romans with locals in frontier areas involved alliance treaties and treaties with client states, both of which entailed nominal independence. The breaking of these treaties was considered as a rebellion and as something which had to be suppressed. Augustus in his propagandistic writing stated that under Tiberius ’ command Rome extended her sphere to Pannonian peoples where

6984-735: Is traced to increased contacts with the Mediterranean and La Tène 'global worlds'. This catalyzed "the development of more complex political institutions and the increase in differences between individual communities". Emerging local elites selectively adopted either La Tène or Hellenistic and, later, Roman cultural templates "in order to legitimize and strengthen domination within their communities. They were competing fiercely through either alliance or conflict and resistance to Roman expansion. Thus, they established more complex political alliances, which convinced (Greco-Roman) sources to see them as 'ethnic' identities." The Roman Republic subdued

7178-452: Is uncertain if this quote can be attributed to Bato, however, due to the habit of ancient writers of creating fictitious quotes and attributing them to historical figures. The earliest writing which indicates that the province of Illyricum comprised Dalmatia and Pannonia is when Velleius Paterculus mentions Gaius Vibius Postumus was the military commander of Dalmatia in AD 9, towards the end of

7372-468: Is unlikely that they used any collective nomenclature at all. Most modern scholars are certain that all the peoples of western Balkans that were collectively labeled as 'Illyrians' were not a culturally or linguistically homogeneous entity. For instance, some tribes like the Bryges would not have been identified as Illyrian. What criteria were initially used to define this group of peoples or how and why

7566-683: The Adriatic Sea in the west, the Drava river in the north, the Morava river in the east and the Ceraunian Mountains in the south. The first account of Illyrian people dates back to the 6th century BC, in the works of the ancient Greek writer Hecataeus of Miletus . The name "Illyrians", as applied by the ancient Greeks to their northern neighbors, may have referred to a broad, ill-defined group of people. It has been suggested that

7760-433: The Adriatic Sea , he returned to Brundisium. In 45 BC Caesar was planning a war against Parthia . The Illyrians, feared punishment again (this time for routing Aulus Gabinius) because Caesar was going to cross the south of their land to reach Parthia. They sent envoys to Rome to ask Caesar for an alliance. Caesar replied that he could not make friends because of what they had done, but that he would grant pardon if they paid

7954-479: The Adriatic Sea . The Iapydes carried out raids on north-eastern Italy. There was also a problem with piracy. After these conflicts ended Octavian undertook a series of campaigns in Illyricum. Velleius Paterculus wrote that just before the Sicilian Revolt Octavian made frequent expeditions in "Illyricum and Dalmatia" in order not to keep his troops idle and to battle-harden them. However, it

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8148-504: The Adriatic Sea . The Romans came nevertheless into a series of conflicts with the Illyrians, equally known as the Illyrian Wars , beginning in 229 BC until 168 BC as the Romans defeated Gentius at Scodra . The Great Illyrian Uprising took place in the Roman province of Illyricum in the 1st century AD, in which an alliance of native peoples revolted against the Romans. The main ancient source that describes this military conflict

8342-758: The Azali were transferred from their homeland to frontier areas (northern Hungary) after the Great Illyrian Revolt. In Dacia , Illyrian communities like the Pirustae who were skilled miners were settled to the gold mines of Alburnus Maior where they formed their own communities. In Trajan 's period these population movements were likely part of a deliberate policy of resettling, while later they involved free migrations. In their new regions, they were free salaried workers. Inscriptions show that by that era many of Illyrians had acquired Roman citizenship. By

8536-711: The Breuci . In 11 BC Tiberius fought and defeated both the Dalmatians and the Pannonians. Later in the year, as already mentioned, Illyricum became an imperial province under the control of Augustus. In the winter 11/10 BC the Dacians crossed the frozen Danube and plundered the Pannonians. Some Dalmatian communities rebelled against the payment of a tribute. Tiberius, who was in Gaul, had to return to confront this. In 10 BC there were repeated uprisings in both Pannonia and Dalmatia which Tiberius suppressed. Cassius Dio referred to all of these conflicts as rebellions. Dzino argues that it

8730-596: The Dacians from what is today's Romania to the conquest of the Hungarian Plain west of the River Danube and close to Illyricum and Italy. However, Burebista stopped, returned to Transylvania and turned his attention eastwards. Caesar's attention turned to troubles in Gaul and then he embarked on his Gallic Wars (58–50 BC). After the defeat of the Belgae of northern Gaul in 57 BC Caesar thought that Gaul

8924-573: The Daunii and the Peucetii . Based on historical and archaeological data, it has been widely thought that Messapic reached Apulia through the Illyrian migrations across the Adriatic Sea. On both sides of the border region between southern Illyria and northern Epirus, the contact between the Illyrian and Greek languages produced an area of bilingualism between the two, although it is unclear how

9118-1099: The Docleatae , the Carui, the Interphrurini, the Naresii, the Glintidiones , the Taurisci , the Hippasini and the Bessi. The Moentini and the Avendeatae, two Iapyde tribes which lived on the Alps, surrendered on Octavian's approach. He took the city of the Arrepini, the largest and most warlike of the Iapydes, who had fled to the woods. He did not burn it hoping that they would surrender, which they did. He also seized

9312-425: The Enchelei had chosen to be their leaders. He eventually ruled Illyria and became the eponymous ancestor of the whole Illyrian people. In one of these versions, Illyrius was named so after Cadmus left him by a river named the Illyrian , where a serpent found and raised him. Appian writes that many mythological stories were still circulating in his time, and he chose a particular version because it seemed to be

9506-458: The Enchelei , which seems to have reached its height from the 8th–7th centuries BC, but the kingdom fell from dominant power around the 6th century BC. It seems that the weakening of the kingdom of Enchelae resulted in their assimilation and inclusion into a newly established Illyrian realm at the latest in the 5th century BC, marking the arising of the Dassaretii , who appear to have replaced

9700-573: The Marcomanni in Germania . This would have involved the legions stationed in Germania and most of the legions stationed in Illyricum. The natives were asked to provide auxiliary troops. When these forces gathered they rebelled under the leadership of Bato the Daesitiate. Cassius Dio described his force as Dalmatian, which suggests that he had men who came from various tribes of Dalmatia. This

9894-885: The Roman army . During the Crisis of the Third Century the emperors Claudius II (reigned 268–270), Quintillus (reigned 270), Aurelian (reigned 270–275) and Probus (reigned 276–282) were born in Sirmium ( Sremska Mitrovica , Serbia). They have been dubbed by historians the Pannonian emperors. Diocletian (reigned 284–305) was born in Salona ( Solin , Croatia). Constantine the Great and Constantius III (421AD ) were born in Naissus ( Niš , Serbia). His father, Constantius Chlorus ,

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10088-548: The Roman province of Asia , three and two legions respectively). They surrounded the five legions, their auxiliary troops and the Thracian cavalry and almost inflicted a fatal defeat. The Thracian cavalry was routed and the allied cavalry fled. The legions suffered casualties, but they then rallied and won the day. In Cassius Dio’ version, instead, the two Batos went to wait for the arrival of Caecina Severus. He did not mention Plautius Silvanus. They attacked him unexpectedly when he

10282-462: The Segestani , a Pannonian tribe which had been defeated by the Romans twice but were not asked for hostages and rebelled. He advanced against them through Pannonian territory which was not under the subjection of the Romans. The enemy took to the woods and ambushed the stragglers of the army. Octavian spared the fields hoping for a voluntary surrender. Since this did not happen he ravaged the country for eight days until he reached their town, Segesta, on

10476-532: The Taulantii , Parthini , Dardani , Encheleae , Autariates , Dassaretii and the Daorsi . Autareius had a son Pannonius or Paeon and these had sons Scordiscus and Triballus . Appian's genealogy was evidently composed in Roman times encompassing barbarian peoples other than Illyrians like Celts and Galatians . and choosing a specific story for his audience that included most of the peoples who dwelled in

