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101-665: Saturn was especially celebrated during the festival of Saturnalia each December, perhaps the most famous of the Roman festivals , a time of feasting, role reversals, free speech, gift-giving and revelry. The Temple of Saturn in the Roman Forum housed the state treasury and archives ( aerarium ) of the Roman Republic and the early Roman Empire . The planet Saturn and the day of the week Saturday are both named after and were associated with him. The Roman land preserved

202-422: A suckling pig , a traditional offering to an earth deity . Saturn also had a less benevolent aspect. One of his consorts was Lua , sometimes called Lua Saturni ("Saturn's Lua") and identified with Lua Mater, "Mother Destruction", a goddess in whose honor the weapons of enemies killed in war were burned, perhaps in expiation. Saturn's chthonic nature connected him to the underworld and its ruler Dīs Pater ,

303-553: A book of bad poems by "the worst poet of all time" as a joke from a friend. Gift-giving was not confined to the day of the Sigillaria. In some households, guests and family members received gifts after the feast in which slaves had shared. Imperial sources refer to a Saturnalicius princeps ("Ruler of the Saturnalia"), who ruled as master of ceremonies for the proceedings. He was appointed by lot, and has been compared to

404-508: A cult that enjoyed great popularity until the 4th century. Besides being a popular cult it also had the character of a mystery religion and required child sacrifices. It is also considered as inclining to monotheism. In the ceremony of initiation the myste (initiate) " intrat sub iugum " ("enters beneath the yoke"), a ritual that Leglay compares to the Roman tigillum sororium . Even though their origin and theology are completely different

505-471: A form of human sacrifice. Although there is no evidence of this practice during the Republican era , the offering of gladiators led to later theorizing that the primeval Saturn had demanded human victims. Macrobius says that Dis Pater was placated with human heads and Saturn with sacrificial victims consisting of men ( virorum victimis ). The figurines that were exchanged as gifts ( sigillaria ) during

606-475: A goddess in whose honor the weapons of enemies killed in war were burned, perhaps as expiation. Versnel, however, proposed that Lua Saturni should not be identified with Lua Mater , but rather refers to "loosening"; she thus represents the liberating function of Saturn. Saturn's chthonic nature connected him to the underworld and its ruler Dis Pater , the Roman equivalent of Greek Plouton (Pluto in Latin) who

707-469: A goddess who received the bloodied weapons of enemies destroyed in war. Under Saturn's rule, humans enjoyed the spontaneous bounty of the earth without labour in the "Golden Age" described by Hesiod and Ovid . He became known as the god of time. By Saturn they seek to represent that power which maintains the cyclic course of times and seasons. This is the sense that the Greek name of that god bears, for he

808-409: A thorough interpretation of Saturn utilising Dumézil's three-functional theory of Indo-European religion, taking the ancient testimonies and the works of A. Brelich and G. Piccaluga as his basis. The main difficulty scholars encounter in studying Saturn lies in determining how much is original to his (Roman) character and how much the product of later hellenising influences. Moreover, some features of

909-410: A tradition recorded by Varro formerly known as Saturnius Mons , and a row of columns from the last rebuilding of the temple still stands. The temple was consecrated in 497 BC but the area Saturni was built by king Tullus Hostilius as confirmed by archaeological studies conducted by E. Gjerstad. It housed the state treasury ( aerarium ) throughout Roman history. The position of Saturn's festival in

1010-519: Is a feature of Greek origin it is also typical of the Varunian sovereign figure, as apparent e.g. in Odin. Once Zeus was victorious over Cronus, he sets this stone up at Delphi and constantly it is anointed with oil and strands of unwoven wool are placed on it. The stone wore a red cloak, and was brought out of the temple to take part in ritual processions and lectisternia , banquets at which images of

1111-605: Is a sovereign god. The god's strict relationship with the cults of the Capitoline Hill and in particular with Jupiter are highlighted by the legends concerning the refusal of gods Iuventas and Terminus to leave their abode in the shrines on the Capitol when the temple of Jupiter was to be built. These two deities correspond to the helper gods of the sovereign in Vedic religion (Briquel refers to Dhritarashtra and Vidura ,

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1212-429: Is called Cronus , which is the same as Chronos or Time . Saturn for his part got his name because he was "sated" with years; the story that he regularly devoured his own children is explained by the fact that time devours the courses of the seasons, and gorges itself "insatiably" on the years that are past. Saturn was enchained by Jupiter to ensure that his circuits did not get out of control, and to constrain him with

1313-407: Is common with German god Odin . Briquel remarks Servius had already seen that the choice of the Greek rite was due to the fact that the god himself is imagined and represented as veiled, thence his sacrifice cannot be carried out by a veiled man: This is an instance of the reversal of the current order of things typical of the nature of the deity as appears in its festival. Plutarch writes his figure

