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48-754: Following the partition of the Herodian Kingdom of Judea into a tetrarchy in 4 BC, it was gradually absorbed into Roman provinces, with Roman Syria annexing Iturea and Trachonitis . By the late 2nd century AD, the province was divided into Coele Syria and Syria Phoenice . Syria was annexed to the Roman Republic in 64 BC, when Pompey the Great had the Seleucid king Antiochus XIII Asiaticus executed and deposed his successor Philip II Philoromaeus . Pompey appointed Marcus Aemilius Scaurus to

96-427: A diverse demographic distribution. The rural inland was mostly populated by Aramaic speakers descended from various West Semitic peoples who inhabited Syria. Arabs were settled throughout Hauran , Trachonitis and Emesa which they controlled. Arabs were also part of Palmyra 's composition, which included Aramaeans, Arabs and Amorites . The Phoenician coast maintained a Phoenician -speaking majority well into

144-499: A female Hasmonean heir. The later Herodian rulers Agrippa I and his son Agrippa II both had Hasmonean blood, as Agrippa I's father was Aristobulus IV, son of Herod by Mariamne I, but they were not male descendants, and thus not seen legitimate rulers by much of the Jewish population. Herod died in 4 BCE, and his kingdom was divided among his three sons, none of them inherited his title of king ( basileus ). Herod Archelaus assumed

192-683: The Parthians , sided with Brutus and Cassius in the Liberators' civil war ; after their defeat Labienus joined the Parthians and assisted them in invading Roman territories in 40 BCE. The Parthian army crossed the Euphrates and Labienus was able to entice Mark Antony's Roman garrisons around Syria to rally to his cause. The Parthians split their army, and under Pacorus conquered the Levant from

240-527: The Roman province of Judea ; such province was placed under the direct authority of the Legate of Syria Publius Sulpicius Quirinius , who appointed Coponius as Prefect of Judea. Following the death of Herod Philip II (34 AD) and the removal of Herod Antipas (39 AD) Ituraea , Trachonitis , Galilee and Perea were also transferred under the jurisdiction of the province of Syria. From 37 to 41 AD, much of

288-640: The Arab . Philip became the 33rd emperor of Rome upon its millennial celebration. Roman Syria was invaded in 252/253 (the date is disputed) after a Roman field army was destroyed in the Battle of Barbalissos by the King of Persia Shapur I which left the Euphrates river unguarded and the region was pillaged by the Persians. In 259/260 a similar event happened when Shapur I again defeated a Roman field army and captured

336-711: The III Gallica joined Legio VII Gemina under its commander Marcus Antonius Primus in marching on units supporting Vitellius in northern Italy. The decisive clash came at the Second Battle of Bedriacum , where the Vitellians were defeated. The III Gallica had during its service in Syria adopted the custom of saluting the rising sun, and when dawn broke at Bedriacum they turned east to do so. The Vitellian forces thought that they were saluting reinforcements from

384-578: The Jews, rejoicing at the restoration of the Hasmonean line, thought a new era of independence had come. When Phasael and Hyrcanus II set out on an embassy to the Parthians, the Parthians instead captured them. Antigonus, who was present, cut off Hyrcanus's ears to make him unsuitable for the High Priesthood, while Phasael was put to death. Antigonus, whose Hebrew name was Mattathias, bore

432-559: The King of Arabia, Hyrcanus was condemned and executed. During King Herod's reign, the last male representatives of the Hasmoneans were eliminated, while only Herodias remained alive with her daughter Salome. Herodias was among the few remaining Hasmonean female heirs, as she was granddaughter of Alexander . Herodias was granddaughter of the Hasmonean princess Mariamne . Mariamne was ultimately convicted on dubious charges that arose from palace intrigue and internal power struggles. She