10670-690: The Urnfield - Lusatian culture into the west Balkans has ever been found. Mathieson et al. 2018 archaeogenetic study included three samples from Dalmatia : two Early & Middle Bronze Age (1631-1521/1618-1513 calBCE) samples from Veliki Vanik (near Vrgorac ) and one Iron Age (805-761 calBCE) sample from Jazinka Cave in Krka National Park . According to ADMIXTURE analysis they had approximately 60% Early European Farmers , 33% Western Steppe Herders and 7% Western Hunter-Gatherer -related ancestry. The male individual from Veliki Vanik carried

10864-581: The Venetic language in the Italian Peninsula but this view was abandoned. Other scholars have linked them with the adjacent Thracian language supposing an intermediate convergence area or dialect continuum , but this view is also not generally supported. All these languages were likely extinct by the 5th century AD although traditionally, the Albanian language is identified as the descendant of Illyrian dialects that survived in remote areas of

11058-437: The Y-DNA haplogroup J2b2a1-L283 while his and two female individuals mtDNA haplogroup were I1a1 , W3a1 and HV0e . Freilich et al. 2021 identify the Veliki Vanik samples as related to the Cetina culture (EBA-MBA western Balkans). Patterson et al. 2022 study examined 18 samples from the Middle Bronze Age up to Early Iron Age Croatia, which was part of Illyria. Out of the nine Y-DNA samples retrieved, which coincide with

11252-447: The centum or the satem group. The Illyrians were subject to varying degrees of Celticization , Hellenization , Romanization and later Slavicization which possibly led to the extinction of their languages. In modern research, use of concepts like "Hellenization" and "Romanization" has declined as they have been criticized as simplistic notions which cannot describe the actual processes through which material development moved from

11446-403: The 10th century BC up to the 1st century AD in the region defined by the Ancient Greek and Roman historians as Illyria . It concerns the armed conflicts of the Illyrian tribes and their kingdoms in the Balkan Peninsula and the Italian Peninsula as well as their pirate activity in the Adriatic Sea within the Mediterranean Sea . The Illyrians were a notorious seafaring people with

11640-581: The 1920s placed the proto-Illyrians as the original inhabitants of a very large area which reached central Europe. These theories, which have been dismissed, were used in the politics of the era and its racialist notions of Nordicism and Aryanism . The main fact which these theories tried to address was the existence of traces of Illyrian toponymy in parts of Europe beyond the western Balkans, an issue whose origins are still unclear. The specific theories have found little archaeological corroboration, as no convincing evidence for significant migratory movements from

11834-429: The 4th century BC. Illyrians were regarded as bloodthirsty, unpredictable, turbulent, and warlike by Ancient Greeks and Romans. They were seen as savages on the edge of their world. Polybius (3rd century BC) wrote: "the Romans had freed the Greeks from the enemies of all mankind". According to the Romans, the Illyrians were tall and well-built. Herodianus writes that " Pannonians are tall and strong always ready for

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12028-544: The Adriatic Sea for the journeys from Rome to the eastern Mediterranean and vice versa. Dyrrachium also became the starting point of the Via Egnatia , the Roman road which went to Byzantium in the east, opposite Asia. There were important Roman communities in a number of towns on the central and southern part of the coast of today's Croatia, such as Iader ( Zadar ), Salona ( Solin , on the outskirts of Split ), Narona (near Metković ), and Epidaurus (Epidaurum in Latin, modern Cavtat , near Dubrovnik ). The capital Salona

12222-418: The Alps (in the north of Illyria), and seemed to have subjugated them. However, according to Livy, Sempronius Tuditanus was at first unsuccessful, "but the defeat was compensated by a victory won through the qualities of Decimus Junius Brutus (the man who had subdued Lusitania )." Tuditanus was granted a triumph. He immortalized his victories with a dedication to the river god Timavus in Aquileia which bore

12416-534: The Ancient Greeks must have learned this name from a tribe in southern Illyria, later applying it to all related and neighbouring peoples. The terms Illyrians , Illyria and Illyricum have been used throughout history for ethnic and geographic contextualizations that have changed over time. Re-contextualizations of these terms often confused ancient writers and modern scholars. Notable scholarly efforts have been dedicated to trying to analyze and explain these changes. The first known mention of Illyrians occurred in

12610-433: The Ardiaei carried out attacks on the Greek coast in the west, south and southeast. They then attacked Roman allies in southern Illyria. This led to the Second Illyrian War (219–18 BC), which Rome won. In 168 BC, during the Third Macedonian War (171–168 BC) between Rome and the Kingdom of Macedon , the Ardiaei joined the fight against the Romans, but they were quickly defeated (Third Illyrian War, 168 BC). The Romans imposed

12804-400: The Balkans during the Middle Ages but evidence "is too meager and contradictory for us to know whether the term Illyrian even referred to a single language". The ancestor dialects of the Albanian language would have survived somewhere along the boundary of Latin and Ancient Greek linguistic influence, the Jireček Line . There are various modern historians and linguists who believe that

12998-425: The Batonian War. It seems that officially the province of Illyricum comprised Upper (Superius) and Lower (Inferius) Illyricum. A transcript of an inscription of a monument honouring Publius Cornelius Dolabella at Epidaurum ( Cavtat , near Dubrovnik ) attests that Dolabella was appointed governor of Illyricum shortly before Augustus’ death and that the statue was erected by the towns of Upper Illyricum, which implies

13192-401: The Caesarians had the two provinces reassigned to Gaius Antonius (the brother of Mark Antony) and Publius Cornelius Dolabella respectively. They were Caesarians. Brutus and Cassius were given Creta et Cyrenaica instead. They were unhappy with being given this small province and prepared to invade Macedonia and Syria. However, the senate then voted to restore the two provinces to them. Brutus

13386-409: The Daesitiate marched on Salona , in Dalmatia, but was defeated by Marcus Valerius Messalla Messallinus , the governor of Illyricum. Bato then went east to join the other Bato and the two of them occupied Mount Alma (Mount Fruška Gora , Serbia , just north of Sirmium). They were defeated by a Thracian cavalry detachment of Rhoemetalces (the king of the Odrysian Kingdom in Thrace ) which supported

13580-404: The Dalmatian islands. After Philip II of Macedon defeated Bardylis (358 BC), the Grabaei under Grabos II became the strongest state in Illyria. Philip II killed 7,000 Illyrians in a great victory and annexed the territory up to Lake Ohrid . Next, Philip II reduced the Grabaei, and then went for the Ardiaei , defeated the Triballi (339 BC), and fought with Pleurias (337 BC). During

13774-442: The Dalmatians rose in revolt. Appian wrote that there was a rumour that the garrison at Segesta had been massacred and Augustus made his way back. The rumour was exaggerated. There had been an uprising and the Romans had lost many men, but the next day they suppressed the rebellion. Octavian turned on the Dalmatians instead. They had been in arms since the rout of the troops of Aulus Gabinius in 48 BC. When he marched on them they formed

13968-787: The Early Iron Age Illyrians made "part of the same Mediterranean continuum" with the "autochthonous [...] Roman Republicans " and had high affinity with Daunians , part of Iapygians in Apulia , southeastern Italy. Iron Age male samples from Daunian sites have yielded J-M241>J-L283+, R-M269>Z2103+ and I-M223 lineages. Three Bronze Age males which carry J-L283 have been found in the Late Bronze Age Nuragic civilization of Sardinia . This late find in Sardinia in comparison to western Balkan samples suggests

14162-466: The Elder and Pomponius Mela used the term Illyrii proprie dicti ('properly called Illyrians') to designate a people that was located in the coast of modern Albania and Montenegro. Many modern scholars view the 'properly called Illyrians' as a trace of the Illyrian kingdom known in the sources from the 4th century BC until 167 BC, which was ruled in Roman times by the Ardiaei and Labeatae when it