1414-571: Is embodied by Vedic gods Varuna and Mitra . Of the two, the first one shows the aspect of the magic, uncanny, awe inspiring power of creation and destruction, while the second shows the reassuring aspect of guarantor of the legal order in organised social life. Whereas in Jupiter these double features have coalesced, Briquel sees Saturn as showing the characters of a sovereign god of the Varunian type . His nature becomes evident in his mastership over

1515-528: Is me! Because I have sinned, the world darkens around me, and returns to formlessness and void. This is the death to which Heaven has sentenced me!" He decided to spend eight days in fasting and prayer. When he saw the winter solstice, and he saw that the day was continuously lengthening, he said, "It is the order of the world!" He went and feasted for eight days. The following year, he feasted for both. He established them in Heaven's name, but they established them in

1616-434: Is no longer thought that Balbus was a speaker in the dialogue. [REDACTED]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain :  Smith, William , ed. (1870). "Balbus, Q. Lucilius" . Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology . p. 457. This ancient Roman biographical article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This biography of

1717-508: Is pronounced either with two syllables (a short i and a long o ) or as a single syllable (with the i becoming the Latin consonantal j and pronounced yō ). It was a strongly emotive ritual exclamation or invocation, used for instance in announcing triumph or celebrating Bacchus , but also to punctuate a joke. As an observance of state religion, Saturnalia was supposed to have been held " ... quarto decimo Kalendarum Ianuariarum ", on

1818-529: Is veiled because he is the father of truth. Pliny notes that the cult statue of Saturn was filled with oil; the exact meaning of this is unclear. Its feet were bound with wool, which was removed only during the Saturnalia. The fact that the statue was filled with oil and the feet were bound with wool may relate back to the myth of "The Castration of Uranus". In this myth Rhea gives Cronus a rock to eat in Zeus's stead, thus tricking Cronus. Although mastership of knots

1919-526: Is שנאה טמונה śinʾâ ṭǝmûnâ "hidden hatred," and refers to the hatred Esau , whom the Rabbis believed had fathered Rome, harbored for Jacob . The Babylonian Talmud 's Avodah Zarah ascribes the origins of Saturnalia (and Kalends) to Adam , who saw that the days were getting shorter and thought it was punishment for his sin: When the First Man saw that the day was continuously shortening, he said, "Woe

2020-537: The Capitolium , and the first king of Latium or even the whole of Italy. At the same time, there was a tradition that Saturn had been an immigrant deity, received by Janus after he was usurped by his son Jupiter ( Zeus ) and expelled from Greece. His contradictions—a foreigner with one of Rome's oldest sanctuaries, and a god of liberation who is kept in fetters most of the year—indicate Saturn's capacity for obliterating social distinctions. Roman mythology of

2121-779: The Greco-Roman world , including the Cretan festival of Hermaia in honor of Hermes , an unnamed festival from Troezen in honor of Poseidon , the Thessalian festival of Peloria in honor of Zeus Pelorios , and an unnamed festival from Babylon . He also mentions that the custom of masters dining with their slaves was associated with the Athenian festival of Anthesteria and the Spartan festival of Hyacinthia . The Argive festival of Hybristica , though not directly related to

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2222-552: The Latin Valley , province of Frosinone . All these towns are surrounded by cyclopean walls ; their foundation is traditionally ascribed to the Pelasgians . But Saturn also had a less benevolent aspect, as indicated by the blood shed in his honor during gladiatorial munera . His consort in archaic Roman tradition was Lua , sometimes called Lua Saturni ("Saturn's Lua") and identified with Lua Mater, "Mother Destruction,"

2323-662: The Middle Ages was a time of ruckus, drinking, gambling, and overeating. The tradition of the Saturnalicius princeps was particularly influential. In medieval France and Switzerland, a boy would be elected " bishop for a day " on 28 December (the Feast of the Holy Innocents ) and would issue decrees much like the Saturnalicius princeps . The boy bishop's tenure ended during the evening vespers . This custom

2424-718: The New Year . Saturnalia underwent a major reform in 217 BC, after the Battle of Lake Trasimene , when the Romans suffered one of their most crushing defeats by Carthage during the Second Punic War . Until that time, they had celebrated the holiday according to Roman custom ( more Romano ) . It was after a consultation of the Sibylline Books that they adopted "Greek rite", introducing sacrifices carried out in

2525-534: The Roman calendar led to his association with concepts of time, especially the temporal transition of the New Year . In the Greek tradition, Kronos was sometimes conflated with Chronos , "Time," and his devouring of his children taken as an allegory for the passing of generations. As such, the Roman Saturn had similar associations. The sickle or scythe of Father Time is a remnant of the agricultural implement of Cronus-Saturn, and his aged appearance represents