480-516: The Legion left an inscription amongst the Commemorative stelae of Nahr el-Kalb . The legion played a central role in the early reign of Elagabalus . In 218, during Macrinus ' reign, Julia Maesa went to Raphana , Syria , where the legion was based under the command of Publius Valerius Comazon . She largely donated to the legion, which, in turn, proclaimed emperor Julia Maesa's grandson,

528-641: The Parthians under Gaius Avidius Cassius . During the Year of the Five Emperors the Syrian Legions, including the III Gallica , supported Pescennius Niger . However, Septimius Severus emerged as the victor. Septimius Severus would campaign against the Parthian Empire ; one of the legions that fought in this campaign was the III Gallica. During the reign of Roman Emperor Caracalla ,

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576-558: The Parthians and had few additional resources to use to support Herod. After the Parthian defeat, Herod was victorious over his rival in 37 BCE . Antigonus was delivered to Antony and executed shortly thereafter, bringing about the end of the Hasmonean rule over Israel. King Herod has become known among the archaeologists as Herod the Builder, and under his reign Judea experienced an unprecedented construction, still obtaining an impact on

624-427: The Parthians to help him regain the throne, invited him to return to Jerusalem. The Babylonian Jews warned him in vain. Herod received him with every mark of respect, assigning him the first place at his table and the presidency of the state council, while awaiting an opportunity to get rid of him. As the last remaining Hasmonean, Hyrcanus was too dangerous a rival for Herod. In the year 30 BCE, charged with plotting with

672-641: The Phoenician coast through the Land of Israel: "Antigonus... roused the Parthians to invade Syria and Palestine, [and] the Jews eagerly rose in support of the scion of the Maccabean house, and drove out the hated Idumeans with their puppet Jewish king. The struggle between the people and the Romans had begun in earnest, and though Antigonus, when placed on the throne by the Parthians, proceeded to spoil and harry

720-556: The Roman emperor, Valerian, alive at the Battle of Edessa . Again, Roman Syria suffered as cities were captured, sacked and pillaged. From 268 to 273, Syria was part of the breakaway Palmyrene Empire . Following the reforms of Diocletian , Syria Coele became part of the Diocese of the East . Sometime between 330 and 350 (likely c. 341), the province of Euphratensis was created out of

768-660: The Romans in 71. While the legion was in Syria, vexillations may have fought in Trajan and Domitian's Dacian wars . It is also likely that the legion took part in Trajan's Parthian wars . In 132 the III Gallica was called on to crush the Jewish rebellion . An inscription found in Rome attests that towards the end of Hadrian 's reign the legion was still based in Syria. They also took part in Lucius Verus ' campaign against

816-649: The Syrian army, based on Legio XII Fulminata , reinforced by auxiliary troops, to restore order in Judaea and quell the revolt. The legion, however, was ambushed and destroyed by Jewish rebels at the Battle of Beth Horon , a result that shocked the Roman leadership. The future emperor Vespasian was then put in charge of subduing the Jewish revolt. In the summer of 69, Vespasian, with the Syrian units supporting him, launched his bid to become Roman emperor. He defeated his rival Vitellius and ruled as emperor for ten years when he

864-607: The core of his army. The campaign lasted from 58-68 AD. Corbulo's successes triggered the emperor Nero 's resentment and eventually the general was forced to commit suicide. In 68 AD, III Gallica was transferred to the province of Moesia on the Danube . In the Year of the Four Emperors in 69, the legion, and the rest of the Danubian army, aligned first with Otho , then with Vespasian . Along with three other legions,

912-749: The country, at that time under the Hamdanids , although still under the official suzerainty of the Abbasid caliphs and also claimed by the Fatimid caliphs. After emperor John Kurkuas failed to conquer Syria up to Jerusalem, a Muslim reconquest of Syria followed in the late 970s undertaken by the Fatimid Caliphate that resulted in the ousting of the Byzantines from most parts of Syria. However, Antioch and other northern parts of Syria remained in