14356-538: The Enchelei in the lakeland area of Lychnidus . According to a number of modern scholars the dynasty of Bardylis —the first attested Illyrian dynasty—was Dassaretan. The weakening of the Enchelean realm was also caused by the strengthening of another Illyrian kingdom established in its vicinity—that of the Taulantii —which existed for some time along with that of the Enchelei. The Taulantii—another people among

14550-589: The Illyrian settlements and suppressed the piracy that had made the Adriatic unsafe for Roman commerce. There were three campaigns : the first against Teuta , the second against Demetrius of Pharos and the third against Gentius . The initial campaign in 229 BC marks the first time that the Roman Navy crossed the Adriatic Sea to launch an invasion. The impetus behind the emergence of larger regional groups, such as "Iapodes", "Liburnians", "Pannonians" etc.,

14744-532: The Illyrian tribes never collectively identified as "Illyrians", and that it is unlikely that they used any collective nomenclature at all. Illyrians seems to be the name of a specific Illyrian tribe who were among the first to encounter the ancient Greeks during the Bronze Age . The Greeks later applied this term Illyrians , pars pro toto , to all people with similar language and customs. In archaeological, historical and linguistic studies, research about

14938-464: The Illyrians and the eastern Celts who lived to their west, in what is now Austria . They were later Celticised following a Celtic invasion of the northern part of the region at the beginning of the 4th century BC. Some tribes in the area (the Eravisci , Scordisci Cotini , Boii , and Anartii ) were Celtic. The Pannonians also had cultural similarities with the Illyrians. Iron mining and production

15132-455: The Illyrians as a whole (e.g., Úlloí ( Ύλλοί ) and Hil(l)uri ), the native tribal name from which these renditions were based has been reconstructed by linguists such as Heiner Eichner as * Hillurio- (< older * Hullurio- ). According to Eichner, this ethnonym, translating to 'water snake', is derived from Proto-Indo-European * ud-lo ('of water, aquatic') sharing a common root with Ancient Greek üllos ( ϋλλος ) meaning 'fish' or

15326-517: The Illyrians during the 2nd century BC. An Illyrian revolt was crushed under Augustus , resulting in the division of Illyria in the provinces of Pannonia in the north and Dalmatia in the south. Depictions of the Illyrians, usually described as "barbarians" or "savages", are universally negative in Greek and Roman sources. Prior to the Roman conquest of Illyria , the Roman Republic had started expanding its power and territory across

15520-537: The Illyrians expanded. The area of the Illyrii proprie dicti is largely included in the southern Illyrian onomastic province in modern linguistics. The Illyrians emerged from the fusion of PIE-descended Yamnaya -related population movements ca. 2500 BCE in the Balkans with the pre-existing Balkan Neolithic population, initially forming "Proto-Illyrian" Bronze Age cultures in the Balkans. The proto-Illyrians during

15714-675: The Illyrians". Since the Middle Ages the term "Illyrian" has been used principally in connection with the Albanians , although it was also used to describe the western wing of the Southern Slavs up to the 19th century, being revived in particular during the Habsburg monarchy . In Byzantine literature, references to Illyria as a defined region in administrative terms end after 1204 and the term specifically began to refer only to

15908-482: The Illyrians, from the late 19th to the 21st century, has moved from Pan-Illyrian theories , which identified as Illyrian even groups north of the Balkans to more well-defined groupings based on Illyrian onomastics and material anthropology since the 1960s as newer inscriptions were found and sites excavated. There are two principal Illyrian onomastic areas: the southern and the Dalmatian-Pannonian, with

16102-640: The Illyricum of the Antonine era . However, the inclusion in his genealogy of the Enchelei and the Autariatae , whose political strength has been highly weakened, reflects a pre-Roman historical situation. Basically, ancient Greeks included in their mythological accounts all the peoples with whom they had close contacts. In Roman times, ancient Romans created more mythical or genealogical relations to include various new peoples, regardless of their large ethnic and cultural differences. Appian's genealogy lists

16296-774: The MBA-IA Velim Kosa tumuli of Liburni in Croatia (J-PH1602), and similar in LBA-IA Velika Gruda tumuli in Montenegro (J-Z2507 > J-Z1297 > J-Y21878). The oldest J-L283 (> J-Z597) sample in the study was found in MBA Shkrel , northern Albania as early as the 19th century BCE. In northern Albania, IA Çinamak, half of them men carried J-L283 (> J-Z622, J-Y21878) and the other half R-M269 (R-CTS1450, R-PF7563). The oldest sample in Çinamak dates to

16490-613: The River Sava . It was strongly protected by the river and a ditch. Octavian wanted to use it as a base for a campaign against the Dacians and the Bastarnae on the other side of the River Danube. Burebista had previously led them in an invasion across the Danube but then returned homeland ( Dacia , in today's Romania ) and campaigned to its east. Octavian must have thought that there was a danger of another invasion which would destabilise

16684-492: The River Bathinus. Bato was made a prisoner and Pinnes gave himself up. In 9 AD the war was restricted to Dalmatia. Velleius Paterculus wrote that Augustus gave the chief command of all the forces to Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. In the summer Lepidus made his way to Tiberius through areas which had not been affected by the war. He was attacked by the locals who had not been weakened by fighting. Lepidus defeated them, ravaged

16878-489: The Roman army had never been before and that Augustus extended the boundaries of Illyricum to the banks of the River Danube. However, Suetonius implied that this extension to the banks of this river occurred only after the Batonian War (see below). It is likely that in the aftermath of the Pannonian war Roman military presence in southern Pannonia increased. Dzino argues that it is likely that the local communities acted as

17072-452: The Romans could involve often unpredictable contests over political positions locally. The Batonian War (bellum batonianum in Latin) was a large scale rebellion which was led by Bato the Daesitiate and Bato the Breucian . The Romans named this war after these two leaders with the same name. It lasted four years (6–9 AD). In 6 AD the Romans were preparing to launch a second expedition against

17266-443: The Romans. The Dalmatians overran the territory of the Roman allies and drew many more tribes into the revolt. Tiberius (the future emperor), who was in charge of the Roman army marched on them. However, they avoided pitched battles and kept moving around, causing great devastation. Facing an enemy with avoided bitched battle and used guerrilla tactics, Tiberius conducted counterinsurgency operations. According to Velleius Paterculus

17460-443: The administrative arrangements of Illyricum through Pliny the Elder . The coastal area was subdivided into three regions called conventus juridicus which were named after the towns of Scardona ( Skradin ), Salona and Narona (near Metković ). The conventus Salonitanus was subdivided into 5 civitates and 927 decuriae. The conventus Naronitianus was subdivided into 13 civitates and 540 decuriae. The conventus Scardonitanus

17654-486: The affairs in the internal conflicts between aristocrats and democrats. The Taulantian kingdom seems to have reached its climax during Glaukias ' rule, in the years between 335 BC and 302 BC. The Illyrian kingdoms frequently came into conflicts with the neighbouring Ancient Macedonians , and the Illyrian pirates were also seen as significant threat to the neighbouring peoples. At the Neretva Delta , there

17848-583: The area of the Dardani as a region of overlapping between the two. A third area, to the north of them – which in ancient literature was usually identified as part of Illyria – has been connected more to the Venetic language than to Illyrian. Illyric settlement in Italy was and still is attributed to a few ancient tribes which are thought to have migrated along the Adriatic shorelines to the Italian peninsula from

18042-471: The area. Alternatively, they might have been launching raids across the river. Octavian built a fleet on the Sava to bring provisions to the Danube. When he approached the city he told the Segestani envoys that he wanted a garrison in the town and as much food as they could supply. The leaders acquiesced. The people were angry but consented to giving hostages from the notable families. When the troops came they shut