2626-485: The [winter] solstice and Saturnura begins eight days before the [winter] solstice". Ḥananel b. Ḥushiel , followed by Rashi , claims: "Eight days before the solstice -- their festival was for all eight days," which slightly overstates the Saturnalia's historical six-day length, possibly to associate the holiday with Hanukkah . In the Jerusalem Talmud , Avodah Zarah claims the etymology of Saturnalia

2727-557: The epigraphically attested form Saeturnus ), nevertheless it does reflect an original feature of the god. Perhaps a more probable etymology connects the name with the Etruscan god Satre and placenames such as Satria , an ancient town of Latium, and Saturae palus , a marsh also in Latium. This root may be related to Latin phytonym satureia . (Like satus , however, satureia , Saturae palus , and probably also Satria , as indeed

2828-531: The goddess Roma appears on the obverse. The Saturnian imagery played on the tribune's name and his intent to alter the social hierarchy to his advantage, by basing his political support on the common people ( plebs ) rather than the senatorial elite. Saturnalia Saturnalia is an ancient Roman festival and holiday in honour of the god Saturn , held on 17 December of the Julian calendar and later expanded with festivities through 19 December. By

2929-491: The 1st century B.C., the celebration had been extended through 23 December, for a total of seven days of festivities. The holiday was celebrated with a sacrifice at the Temple of Saturn , in the Roman Forum , and a public banquet, followed by private gift-giving, continual partying, and a carnival atmosphere that overturned Roman social norms : gambling was permitted, and masters provided table service for their slaves as it

3030-424: The 9th century, is sometimes given as a source for a claim that, in the fourth century AD, Pope Julius I formalized that the nativity of Christ should be celebrated on 25 December. Some speculate that this is around the same time as the Saturnalia celebrations, and that part of the reason why he chose this date may have been because he was trying to create a Christian alternative to Saturnalia. Another reason for

3131-550: The Capitol and his association with Jupiter, who in the stories of the arrival of the Pelasgians in the land of the Sicels and that of the Argei orders human sacrifices to him. Briquel concludes that Saturn was a sovereign god of a time that the Romans perceived as no longer actual, that of the legendary origins of the world, before civilization. Sacrifices to Saturn were performed according to "Greek rite" ( ritus graecus ), with

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3232-519: The Empire. Saturnalia continued as a secular celebration long after it was removed from the official calendar. As William Warde Fowler notes: "[Saturnalia] has left its traces and found its parallels in great numbers of medieval and modern customs, occurring about the time of the winter solstice." The actual date of Jesus 's birth is unknown. A spurious correspondence between Cyril of Jerusalem and Pope Julius I (337–352), quoted by John of Nikiu in

3333-596: The Golden Age of Saturn's reign differed from the Greek tradition. He arrived in Italy "dethroned and fugitive", but brought agriculture and civilization and became a king. As the Augustan poet Virgil described it: "[H]e gathered together the unruly race [of fauns and nymphs ] scattered over mountain heights, and gave them laws .... Under his reign were the golden ages men tell of: in such perfect peace he ruled

3434-534: The Greek manner, the public banquet, and the continual shouts of io Saturnalia that became characteristic of the celebration. Cato the Elder (234–149 BC) remembered a time before the so-called "Greek" elements had been added to the Roman Saturnalia. It was not unusual for the Romans to offer cult ( cultus ) to the deities of other nations in the hope of redirecting their favour (see evocatio ), and

3535-446: The Greek tradition. He arrived in Italy "dethroned and fugitive," but brought agriculture and civilization for which he was rewarded by Janus with a share of the kingdom, becoming himself king. As the Augustan poet Virgil described it, "He gathered together the unruly race" of fauns and nymphs "scattered over mountain heights, and gave them laws ... . Under his reign were the golden ages men tell of: in such perfect peace he ruled

3636-606: The Italic and the African god are both sovereign and master over time and death, a fact that has permitted their association. However, the African Saturn is not directly derived from the Italic god, but rather from his Greek counterpart, Cronus. Saturn is associated with a major religious festival in the Roman calendar, Saturnalia . Saturnalia celebrated the harvest and sowing, and ran from December 17–23. During Saturnalia,

3737-487: The Latin word satis ; Saturn being an anthropomorphic representation of Time , which is filled, or satiated, by all things or all generations. Since farming is so closely linked to seasons and therefore an understanding of the cyclical passage of time, it follows that agriculture would then be associated with the deity Saturn. The temple of Saturn was located at the base of the Capitoline Hill , according to

3838-442: The Roman equivalent of Greek Plouton (Pluto in Latin) who was also a god of hidden wealth. In sources of the third century AD and later, Saturn is recorded as receiving dead gladiators as offerings ( munera ) during or near the Saturnalia. These gladiatorial events, ten days in all throughout December, were presented mainly by the quaestors and sponsored with funds from the treasury of Saturn. The practice of gladiator munera