960-604: The double title of king and High Priest for only three years. He had not disposed of Herod, who fled into exile and sought the support of Mark Antony. Herod was designated "King of the Jews" by the Roman Senate in 40 BCE: Antony "then resolved to get [Herod] made king of the Jews...[and] told [the Senate] that it was for their advantage in the Parthian war that Herod should be king; so they all gave their votes for it. And when

1008-475: The east and lost heart. From Bedriacum the legion advanced with Primus on Rome to rescue Vespasian's family and supporters in that city, and encamped in Capua when Mucianus arrived from the east. As one of his actions to secure control of Rome, Mucianus dispersed the units loyal to Primus, sending the legion back to Syria. On returning to Syria, the legion made its base at Raphanaea , which had been captured by

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1056-530: The empire and other parts were under the protection of the emperors through their Hamdanid, Mirdasid , and Marwanid proxies, until the Seljuk arrival, who after three decades of incursions, conquered Antioch in 1084. Antioch was captured again during the 12th century by the revived armies of the Comnenii . However, by that time the city was regarded as part of Asia Minor and not of Syria. Provinicia Syria had

1104-620: The end of 2nd century, and their main urban centers included Tyre , Sidon and Berytus . On the other hand, Greeks comprised a majority in Hellenistic urban centers such Antioch , Apamea , Cyrrhus and the Decapolis , which had been settled by Greeks under Seleucid patronage. Estimates for the population of the entire Levant in the 1st century vary from 3.5–4 million to 6 million, levels only matched even by 19th century levels. Urban centers peaked and so did population density in

1152-431: The four legions from the governor of Syria and handed it over to the governor of Palestine . Septimius Severus divided the province of Syria proper into Syria Coele and Syria Phoenice , with Antioch and Tyre as their respective provincial capitals. As related by Theodor Mommsen , It was Severus who at length withdrew the first place in the Roman military hierarchy from the Syrian governor. After having subdued

1200-480: The fourteen-year-old Elagabalus, on the dawn of 16 May. On June 8, 218 near Antioch . Gannys , Elagabalus' tutor, defeated Macrinus and his son, with the help of the III Gallica and the other legions of the East. In 219, the legion, exhausted by Elagabalus excesses, supported its commander, senator Verus , who proclaimed himself emperor. Elagabalus had Verus executed, and dispersed the legion. The legionaries were transferred namely to III Augusta , stationed in

1248-577: The landscape of the region. Under his enterprise, such projects as the Masada fortress, the Herodion and the great port of Caesarea Maritima were built. Antigonus was not, however, the last male Hasmonean; Aristobulus III , grandson of Aristobulus II through his elder son Alexander, and brother of the Hasmonean princess Mariamne , was briefly made high priest, but was soon executed (36 BCE) due to jealousy of Herod's first wife Doris. His sister, Mariamne

1296-524: The later 2nd century, the Roman Senate included several notable Syrians, including Claudius Pompeianus and Avidius Cassius . Syria was of crucial strategic importance during the Crisis of the Third Century . In 244 AD, Rome was ruled by a native Syrian from Philippopolis (modern day Shahba ) in the province of Arabia Petraea. The emperor was Marcus Iulius Philippus, more commonly known as Philip

1344-564: The post of governor of Syria. Following the fall of the Roman Republic and its transformation into the Roman Empire , Syria became a Roman imperial province, governed by a Legate . During the early empire, the Roman army in Syria accounted for three legions with auxiliaries who defended the border with Parthia . In 6 AD, Emperor Augustus deposed the ethnarch Herod Archelaus and united Judea , Samaria and Idumea into

1392-412: The province—which had wished at that time to make Niger emperor, as it had formerly done with its governor Vespasian —amidst resistance from the capital Antioch in particular, he ordained its partition into a northern and a southern half, and gave to the governor of the former, which was called Coele-Syria , two legions, to the governor of the latter, the province of Syro-Phoenicia , one [legion]. From