18236-633: The army into three divisions. He sent two of them to subdue areas of Dalmatia and he went in search of Bato the Daesitiate third one. Tiberius chased the fugitive Bato around the country. He finally besieged him at Adetrium, near Salona. This was on a rock and was surrounded by steep ravines. After a long siege he managed to storm the place. Bato promised to surrender if he and his followers would be pardoned. Tiberius agreed. According to Cassius Dio Tiberius asked Bato why his people had rebelled. He replied: "You Romans are to blame for this; for you send as guardians of your flocks, not dogs or shepherds, but wolves." It

18430-415: The authority of the senate, which chose their governors from its own ranks. The latter were under Augustus, who appointed their governors. Augustus held the frontier provinces, which hosted the bulk of the Roman troops. Initially Illyricum was a senatorial propraetorial province. Rebellions in the province showed the necessity of maintaining a strong force there and in 11 BC it became an imperial province under

18624-460: The beginning of this war. In January 49 BC Caesar started a civil war against the forces of the senate led by Pompey . Pompey fled to Greece to gather forces to fight the war. He controlled the Roman navy. Still, in 48 BC Caesar managed to sail his troops across the Adriatic Sea and land at Palaeste ( Palasë , southern Albania ). Marcus Octavius, one of Pompey's admirals, went to Salona ( Solin , near Split , Croatia ) with his fleet. He persuaded

18818-513: The bridges. Since his soldiers panicked, Octavian crossed the bridge together with Agrippa and Hiero, two of his lieutenants, and one of his bodyguards. The soldiers followed suit. The bridge fell under their weight. Octavian was injured in the right leg and in both arms. He had more bridges built. This determination discouraged the Metulians, who surrendered. The next day they sent messengers who offered to give fifty hostages and promised to receive

19012-534: The camp. He fled through the plain as far as the river Naro. He then hoped to catch the Dalmatae unawares as they went back home for the winter, but they had assembled because they had heard of his arrival. Still, he drove them into the city of Delminium. He could not attack this strongly fortified town. Thus he attacked other towns which were partly deserted because of the Dalmatae concentrating their forces at Delminium. He then returned to Delminium and catapulted flaming projectiles damaging and burning significant parts of

19206-588: The causes were either. The Roman sources had little interest in Illyria from the campaigns of Augustus in 35–33 BC to 16 BC. Cassius Dio wrote that in that year the governor of Illyria for 17–16 BC, Publius Silius Nerva , went to fight in the Italian Alps because there were no troops there. Taking advantage of this, some Pannonians and the Noricans entered Istria and pillaged it. Silius Nerva quickly brought

19400-474: The centres of the ancient Mediterranean to its periphery. The Messapic language is often considered either a dialect or sister language of Illyrian. However, the testimonies of Illyrian are too fragmentary to allow any conclusions. An extinct Indo-European language, Messapic was once spoken in Apulia in the southeastern Italian Peninsula by the three Iapygian tribes of the region: the Messapians ,

19594-413: The city gates and manned the walls. Augustus built a bridge over the river and besieged the town. He ambushed some Pannonians who were coming to its aid, killing some of them and putting the rest to flight. The siege lasted thirty days. Augustus only imposed a fine. He placed a garrison of twenty-five cohorts (roughly two and a half legions) and returned to Rome, intending to return in the spring. Later, as

19788-516: The coast, which had many Roman inhabitants. On his way he was attacked and routed, losing 2,000 soldiers. He went to Salona with the remnants of his force. He fell ill and died a few months later. Appian wrote that Aulus Gabinius led fifteen cohorts (which would amount to about 7,800 soldiers) and 3,000 cavalry and that, again, being busy with the civil war, Caesar did not pursue the matter further. Marcus Octavius sought to take advantage of this to seize Illyria. Cornificius asked Publius Vatinius , who

19982-487: The council chamber. Many of the women killed themselves and their children while others jumped into the fire holding their children. The city burned completely. The rest of the Iapydes surrendered and came under Roman subjection for the first time. Octavian left and the Poseni rebelled. Marcus Helvius was sent against them. He conquered them, executed the leaders of the revolt and sold the rest into slavery. Octavian marched on

20176-516: The course of their settlement towards the Adriatic coast merged with such populations of a pre-Illyrian substratum – like Enchelei might have been – leading to the formation of the historical Illyrians who were attested in later times. It has been suggested that the myth of Cadmus and Harmonia may be a reflection in mythology of the end of the pre-Illyrian era in the southern Adriatic region as well as in those regions located north of Macedonia and Epirus. Older Pan-Illyrian theories which emerged in

20370-483: The damages done to the other peoples and set a penalty. He returned to Italy and then went to Gaul. Appian wrote that while Caesar was in Gaul the Dalmatae seized Promona from the Liburnians , who appealed to Caesar. The Dalmatae refused his request to leave the city and he sent a strong detachment. However, it was routed. Caesar did not pursue the matter further because he was occupied with his civil war . This suggests that this event occurred in late 50 BC, just before

20564-463: The earliest known peoples of Illyria in the group of the first generation, consisting mostly of southern Illyrian peoples firstly encountered by the Greeks, some of which were the Enchelei , the Taulantii , the Dassaretii and the Parthini . Some peoples that came to the Balkans at a later date such as the Scordisci are listed in the group that belongs to the third generation. The Scordisci were

20758-511: The early Roman Imperial period . Depending on the complexity of the diverse physical geography of the Balkans , arable farming and livestock (mixed farming) rearing had constituted the economic basis of the Illyrians during the Iron Age . In southern Illyria organized realms were formed earlier than in other areas of this region. One of the oldest known Illyrian kingdoms is that of

20952-612: The end of the 2nd century and beginning of the 3rd century CE, Illyrian populations had been highly integrated in the Roman Empire and formed a core population of its Balkan provinces. During the crisis of the Third Century and the establishment of the Dominate , a new elite faction of Illyrians who were part of the Roman army along the Pannonian and Danubian Limes rose in Roman politics. This faction produced many emperors from

21146-409: The enemy as a cover for contingents which were heading to the highest hills through their woods. They overpowered the guards at night and at dawn Octavian attacked the city with the bulk of his army. He sent another force to reinforce the occupied heights. The enemy thought that they were attacked from all sides. Those on the hills were afraid that they would be cut off from the water supplies and fled to

21340-570: The entire empire. From the 3rd to the 6th century some of the most useful troops were recruited from Pannonia, Dalmatia, Moesia and Roman Thrace . The Roman General Stilicho attempted to bring the region under Western Roman control for this reason. Pannonia and the other areas along the River Danube , the frontier of the empire in the Balkan Peninsula , were exposed to attacks on the empire from across this river. Therefore, Pannonia

21534-498: The existence of an Upper and Lower Illyricum. However, no inscriptions attesting a Lower Illyricum have been found as yet. Dalmatia was called Upper Illyricum. Whilst the names Dalmatia and Pannonia were used in common parlance, it seems that Upper Illyricum (Dalmatia) and Lower Illyricum (Pannonia) were the official names of the two regions. The provincial governor resided in Salona in Dalmatia and governed Upper Illyricum. Lower Illyricum

21728-473: The fields, and burnt houses. He succeeded in reaching Tiberius. This campaign ended the war. Two Dalmatian tribes, the Perustae and Daesitiate, who were almost unconquerable because of their mountain strongholds, the narrow passes in which they lived and their fighting spirit, were almost exterminated. Cassius Dio wrote Germanicus conducted some operations in Dalmatia and seized several towns. Tiberius then split

21922-645: The fighting in the Battle of Dyrrachium between Caesar and Pompey in the south of the region (in July 48 BC) and due to rebellions. Cornificius defended Illyria and recovered it for Caesar. He stormed several mountain strongholds which were used for carrying out raids. When Marcus Octavius took refuge on the Illyrian coast after the Battle of Pharsalus (in Greece, where Caesar defeated Pompey in August 48 BC), Cornificius, with