3939-586: The Romans often adopted and reinterpreted Greek myths , iconography, and even religious practices for their own deities , but the uncovering of the priest's head may also be one of the Saturnalian reversals, the opposite of what was normal. Following the sacrifice the Roman Senate arranged a lectisternium , a ritual of Greek origin that typically involved placing a deity's image on a sumptuous couch, as if he were present and actively participating in

4040-525: The Romans perceived as severe; he was equated with the Carthaginian god Baal Hammon , to whom children were sacrificed, and to Yahweh , whose Sabbath was referred to as Saturni dies , "Saturn's day," in a poem by Tibullus , who wrote during the reign of Augustus ; eventually this gave rise to the word "Saturday" in English. The identification with Ba'al Hammon later gave rise to the African Saturn,

4141-413: The Saturnalia donned the pilleus , the conical felt cap that was the usual mark of a freedman. Slaves, who ordinarily were not entitled to wear the pilleus , wore it as well, so that everyone was "pilleated" without distinction. The participation of freeborn Roman women is implied by sources that name gifts for women, but their presence at banquets may have depended on the custom of their time; from

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4242-434: The Saturnalia may have developed as a satiric response to the new era of rule by a princeps , the title assumed by the first emperor Augustus to avoid the hated connotations of the word "king" (rex) . Art and literature under Augustus celebrated his reign as a new Golden Age, but the Saturnalia makes a mockery of a world in which law is determined by one man and the traditional social and political networks are reduced to

4343-405: The Saturnalia may have represented token substitutes. In 104 BCE, the plebeian tribune Lucius Appuleius Saturninus issued a denarius depicting Saturn driving a four-horse chariot ( quadriga ) , a vehicle associated with rulers, triumphing generals , and sun gods . Saturninus was a popularist politician who had proposed reduced-price grain distribution to the poor of Rome. The head of

4444-461: The Saturnalia, Martial names both expensive and quite cheap gifts, including writing tablets, dice, knucklebones , moneyboxes, combs, toothpicks, a hat, a hunting knife, an axe, various lamps, balls, perfumes , pipes, a pig, a sausage, a parrot , tables, cups, spoons, items of clothing, statues, masks, books, and pets. Gifts might be as costly as a slave or exotic animal, but Martial suggests that token gifts of low intrinsic value inversely measure

4545-512: The Saturnalia, Horace has a slave offer sharp criticism to his master. Everyone knew, however, that the leveling of the social hierarchy was temporary and had limits; no social norms were ultimately threatened, because the holiday would end. The toga , the characteristic garment of the male Roman citizen, was set aside in favor of the Greek synthesis , colourful "dinner clothes" otherwise considered in poor taste for daytime wear. Romans of citizen status normally went about bare-headed, but for

4646-572: The Saturnalia, involved a similar reversal of roles in which women would dress as men and men would dress as women. The ancient Roman historian Justinus credits Saturn with being a historical king of the pre-Roman inhabitants of Italy : "The first inhabitants of Italy were the Aborigines, whose king, Saturnus, is said to have been a man of such extraordinary justice, that no one was a slave in his reign, or had any private property, but all things were common to all, and undivided, as one estate for

4747-475: The Saturnalian spirit. Gambling and dice-playing, normally prohibited or at least frowned upon, were permitted for all, even slaves. Coins and nuts were the stakes . On the Calendar of Philocalus , the Saturnalia is represented by a man wearing a fur-trimmed coat next to a table with dice, and a caption reading: "Now you have license, slave, to game with your master." Rampant overeating and drunkenness became

4848-689: The Second Punic War in particular created pressures on Roman society that led to a number of religious innovations and reforms. Robert E.A. Palmer has argued that the introduction of new rites at this time was in part an effort to appease Ba'al Hammon , the Carthaginian god who was regarded as the counterpart of the Roman Saturn and Greek Cronus . The table service that masters offered their slaves thus would have extended to Carthaginian or African war captives. The statue of Saturn at his main temple normally had its feet bound in wool, which

4949-582: The Temple to Saturn in the Roman Forum in 497 BC. When Julius Caesar had the calendar reformed because it had fallen out of synchronization with the solar year , two days were added to the month, and the date of Saturnalia then changed, still falling on the 17 December, but with this now being the sixteenth day before the Kalends, as per the Roman reckoning of dates of this time. It was felt, thus, that

5050-515: The ancient hymn of the Salian priests , and his temple was the oldest known in the records of the pontiffs . Quintus Lucilius Balbus gives a separate etymology in Cicero's De Natura Deorum . In this interpretation, the agricultural aspect of Saturn would be secondary to his primary relation with time and seasons. Since 'Time consumes all things', Balbus asserts that the name Saturn comes from