22116-749: The first era of post-Yamnaya movements (EBA) and carries R-M269. Autosomally, Croatian Bronze Age samples from various sites, from Cetina valley and Bezdanjača Cave were "extremely similar in their ancestral makeup", while from Montenegro's Velika Gruda mainly had an admixture of "Anatolian Neolithic (~50%), Eastern European hunter-gatherer (~12%), and Balkan hunter-gatherer ancestry (~18%)". The oldest Balkan J-L283 samples have been found in final Early Bronze Age (ca. 1950 BCE) site of Mokrin in Serbia and about 100–150 years later in Shkrel, northern Albania. Aneli et al. 2022 based on samples from EIA Dalmatia argue that

22310-520: The foundation of Aquileia 3,000 families were settled there. In 169 BC 1,500 more families were settled there. This settlement was grown into a sizable town and three legions were stationed there because of its strategic importance for the defence of northern Italy. The fact that Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum were the areas of command initially assigned to Caesar could indicate that Caesar had an eye on Illyricum to attain military glory with which he could bolster his political clout in Rome. Burebista had led

22504-614: The geographic "Illyria": the Dauni , the Peuceti and Messapi (collectively known as Iapyges , and speaking the Messapic language ). The term "Illyrians" last appears in the historical record in the 7th century, referring to a Byzantine garrison operating within the former Roman province of Illyricum . What happened to the Illyrians after the settlement of the Slavs in the region

22698-511: The gorge. He cut down trees and captured and burned all the towns he found on his way. In 33 BC he besieged the city of Setovia . An enemy force came to its assistance, but he prevented it from entering the place. Octavian was struck by a stone on the knee and was confined for several days. He returned to Rome to take up his consulship and got Titus Statilius to continue the siege. He then went back to Dalmatia. The Dalmatians were cut off from foreign supplies and were hungry. They met Octavian while he

22892-475: The governorship of Publius Cornelius Dolabella . The administrative organisation of Illyricum was carried out late in the reign of Augustus (27 BC – 14 AD) and early in the reign of Tiberius (14–37 AD). Tiberius made initial arrangements in the last weeks of the Batonian war (see below). This work was interrupted by a mutiny of the Roman troops in 14 AD, but was then resumed. We have a fairly detailed picture of

23086-462: The help of the people of Iadera ( Zadar ( Croatia ) who were loyal to Caesar, scattered his ships and added those he captured to those of his Illyrian allies, thus assembling a small fleet. Since the many Pompeian soldiers had taken refuge in Illyricum after the mentioned battle, Caesar ordered Aulus Gabinius to go to Illyricum with his force, join Cornificius and repulse any enemy operations in

23280-522: The historical territory where Illyrians lived (including tested Iapodian and Liburnian sites), almost all belonged to the patrilineal line J2b2a1-L283 (>J-PH1602 > J-Y86930 and >J-Z1297 subclades) with the exception of one R1b-L2 . The mtDNA haplogroups fell under various subclades of H, H1, H3b, H5, J1c2, J1c3, T2a1a, T2b, T2b23, U5a1g, U8b1b1, HV0e. In a three-way admixture model, they approximately had 49-59% EEF, 35-46% Steppe and 2-10% WHG-related ancestry. In Lazaridis et al. (2022) key parts of

23474-536: The hoplites. But the Illyrians, being on higher ground, and charging down on from it upon the Aetolian trrops formed up on the plain, routed them without difficulty. The Medionians joined the action by sallying out of the town and charging the Aetolians, thus, after killing a great number, and taking a still greater number prisoners, and becoming masters also of their arms and baggage, the Illyrians, having carried out

23668-512: The impact of the one language to the other developed because of the scarcity of available archaeological material. However, this did not occur at the same level on both sides, with the Illyrians being more willing to adopt the more prestigious Greek language. Ongoing research may provide further knowledge about these contacts beyond present limited sources. Illyrians were exposed not only to Doric and Epirote Greek but also to Attic-Ionic. The Illyrian languages were once thought to be connected to

23862-618: The increasing shift of the center of imperial politics from the city of Rome itself to the eastern provinces of the empire. The term Illyrians last appears in the historical record in the 7th century AD, in the Miracula Sancti Demetrii , referring to a Byzantine garrison operating within the former Roman province of Illyricum . However, in the acts of the Second Council of Nicaea from 787, Nikephoros of Durrës signed himself as "Episcopus of Durrës, province of

24056-404: The islands of Melite (Mljet) and Melaina Corcyra ( Korčula ) and destroyed its settlements because its inhabitants practiced piracy. He executed the young men and sold the rest into slavery. He deprived the Liburnians of their ships because they practiced piracy. After his campaigns in Illyricum, Octavian fought a war against Marc Antony and Cleopatra VII of Egypt in 31/30 BC. He won and became

24250-607: The late 3rd to the 6th century CE who are collectively known as the Illyrian Emperors and include the Constantinian , Valentinianic and Justinianic dynasties. Gaius Messius Quintus Traianus Decius , a native of Sirmium , is usually recognized as the first Illyrian emperor in historiography. The rise of the Illyrian Emperors represents the rise of the role of the army in imperial politics and

24444-525: The late 6th and the early 5th century BC in fragments of Hecataeus of Miletus , the author of Genealogies ( Γενεαλογίαι ) and of Description of the Earth or Periegesis ( Περίοδος Γῆς or Περιήγησις ), where the Illyrians are described as a barbarian people. In the Macedonian history during the 6th and 5th century BC, the term Illyrian had a political meaning that was quite definite, denoting

24638-478: The legend of Cadmus and Harmonia —was recorded by Euripides and Strabo in accounts that would be presented in detail in Bibliotheca of Pseudo-Apollodorus (1st to 2nd century AD). The second version—which reports the legend of Polyphemus and Galatea —was recorded by Appian (1st–2nd century AD) in his Illyrike . According to the first version Illyrius was the son of Cadmus and Harmonia , whom

24832-402: The less urbanised interior the administration relied exclusively on the civitates . The jurisdiction of the governor of Illyricum was limited to the coastal area. The inland districts had their own governors in the form of the praefecti civitatum of the civitates . Pannonia was subdivided into 14 civitates. Again, there is no information about the decuriae. It was also a military district under

25026-405: The level ground, and with a portion of their cavalry and their light infantry they hastened to occupy some rising ground in front of their camp, which nature had made easily defensible. A single charge, however, of the Illyrians, whose numbers and close order gave them irresistible weight, served to dislodge the light-armed troops, and forced the cavalry who were on the ground with them to retire to

25220-465: The matter further. In Appian's opinion, Caesar had put off dealing with the Illyrians resolutely for fourteen years because of his Gallic Wars, his civil war and his planned war with Parthia even though he had given the command over Illyria as well as the two Gauls for ten years, and despite having wintered there. This was even regardless of the fact that at times the Illyrians plundered north-eastern Italy. The assassination of Julius Caesar in 44 BC led to

25414-482: The modern Albanian language might have descended from a southern Illyrian dialect whereas an alternative hypothesis holds that Albanian was descended from the Thracian language. Not enough is known of the ancient language to completely prove or disprove either hypothesis, see Origin of the Albanians . Pontic Steppe Caucasus East Asia Dalmatae Too Many Requests If you report this error to

25608-615: The more anciently known groups of Illyrian tribes—lived on the Adriatic coast of southern Illyria (modern Albania ), dominating at various times much of the plain between the Drin and the Aous , comprising the area around Epidamnus/Dyrrhachium . In the 7th century BC the Taulantii invoked the aid of Corcyra and Corinth in a war against the Liburni . After the defeat and expulsion from

25802-523: The more confined Albanian territory. The structure of Illyrian society during classical antiquity was characterised by a conglomeration of numerous tribes and small realms ruled by warrior elites, a situation similar to that in most other societies at that time. Thucidides in the History of the Peloponnesian War (5th century BC) addresses the social organisation of the Illyrian tribes via

25996-501: The most correct one. Appian's genealogy of tribes is not complete as he writes that other Illyrian tribes exist, which he has not included. According to Appian 's tradition, Polyphemus and Galatea gave birth to Celtus , Galas , and Illyrius , three brothers, progenitors respectively of Celts, Galatians and Illyrians. Illyrius had multiple sons: Encheleus , Autarieus , Dardanus, Maedus, Taulas and Perrhaebus , and daughters: Partho, Daortho, Dassaro and others. From these, sprang

26190-575: The mountains of Noricum ), the Taurisci (a federation of Gallic tribes which lived in today's Carniola , northern Slovenia ), the Histri (a Venetic tribe, with ties with Illyrians which lived in the Istrian peninsula), and the Iapydes (who lived east of Istrian Peninsula and inland from the Liburnians ; the latter lived on a stretch of the Adriatic coast south of the Istrian peninsula and between

26384-419: The newly arrived armies back because the army was too large to be manageable. He escorted them with his troops. He then returned to Siscia at the beginning of a very hard winter. In 8 AD the Dalmatians and the Pannonians wanted to sue for peace due to famine and disease, but they were prevented from doing so by the rebels, who had no hope of being spared by the Romans and continued to resist. Tiberius had pursued

26578-667: The north. It comprised the coastal plain, the mountains of the Dinaric Alps which stretch along the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea for 645 kilometres (401 miles) with a width of about 150 kilometres) and, in the north-west, the Istrian Peninsula. There were numerous islands off the coast, but they lacked drinking water. The mountains were cultivated towards the coast, but for the most they were barren. Lack of water and poor or arid soil made much of Illyria poor agricultural area and this gave rise to piracy. The interior of

26772-502: The order that was usual in their own country, and advanced in their several companies against the Aetolian lines. The latter were overwhelmed with astonishment at the unexpected nature and boldness of the move; but they had long been inspired with overweening self-confidence, and having full reliance on their own forces were far from being dismayed. They drew up the greater part of their hoplites and cavalry in front of their own lines on

26966-460: The orders of Agron, conveyed their baggage and the rest of their booty to their boats and immediately set sail for their own country. He was succeeded by his wife Teuta , who assumed the regency for her stepson Pinnes following Agron's death in 231 BC. In his work The Histories , Polybius (2nd century BC) reported first diplomatic contacts between the Romans and Illyrians. In the Illyrian Wars of 229 BC, 219 BC and 168 BC, Rome overran

27160-477: The past Liguria (which often rebelled), Bruttium (today's Calabria , where there was a chance of unrest) and Gallia Cisalpina (in case of rebellions or possible invasions) had been assigned as provinces in this sense. Aquileia was a Roman town in north-eastern Italy which was founded in 180/181 BC as an outpost to defend northern Italy against hostile and warlike peoples to the east: the Carni (Gauls who lived on

27354-409: The people of the island of Issa ( Vis , Croatia) to defect to him. He failed to persuade the Romans in Salona and surrounded it with five camps to besiege it. The town was short of grain and sent envoys to Caesar to ask for help. As the siege continued the inhabitants stormed the nearest camp. Then they seized the other four and killed many of the enemy. Octavius was forced to withdraw to his ships and as

27548-408: The people who had been attacked. Since the Illyrians were slow to respond, the consul Servius Fulvius Flaccus marched against them. According to Appian this was only a minor expedition. It is likely that by Roman Illyria Appian meant four coastal towns which had a large Roman population. In 129 BC the consul Gaius Sempronius Tuditanus and Tiberius Pandusa waged a war with the Iapydes who lived on

27742-405: The pillaged everywhere. Thus, in this version the rebellion seemed to have a plan and the Dalmatians and the Breuci seemed to have acted in concert from the beginning. In Cassius Dio, instead, Bato the Daesitiate initially had a few men and his success increased his forces. After his failure to take Salona he allied with the other Bato. Tiberius divided the Roman army into several divisions to evade

27936-469: The prefect of Pannonia, who was in charge of the legions stationed there. Dalmatia had considerable strategic and economic importance for the Romans. It possessed a number of important commercial ports along its coastline, and had gold -mines in Dalmatia with an imperial bureau in Salona . Dyrrachium ( Durrës , in modern Albania) and Brundisium ( Brindisi , in southern Italy) were the ports used to cross

28130-416: The problem was serious). Agrippa solved the situation through negotiations and personal influence. After Agrippa's sudden death the Breuci refused to observe the treaty they had made with him. Tiberius was given the command in Pannonia and defeated the Pannonians with the help of the Scordisci , who had been recently conquered by the Romans. Suetonius added that after this Tiberius subjugated the Dalmatians and

28324-459: The ram of the latter was smashed away. The battle was fought at close range in narrow sea. Vatinius had the better and at nightfall the remnants of the enemy fleet fled. The next day Vatinius refitted his ships and 85 captured ships and the day after that he set off for the island of Issa ( Vis , Croatia), thinking that Octavius had retreated there. When he got there the islanders surrendered and told him that Octavius had left for Sicily. Having cleared

28518-402: The rebels could reach Rome in ten days if drastic action was not taken. In 7 AD Augustus sent Germanicus to Illyricum with a force of freemen and freedmen. Some of the latter were requisitioned form their masters, who were paid a compensation. Velleius Paterculus wrote that the rebels in Pannonia who faced Tiberius were not happy with the size of their forces. They were worn down and brought to

28712-486: The rebels divided their forces into three parts. One was to invade Italy, which was not far from Nauportus (a Roman fort in today's Slovenia), one had already entered the Roman Province of Macedonia (Greece) and the third fought in their home territories. They executed their plan swiftly. They massacred Roman civilians and a sizable veteran contingent who were helpless in this remote area. They seized Macedonia and

28906-597: The region of the Liburni, the Corcyreans founded in 627 BC on the Illyrian mainland a colony called Epidamnus , thought to have been the name of a barbarian king of the region. A flourishing commercial centre emerged and the city grew rapidly. The Taulantii continued to play an important role in Illyrian history between the 5th and 4th–3rd centuries BC, and in particular, in the history of Epidamnus, both as its neighbors and as part of its population. Notably they influenced

29100-403: The region. If larger forces were needed for this, he was to go to Greece, where continued resistance was to be expected. Gabinius marched in the winter. He did not get supplies for his army because the locals were hostile and because storms in the Adriatic Sea held back supply ships. Gabinius had to storm towns and strongholds in adverse weather and suffered reverses. He had to retreat to Salona, on

29294-409: The river", the northern part, which was crossed by the river Danube ) and Noricum Mediterraneum (the southern part). The capital of the praetorian prefecture of Illyricum was Sirmium (modern Sremska Mitrovica , northern Serbia ). Under the tetrarchy it was headed by Galerius. The praetorian prefecture survived until the early 7th century. Pannonia was a very valuable source of military manpower for

29488-475: The rivers Arsia (Raša) and Titius (Krka). The Carni settled in their area around 186 BC, invaded the plain on north-eastern Italy and founded the fortified town of Akileja. The Romans forced the Carni back to the mountains. They destroyed their settlement and founded Aquileia nearby, which was named after Akileja. It was also about 6 km from where an estimated 12,000 Taurisci had tried to settle in 183 BC. For

29682-408: The same on his approach. He could not reach some tribes due to sickness. These gave no hostages and made no treaties. Appian wrote that it seemed that they were subjugated later and that Octavian subdued the whole Illyrian country, including both the tribes which had rebelled and those which had never before been under Roman rule. It is likely that Appian was referring to just Illyria/Dalmatia, rather or

29876-445: The same. Therefore, Šašel-Kos supports the notion that the province was dissolved during the reign of Vespasian (79–89 AD) In 293 AD the emperor Diocletian radically reformed the administrative structure of the Roman empire. He created the tetrarchy (rule by four). This was a co-emperorship with two senior emperors (Augusti), Diocletian and Maximian , and two junior emperors (Caesars), Constantius Chlorus and Galerius . The empire