5151-502: The annual time of crisis around the winter solstice, epitomised in the power of subverting normal codified social order and its rules, which is apparent in the festival of the Saturnalia , in the mastership of annual fertility and renewal, in the power of annihilation present in his paredra (= divine associate/companion deity) Lua, in the fact that he is the god of a timeless era of abundance and bounty before time, which he reinstates at

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5252-465: The apparently closely related Satricum , all also have a short a in the first syllable vs. the long ā of Sāturnus .) Another epithet, variably Sterculius , Stercutus , and Sterces , referred to his agricultural functions; this derives from stercus , "dung" or "manure", referring to re‑emergence from death to life. Farming was important to Roman identity, and Saturn was a part of archaic Roman religion and ethnic identity. His name appears in

5353-486: The bonds of the stars. — Quintus Lucilius Balbus , as quoted by Cicero According to Varro , Saturn's name was derived from satus , meaning "sowing". Even though this etymology is problematic from the viewpoint of modern linguistics (for, while historically-motivated vowel length alternations do occur in Latin roots, the long ā in Sāturnus in particular remains unexplained with this etymology, and also because of

5454-495: The circumstances: some suggest that master and slave dined together, while others indicate that the slaves feasted first, or that the masters actually served the food. The practice might have varied over time. Saturnalian license also permitted slaves to disrespect their masters without the threat of a punishment. It was a time for free speech : the Augustan poet Horace calls it "December liberty". In two satires set during

5555-621: The coming of the new year was celebrated in the later Roman Empire at the Dies Natalis Solis Invicti , the "Birthday of the Unconquerable Sun", on 25 December. The popularity of Saturnalia continued into the 3rd and 4th centuries CE, and as the Roman Empire came under Christian rule, many of its customs were recast into or at least influenced the seasonal celebrations surrounding Christmas and

5656-513: The complete license enjoyed by slaves at the Saturnalia." In Lucian 's Saturnalia it is Chronos himself who proclaims a "festive season, when 'tis lawful to be drunken, and slaves have license to revile their lords". In one of the interpretations in Macrobius's work, Saturnalia is a festival of light leading to the winter solstice , with the abundant presence of candles symbolizing the quest for knowledge and truth. The renewal of light and

5757-428: The customs associated with later celebrations in western Europe occurring in midwinter, particularly traditions associated with Christmas , the Feast of the Holy Innocents , and Epiphany . In particular, the historical western European Christmas custom of electing a " Lord of Misrule " may have its roots in Saturnalia celebrations. In Roman mythology , Saturn was an agricultural deity who was said to have reigned over

5858-422: The decision may have been because, in 274 AD, the Roman emperor Aurelian had declared 25 December the birthdate of Sol Invictus and Julius I may have thought that he could attract more converts to Christianity by allowing them to continue to celebrate on the same day. He may have also been influenced by the idea that Jesus had died on the anniversary of his conception; because Jesus died during Passover and, in

5959-499: The earlier Greek holiday of Kronia , which was celebrated during the Attic month of Hekatombaion in late midsummer. It held theological importance for some Romans, who saw it as a restoration of the ancient Golden Age , when the world was ruled by Saturn. The Neoplatonist philosopher Porphyry interpreted the freedom associated with Saturnalia as symbolizing the "freeing of souls into immortality". Saturnalia may have influenced some of

6060-514: The festivities. A public banquet followed ( convivium publicum) . The day was supposed to be a holiday from all forms of work. Schools were closed, and exercise regimens were suspended. Courts were not in session, so no justice was administered, and no declaration of war could be made. After the public rituals, observances continued at home . On 18 and 19 December, which were also holidays from public business, families conducted domestic rituals. They bathed early, and those with means sacrificed

6161-639: The figures of the Mahabharata ) and to the Cyclopes and Hecatoncheires in Hesiod . Whereas the helper gods belong to the second divine generation they become active only at the level of the third in each of the three instances of India, Greece and Rome, where they become a sort of continuation of Jupiter.) Dumézil postulated a split of the figure of the sovereign god in Indoeuropean religion, which

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6262-507: The first king of Latium or even the whole of Italy. At the same time, there was a tradition that Saturn had been an immigrant god, received by Janus after he was usurped by his son Jupiter and expelled from Greece. In Versnel's view his contradictions – a foreigner with one of Rome's oldest sanctuaries, and a god of liberation who is kept in fetters most of the year – indicate Saturn's capacity for confounding social distinctions. The Golden Age of Saturn's reign in Roman mythology differed from

6363-455: The fourteenth day before the Kalends of the pre-Julian, twenty-nine day December, on the oldest Roman religious calendar , which the Romans believed to have been established by the legendary founder Romulus and his successor Numa Pompilius . It was a dies festus , a legal holiday when no public business could be conducted. The day marked the dedication anniversary ( dies natalis ) of