30070-629: The second part of the 3rd century BC, a number of Illyrian tribes seem to have united to form a confederation stretching from the central part of present-day Albania up to Neretva river in Herzegovina . The political entity was financed on piracy and ruled from 250 BC by the king Agron . The Illyrian attack under Agron, against Aerolians mounted in either 232 or 231 BC, is described by Polybius: One hundred lembi with 5000 men on board sailed up to land at Medion. Dropping anchor at daybreak, they disembarked speedily and in secret. They then formed up in

30264-519: The situation under control. At the same time, there was a small rebellion in Dalmatia. The Dentheletae (a Thracian tribe in eastern Moesia ), together with the Scordisci (who lived in today's Serbia , at the confluence of the Rivers Savus [Sava], Dravus [Drava] and Danube ) attacked the Roman province of Macedonia (Greece). At the same time a civil war broke out in Thrace . Therefore, there

30458-545: The social organisation of Illyrian tribes in earlier times than the era he lived in makes a distinction between three modes of social organisation. A part of the Illyrians were organized under hereditary kingdoms, a second part was organized under chieftains who were elected but held no hereditary power and some Illyrians were organised in autonomous communities governed by their own internal tribal laws. In these communities social stratification had not yet emerged. The history of Illyrian warfare and weaponry spanned from around

30652-513: The sole ruler of Rome, instituting government reforms which made him the first Roman emperor. Illyricum became a province as a formal administrative unit in 27 BC, as part of the settlement by which the Roman senate formalised Octavian's personal rule. He received the honorary title of Augustus, and modern historians call the ensuing period the Augustan age. The settlement divided the empire into senatorial and imperial provinces. The former were under

30846-434: The southern part of Illyricum (central and southern Albania) was more fertile. Illyria was inhabited by dozens of independent tribes and tribal groupings. Most of them were labelled as Illyrians. In the north there were also Celtic tribes. The Pannonian (or Carpathian) plain in the north was more fertile. Its tribes were labelled as Pannonian. Archaeological finds and toponyms show that the Pannonians differed culturally from

31040-426: The term 'Illyrians' began to be used to describe the indigenous population of western Balkans cannot be said with certainty. Scholarly debates have been waged to find an answer to the question whether the term 'Illyrians' ( Ἰλλυριοί ) derived from some eponymous tribe, or whether it has been applied to designate the indigenous population as a general term for some other specific reason. Ancient Roman writers Pliny

31234-532: The territory of historical territory of Illyria were tested. In 18 samples from the Cetina culture, all males except for one (R-L51 > Z2118) carried Y-DNA haplogroup J-L283. Many of them could be further identified as J-L283 > Z597 (> J-Y15058 > J-Z38240 > J-PH1602). The majority of individuals carried mtDNA haplogroups J1c1 and H6a1a. The related Posušje culture yielded the same Y-DNA haplogroup (J-L283 > J-Z38240). The same J-L283 population appears in

31428-458: The territory originally designated as 'Illyrian' was roughly located in the region of the south-eastern Adriatic (modern Albania and Montenegro ) and its hinterland, then was later extended to the whole Roman Illyricum province, which stretched from the eastern Adriatic to the Danube . After the Illyrians had come to be widely known to the Greeks due to their proximity, this ethnic designation

31622-570: The town. Livy 's Periochae recorded the campaign of Gaius Marcius Figulus and noted that in the next year, 155 BC, the consul Scipio Nasica Corculum subdued the Dalmatae. In 135 BC two Illyrian tribes, the Ardiaei and the Palarii, raided Roman Illyria while the Romans were busy with the Numantine War in Hispania and the First Servile War in Sicily . The Romans sent ambassadors, but they refused to negotiate. The Romans levied an army of 10,000 infantry and 600 cavalry. The Illyrians sent ambassadors to plea for pardon. Rome asked for indemnities for

31816-422: The town. Octavian continued to build the wall, which reached a length of seven kilometres. Testimus, another Dalmatian commander, brought a relief army. Octavian drove him back to the mountains. He seized Promona before the circumvallation was finished. A small force made a sortie. The Romans repulsed it, pursued it and entered the town with it. The enemy took refuge in the citadel. On the fourth night they attacked

32010-418: The united forces of the rebels. Outposts were placed to blockade them, to prevent them from breaking through and to disrupt their supplies. The situation in Illyricum, which was next to Italy, created panic in Rome and even Augustus was fearful. Levies were held all over Italy. The veterans were recalled. Rich families were ordered to supply freedmen compulsorily in proportion to their income. Augustus warned that

32204-421: The verge of famine (presumably due to ravaging), could not withstand his offensives an avoided pitched battles. They went to the Claudian Mountains (a mountain range in Pannonia, in Varaždin County in northern Croatia ) and took a defensive position in their fortifications. The second rebel force confronted the legions which Caecina Severus and Marcus Plautius Silvanus were bringing to Illyricum (from Moesia and

32398-456: The west and against the Carni and Taurisci (two Gallic tribes which lived in today's Slovenia ) in the east. In 113 BC the consul Gnaeus Papirius Carbo was sent to face an invasion by the Cimbri (a Germanic tribe) which had entered into Illyricum and then into Noricum . He was defeated at the Battle of Noreia in Noricum. In 78–76 BC a certain Gaius Cosconius was sent into Illyricum as proconsul. He fought there for two years, reduced

32592-401: The western and central Balkans. After the defeat of the Great Illyrian Revolt and the consolidation of Roman power in the Balkans, the process of integration of Illyrians in the Roman world accelerated even further. Some Illyrian communities were organized in their pre-Roman locations under their own civitates . Others migrated or were forcefully resettled in different regions. Some groups like

32786-409: The whole of that was to become the province of Illyricum. With regard to Pannonia, some historians think that Octavian probably conquered the southern part of Pannonia and that the northern part was conquered in the Pannonian War (see below). Appian also wrote that Octavian overcame the Oxyaei, the Perthoneatae, the Bathiatae, the Taulantii , the Cambaei, the Cinambri, the Meromenni, and the Pyrissaei,

32980-498: The whole of the Balkan Peninsula , including Greece , except for the diocese of Thrace (in modern south-eastern Bulgaria, north-eastern Greece and European Turkey ). It also included Crete and the Greek islands in the north and the southwest of the Aegean Sea , and Noricum . The diocese of Pannonia was subdivided into the provinces of Pannonia Prima , Secunda , Savia and Veleria (the north, southeast, southwest and west of Pannonia respectively), Dalmatia, Noricum Ripense ("along

33174-415: The winter was approaching he sailed back to Dyrrachium ( Durrës , Albania ) to rejoin Pompey. In the summer 48 BC Caesar sent Quintus Cornificius to Illyricum as a quaestor . This region had been quiet. However, now the Romans in the local towns supported Caesar while the natives supported Pompey. Caesar wrote that the area was quite poor and could barely support an army. Moreover, it was exhausted due to

33368-433: Was a military district and a military commander was in charge of this area and its three legions and performed administrative functions as something like a deputy governor. Writing in the winter of AD 57–58, the Apostle Paul refers to Illyricum in his Letter to the Romans as the westernmost point of his missionary travels so far. The letter reflects his intention in due course to travel to Rome. The province of Illyricum

33562-452: Was a strong Hellenistic influence on the Illyrian tribe of Daors . Their capital was Daorson located in Ošanići near Stolac in Herzegovina , which became the main center of classical Illyrian culture. Daorson, during the 4th century BC, was surrounded by megalithic , 5 meter high stonewalls, composed out of large trapeze stones blocks. Daors also made unique bronze coins and sculptures. The Illyrians even conquered Greek colonies on

33756-470: Was also assigned Illyria. He arrived in Macedonia when Gaius Antonius had just arrived there to take up his propraetorship which had been assigned to him prior to the change made by the senate. His predecessor, Quintus Hortenius, joined Brutus. Vatinius marched on Dyrrachium and seized it before Brutus got there. However, the soldiers of his three legions (minus the lost cohorts), who disliked him, defected to Brutus, who then went on to engage Gaius Antonius who