6464-438: The games of my people and they don't hinder my work or studies." The Sigillaria on 19 December was a day of gift-giving. Because gifts of value would mark social status contrary to the spirit of the season, these were often the pottery or wax figurines called sigillaria made specially for the day, candles, or " gag gifts ", of which Augustus was particularly fond. Children received toys as gifts. In his many poems about

6565-526: The god may be common to Cronus but are nonetheless very ancient and can be considered proper to the Roman god, whereas others are certainly later and arrived after 217 BCE, the year in which the Greek customs of the Kronia were introduced into the Saturnalia. Among the features which are definitely authentic of the Roman god, Briquel identifies: These three elements in Briquel's view indicate that Saturn

6666-426: The gods were arranged as guests on couches. All these ceremonial details identify a sovereign figure. Little evidence exists in Italy for the cult of Saturn outside Rome, but his name resembles that of the Etruscan god Satres . The potential cruelty of Saturn was enhanced by his identification with Cronus , known for devouring his own children. He was thus used in translation when referring to gods from other cultures

6767-411: The head uncovered, in contrast to those of other major Roman deities, which were performed capite velato , "with the head covered." Saturn himself, however, was represented as veiled ( involutus ), as for example in a wall painting from Pompeii that shows him holding a sickle and covered with a white veil. This feature is in complete accord with the character of a sovereign god of the Varunian type and

6868-440: The high quality of a friendship. Patrons or "bosses" might pass along a gratuity (sigillaricium) to their poorer clients or dependents to help them buy gifts. Some emperors were noted for their devoted observance of the Sigillaria. In a practice that might be compared to modern greeting cards , verses sometimes accompanied the gifts. Martial has a collection of poems written as if to be attached to gifts. Catullus received

6969-512: The late Republic onward, women mingled socially with men more freely than they had in earlier times. Female entertainers were certainly present at some otherwise all-male gatherings. Role-playing was implicit in the Saturnalia's status reversals, and there are hints of mask-wearing or " guising ". No theatrical events are mentioned in connection with the festivities, but the classicist Erich Segal saw Roman comedy , with its cast of impudent, free-wheeling slaves and libertine seniors, as imbued with

7070-559: The light of life. The figurines that were exchanged as gifts ( sigillaria ) may also have represented token substitutes. "Meanwhile, the head of the slave household, whose responsibility it was to offer sacrifice to the Penates , to manage the provisions and to direct the activities of the domestic servants, came to tell his master that the household had feasted according to the annual ritual custom. For at this festival, in houses that keep to proper religious usage, they first of all honor

7171-415: The medieval Lord of Misrule at the Feast of Fools . His capricious commands, such as "Sing naked!" or "Throw him into cold water!", had to be obeyed by the other guests at the convivium : he creates and (mis)rules a chaotic and absurd world. The future emperor Nero is recorded as playing the role in his youth. Since this figure does not appear in accounts from the Republican period , the princeps of

7272-554: The name of idolatry. In the Babylonian Avodah Zarah , this etiology is attributed to the tannaim , but the story is suspiciously similar to the etiology of Kalends attributed by the Jerusalem Avodah Zarah to Abba Arikha . Unlike several Roman religious festivals which were particular to cult sites in the city, the prolonged seasonal celebration of Saturnalia at home could be held anywhere in

7373-417: The nations." The third century Neoplatonic philosopher Porphyry took an allegorical view of the Saturnalia. He saw the festival's theme of liberation and dissolution as representing the "freeing of souls into immortality"—an interpretation that Mithraists may also have followed, since they included many slaves and freedmen. According to Porphyry, the Saturnalia occurred near the winter solstice because

7474-406: The nations." He was considered the ancestor of the Latin nation as he fathered Picus , the first king of Latium, who married Janus's daughter Canens and in his turn fathered Faunus . Saturn was also said to have founded the five Saturnian towns of Latium: Aletrium (today Alatri ), Anagnia ( Anagni ), Arpinum ( Arpino ), Atina and Ferentinum ( Ferentino , also known as Antinum) all located in

7575-457: The original day had thus been moved by two days, and so Saturnalia was celebrated under Augustus as a three-day official holiday encompassing both dates. By the late Republic , the private festivities of Saturnalia had expanded to seven days, but during the Imperial period contracted variously to three to five days. Caligula extended official observances to five. The date 17 December

7676-430: The plan of our conduct; whether we should eve in our usual way, or, to avoid singularity, both take a better supper and throw off the toga." Some Romans found it all a bit much. Pliny describes a secluded suite of rooms in his Laurentine villa , which he used as a retreat: "... especially during the Saturnalia when the rest of the house is noisy with the licence of the holiday and festive cries. This way I don't hamper