33950-404: Was an important part of their economy in the pre-Roman days. The Romans fought three Illyrian wars between 229 BC and 168 BC. The First Illyrian War (229–228 BC) broke out due to concerns about attacks on the ships of Rome's Italian confederates in the Adriatic Sea by Illyrian pirates and the increased power of the Ardiaei (an Illyrian tribe in today's Montenegro and northern Albania). With

34144-601: Was at peace and went to Illyricum to visit the country and to acquaint himself with it. However, war broke out in Gaul again and he went back there. When he went to Gallia Cisalpina in 54 BC to winter there he heard that the Illyrian tribe of the Pirustae raided nearby territories. He went to Illyricum and levied troops from Illyrian peoples. The Pirustae claimed that none of the raids were due to public decisions and offered compensation. Caesar asked for hostages and said that if they were not handed over he would wage war. The Pirustae complied and Caesar appointed arbitrators to assess

34338-531: Was born in Moesia Superior. The Byzantine emperor Anastasius I (reigned 491–518) was born in Dyrrhachium ( Durrës , Albania). Justinian I (reigned 527–565) was born in Tauresium , in the province of Dardania in the Diocese of Dacia (20 kilometres [12 miles] southeast of Skopje in today's North Macedonia ). Justinian I was the last Latin emperor of this empire. From then on all the emperors were Greek. Illyrians The Illyrians ( Ancient Greek : Ἰλλυριοί , Illyrioi ; Latin : Illyrii ) were

34532-420: Was broadened to include other peoples who, for some reason, were considered by ancient writers to be related with those peoples originally designated as Illyrians ( Ἰλλυριοί , Illyrioi ). The original designation may have occurred either during the Middle/Late Bronze Age or at the beginning of the 8th century BC. According to the former hypothesis, the name was taken by traders from southern Greece from

34726-508: Was centered in the Bay of Kotor and Lake Skadar . According to other modern scholars, the term Illyrii may have originally referred only to a small ethnos in the area between Epidaurum and Lissus , and Pliny and Mela may have followed a literary tradition that dates back as early as Hecataeus of Miletus . Placed in central Albania, the Illyrii proprie dicti also might have been Rome's first contact with Illyrian peoples. In that case, it did not indicate an original area from which

34920-494: Was encamped near the Volcaean marshes. They were defeated. After this battle the Roman army was divided into detachments to overrun many parts of the country at once. The rebels withdrew to mountain fortresses from which they launched raids whenever they could. Aulus Caecina Severus and Marcus Plautius Silvanus joined Tiberius and a huge army was assembled. As mentioned, they had five legions. Tiberius also had five legions (three in Pannonia and two in Dalmatia). Tiberius decided to send

35114-404: Was eventually dissolved and replaced by two smaller provinces: Dalmatia (the southern area) and Pannonia (the northern and Danubian area). It is unclear when this happened. Kovác noted that an inscription on the base of a statue of Nero erected between 54 and 68 AD attests that it was erected by the veteran of a legion stationed in Pannonia and argues that this is the first epigraphic evidence that

35308-420: Was first used by outsiders, in particular Ancient Greeks ; this has been argued on the basis that when the Greeks began to frequent the eastern Adriatic coast with the colonization of Corcyra , they started to have some knowledge and perceptions of the indigenous peoples of western Balkans. It has been suggested that the Illyrian tribes evidently never collectively identified themselves as Illyrians and that it

35502-453: Was in Apollonia (near Fier , Albania ). He won over the troops of Antonius (his seven cohorts and a legion under his lieutenant, Lucius Piso) as well. Caesar's Civil War, the Liberators' Civil War and the resistance against the second triumvirate which Sextus Pompey (the son of Pompey the Great ) conducted from Sicily with a powerful fleet (the Sicilian Revolt , 44–36 BC) caused instability in Illyria, neighbouring north-eastern Italy and

35696-426: Was in Brundisium ( Brindisi , southern Italy), to come to his aid and informed him that Octavius was making alliances with the locals and attacking Caesarian garrisons, sometimes with his fleet and sometimes with land forces, using native troops—the Caesarians were Caesar's supporters. Vatinius asked a Caesarian lieutenant in Greece to send him a fleet, but this was taking too long. He armed some civilian ships whose size

35890-411: Was instability on the eastern Alps and in the Balkan Peninsula. In 15 BC the Romans conquered the Scordisci and annexed Noricum . They also conducted other operations further west on the Alps against the Rhaeti and Vindelici . The Roman military operations in Illyricum might have been started by Marcus Vinicius , the governor for 14–13 BC. The Pannonian war led to Illyricum being transferred from being

36084-425: Was on his way and surrendered. He demanded 700 of their children as hostages, and the standards of the Roman legions which had been taken from Aulus Gabinius when he was routed. They complied and also promised to pay the tribute which had been in arrears since the time of Julius Caesar. Octavian then moved on the Derbani, who also sued for peace, gave hostages, and promised to pay the tribute in arrears. Other tribes did

36278-468: Was poorly suited for fighting and added them to the few warships he had and left for Illyria. He did not pursue Octavius so as not to be delayed. Instead, he recovered some coastal towns which had sided with Octavius and by-passed others, proceeding as quickly as he could. In this way he managed to force Octavius to abandon his attack on Epidaurus (Epidaurum in Latin, modern Cavtat , near Dubrovnik , Croatia ) with his approach. Octavius thought that his fleet

36472-402: Was protected by two military camps at Burnum and Delminium . From 14 BC to 10 BC there was a series of rebellions in southern Pannonia and northern Dalmatia which Roman writers referred to as bellum pannomicum (the Pannonian war). We have very little information about these events. Most of it comes from brief accounts by Cassius Dio and passing references by other authors. We are not told what

36666-408: Was subdivided into 14 civitates . There is no information for its decuriae. In the more urbanised coastal area towns with large Greek-speaking populations and may inhabitants from Italy were organised as municipia (self-governing towns) or coloniae (Italian settlements) and had their own council. Some of the local communities enjoyed some privileges and some Librunian ones enjoyed Italian rights. In

36860-519: Was subdivided into four praetorian prefectures . Each was headed by one of two co-emperors or one of two Caesars (thus, a total of two co-emperors and two Caesars). Diocletian and Maximian were also in overall charge of the eastern and the western part of the empire respectively. The number of provinces was doubled and they were grouped into fifteen dioceses which were under the praetorian prefectures. The praetorian prefectures were Galliae , Italia et Africa , Oriens and Illyricum . Thus, Illyricum became

37054-410: Was superior to the small ships of Vatinius and sailed to the island of Tauris. Vatinius pursued him without knowing that he had gone to that island. While the sea was rough he was caught unawares when the fleet of Octavius appeared ready for battle and was superior in formation. Vatinius decided to try his luck and attacked first, charging Octavius' flagship with one of his warships. The crush was hard and

37248-444: Was the main town of the Iapydes. It was defended by 3,000 men who defeated the Romans who surrounded the walls. Octavian began a full siege. When its battered walls begun to crumble the Metulians built another one inside. The Romans burnt the abandoned wall and built a mound by the second one and threw four bridges on top of it. Octavian ordered some if his men to go to the back of the town to divert attention. The enemy destroyed three of

37442-413: Was the plain which lies to its north, from the mountains of Illyria/Dalmatia to the westward bend of the River Danube, and included modern Vojvodina (in modern northern Serbia ), northern Croatia and western Hungary . As the province developed, Salona (near modern Split , Croatia ) became its capital. Illyria stretched from the River Drilon ( Drin ) in modern northern Albania and the Danube in

37636-467: Was very important militarily. Pat Southern sees Illyricum as holding the empire together. In the Late Roman Empire , the armies of the praetorian prefecture of Illyricum had a commander in-chief, the magister militum per Illyricum , based at Naissus ( Niš , southern Serbia ). John Bury wrote that "The importance of Illyricum did not lie in its revenues, but in its men." The region's native peoples, renowned for their military prowess, became important for

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