7777-425: The power of the emperor over his subjects. In a poem about a lavish Saturnalia under Domitian , Statius makes it clear that the emperor, like Jupiter , still reigns during the temporary return of Saturn. The phrase io Saturnalia was the characteristic shout or salutation of the festival, originally commencing after the public banquet on the single day of 17 December. The interjection io (Greek ἰώ , ǐō )

7878-493: The remembrance of a very remote time during which Saturn and Janus reigned on the site of the city before its foundation: the Capitol was called mons Saturnius . The Romans identified Saturn with the Greek Cronus , whose myths were adapted for Latin literature and Roman art . In particular, Cronus's role in the genealogy of the Greek gods was transferred to Saturn. As early as Andronicus (3rd century BC), Jupiter

7979-498: The rule, and a sober person the exception. Seneca looked forward to the holiday, if somewhat tentatively, in a letter to a friend: "It is now the month of December, when the greatest part of the city is in a bustle. Loose reins are given to public dissipation; everywhere you may hear the sound of great preparations, as if there were some real difference between the days devoted to Saturn and those for transacting business. ... Were you here, I would willingly confer with you as to

8080-459: The slaves with a dinner prepared as if for the master; and only afterwards is the table set again for the head of the household. So, then, the chief slave came in to announce the time of dinner and to summon the masters to the table." Macrobius , Saturnalia 1.24.22–23 Saturnalia was characterized by role reversals and behavioral license. Slaves were treated to a banquet of the kind usually enjoyed by their masters. Ancient sources differ on

8181-420: The social restrictions of Rome were relaxed. The figure of Saturn, kept during the year with its legs bound in wool, was released from its bindings for the period of the festival. The revelries of Saturnalia were supposed to reflect the conditions of the lost "Golden Age" before the rule of Saturn was overthrown, not all of them desirable, except as a temporary relief from civilized constraint. The Greek equivalent

8282-448: The solstice". The Saturnalia reflects the contradictory nature of the deity Saturn himself: "There are joyful and utopian aspects of careless well-being side by side with disquieting elements of threat and danger." As a deity of agricultural bounty, Saturn embodied prosperity and wealth in general. The name of his consort Ops meant "wealth, resources". Her festival, Opalia , was celebrated on 19 December. The Temple of Saturn housed

8383-458: The state treasury ( aerarium Saturni ) and was the administrative headquarters of the quaestors , the public officials whose duties included oversight of the mint . It was among the oldest cult sites in Rome, and had been the location of "a very ancient" altar ( ara ) even before the building of the first temple in 497 BC. The Romans regarded Saturn as the original and autochthonous ruler of

8484-679: The sun enters Capricorn , the astrological house of Saturn, at that time. In the Saturnalia of Macrobius , the proximity of the Saturnalia to the winter solstice leads to an exposition of solar monotheism , the belief that the Sun (see Sol Invictus ) ultimately encompasses all divinities as one. M. Avodah Zarah lists Saturnalia as a "festival of the gentiles," along with the Kalents of January and Kratesis . B. Avodah Zarah records that Ḥanan b. Rava said, "Kalends begins eight days after

8585-430: The third century AD, Passover was celebrated on 25 March, he may have assumed that Jesus's birthday must have come nine months later, on 25 December. But in fact the correspondence is spurious. As a result of the close proximity of dates, many Christians in western Europe continued to celebrate traditional Saturnalia customs in association with Christmas and the surrounding holidays. Like Saturnalia, Christmas during

8686-589: The time of the yearly crisis of the winter solstice. In Roman and Etruscan reckoning Saturn is a wielder of lightning; no other agricultural god (in the sense of specialized human activity) is one. Hence the mastership he has on agriculture and wealth cannot be that of a god of the third function, i.e. of production, wealth, and pleasure, but it stems from his magical lordship over creation and destruction. Although these features are to be found in Greek god Cronus as well, it appears that those features were proper to Roman Saturn's most ancient aspects, such as his presence on

8787-483: The time of their legendary origins. Macrobius states explicitly that the Roman legend of Janus and Saturn is an affabulation, as the true meaning of religious beliefs cannot be openly expressed. In the myth Saturn was the original and autochthonous ruler of the Capitolium , which had thus been called the Mons Saturnius in older times and on which once stood the town of Saturnia .  He was sometimes regarded as

8888-472: The use of every one; in memory of which way of life, it has been ordered that at the Saturnalia slaves should everywhere sit down with their masters at the entertainments, the rank of all being made equal." Although probably the best-known Roman holiday, Saturnalia as a whole is not described from beginning to end in any single ancient source. Modern understanding of the festival is pieced together from several accounts dealing with various aspects. The Saturnalia

8989-404: The visit of Hercules to Italy , the civilizing demigod insisted that the practice be halted and the ritual reinterpreted. Instead of heads to Dīs Pater, the Romans were to offer effigies or masks ( oscilla ) ; a mask appears in the representation of Saturnalia in the Calendar of Filocalus . Since the Greek word phota meant both 'man' and 'lights', candles were a substitute offering to Saturn for

9090-494: The waning of the old year with the birth of the new, in antiquity sometimes embodied by Aion . In late antiquity , Saturn is syncretized with a number of deities, and begins to be depicted as winged, as is Kairos , "Timing, Right Time". The figure of Saturn is one of the most complex in Roman religion. Dumézil refrained from discussing Saturn in his work on Roman religion on the grounds of insufficient knowledge. Conversely, however, his follower Dominique Briquel has attempted

9191-573: The world in the Golden Age , when humans enjoyed the spontaneous bounty of the earth without labour in a state of innocence . The revelries of Saturnalia were supposed to reflect the conditions of the lost mythical age. The Greek equivalent was the Kronia , which was celebrated on the twelfth day of the month of Hekatombaion, which occurred from around mid-July to mid-August on the Attic calendar . The Greek writer Athenaeus cites numerous other examples of similar festivals celebrated throughout

9292-562: Was a Stoic philosopher and a pupil of Panaetius . Balbus appeared to Cicero as comparable to the best Greek philosophers. He is introduced by Cicero in his dialogue On the Nature of the Gods as the expositor of the opinions of the Stoics on that subject, and his arguments are represented as of considerable weight. His name appears in the extant fragments of Cicero's Hortensius , but it

9393-402: Was also a god of hidden wealth. In 3rd-century AD sources and later, Saturn is recorded as receiving gladiatorial offerings (munera) during or near the Saturnalia. These gladiator combats, ten days in all throughout December, were presented by the quaestors and sponsored with funds from the treasury of Saturn. The practice of gladiatorial munera was criticized by Christian apologists as

9494-417: Was called the son of Saturn. Saturn had two mistresses who represented different aspects of the god. The name of his wife, Ops , the Roman equivalent of Greek Rhea , means "wealth, abundance, resources." The association with Ops is considered a later development, however, as this goddess was originally paired with Consus . Earlier was Saturn's association with Lua ("destruction, dissolution, loosening"),

9595-474: Was common across western Europe, but varied considerably by region; in some places, the boy bishop's orders could become quite rowdy and unrestrained, but, in others, his power was only ceremonial. In some parts of France, during the boy bishop's tenure, the actual clergy would wear masks or dress in women's clothing, a reversal of roles in line with the traditional character of Saturnalia. Quintus Lucilius Balbus Quintus Lucilius Balbus ( fl. 100 BC)

9696-463: Was criticized by Christian apologists as a form of human sacrifice . Although there is no evidence of this practice during the Republic, the offering of gladiators led to later theories that the primeval Saturn had demanded human victims. Macrobius says that Dīs Pater was placated with human heads and Saturn with sacrificial victims consisting of men ( virorum victimis ). In mythic lore, during

9797-420: Was removed for the holiday as an act of liberation. The official rituals were carried out according to "Greek rite" ( ritus graecus ) . The sacrifice was officiated by a priest, whose head was uncovered; in Roman rite, priests sacrificed capite velato , with head covered by a special fold of the toga . This procedure is usually explained by Saturn's assimilation with his Greek counterpart Cronus , since

9898-416: Was seen as a time of liberty for both slaves and freedmen alike. A common custom was the election of a "King of the Saturnalia", who gave orders to people, which were followed and presided over the merrymaking. The gifts exchanged were usually gag gifts or small figurines made of wax or pottery known as sigillaria . The poet Catullus called it "the best of days". Saturnalia was the Roman equivalent to

9999-496: Was the Kronia . Macrobius (5th century CE) presents an interpretation of the Saturnalia as a festival of light leading to the winter solstice . The renewal of light and the coming of the new year was celebrated in the later Roman Empire at the Dies Natalis of Sol Invictus , the "Birthday of the Unconquerable Sun," on December 25. It was customary for the Romans to represent divine figures as kings of Latium at

10100-402: Was the dramatic setting of the multivolume work of that name by Macrobius , a Latin writer from late antiquity who is the major source for information about the holiday. Macrobius describes the reign of Justinus's "king Saturn" as "a time of great happiness, both on account of the universal plenty that prevailed and because as yet there was no division into bond and free – as one may gather from

10201-455: Was the first day of the astrological sign Capricorn , the house of Saturn, the planet named for the god. Its proximity to the winter solstice (21 to 23 December on the Julian calendar) was endowed with various meanings by both ancient and modern scholars: for instance, the widespread use of wax candles (cerei, singular cereus) could refer to "the returning power of the sun's light after

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