1440-526: The region dates from 63 BCE, following the end of the Third Mithridatic War , when Rome created the province of Syria . After the defeat of Mithridates VI of Pontus , Pompey (Pompey the Great) sacked Jerusalem in 63 BCE . The Hasmonean Queen, Salome Alexandra , had recently died and her sons, Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus II , turned against each other in a civil war. In 63 BCE, Aristobulus

1488-586: The rural settlements. Antioch and Palmyra reached a peak of 200,000–250,000 inhabitants, while Apamea counted 117,000 'free citizens' circa AD 6. Combined with their dependancies and villages, Apamea and Cyrrhus may have counted as high as 500,000 each. The Syrian Coastal Mountain Range , marginal hill country, were less densely settled and had a population of around 40–50,000. The inhabitants of Syria adopted Greek customs while maintaining elements of Near Eastern culture. The continuity of pre-Hellenistic cultures

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1536-472: The senate was separated, Antony and Caesar [Augustus] went out, with Herod between them; while the consul and the rest of the magistrates went before them, in order to offer sacrifices [to the Roman gods], and to lay the decree in the Capitol. Antony also made a feast for Herod on the first day of his reign." The struggle thereafter lasted for some years, as the main Roman forces were occupied with defeating

1584-583: The small coastal province Theodorias out of territory from both provinces. The region remained one of the most important provinces of the Byzantine Empire . It was occupied by the Sasanians between 609 and 628, then reconquered by the emperor Heraclius , but lost again to the advancing Muslims after the Battle of Yarmouk and the fall of Antioch . The city of Antioch was reconquered by Nikephorus Phocas in 963, along with other parts of

1632-564: The southern region was separated from Syria and transformed into a client kingdom under Herod Agrippa I . After Agrippa's death, his kingdom was gradually re-absorbed into the Roman Empire, until it was officially transformed into a Roman province following the death of Herod Agrippa II . Syrian province forces were directly engaged in the First Jewish–Roman War of 66–70 AD. In 66 AD, Cestius Gallus , legate of Syria, brought

1680-520: The territory of Syria Coele along the western bank of the Euphrates and the former Kingdom of Commagene , with Hierapolis as its capital. After c. 415, Syria Coele was further subdivided into Syria I (or Syria Prima ), with its capital remaining at Antioch , and Syria II ( Syria Secunda ) or Syria Salutaris , with its capital at Apamea on the Orontes . In 528, Justinian I carved out

1728-797: The title of ethnarch and ruled Judea , Samaria and Idumea so badly that he was dismissed in 6 CE by the Roman emperor Augustus , who appointed Quirinius to exercise direct Roman rule after an appeal from Herod Archelaus' own population, thus was formed the Province of Judea . Another, Herod Antipas , ruled as tetrarch of Galilee and Perea from 4 BCE to 39 CE, being then dismissed by Caligula , and Philip ruled as tetrarch of Iturea , Trachonitis , Batanea , Gaulanitis , Auranitis and Paneas from 4 BCE to his death in 34 CE. 31°47′N 35°13′E  /  31.783°N 35.217°E  / 31.783; 35.217 Legio III Gallica Legio III Gallica ( lit. Third Legion "Gallic")

1776-487: The winter of 41 BC. The legion served in Antony's Parthian War in 36 BC. After the battle of Actium and Antony's suicide during Antony's Civil War , the III Gallica was sent again to the East, where they garrisoned the province of Syria . After Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo had been appointed to campaign against the Parthians over the control of Armenia , he withdrew III Gallica along with Legio VI Ferrata to form

1824-605: Was a client state of the Roman Republic ruled from 37 to 4 BCE by Herod the Great , who was appointed "King of the Jews" by the Roman Senate . When Herod died, the kingdom was divided among his sons into the Herodian Tetrarchy . The Herodian kingdom included the regions of Judea , Samaria , Idumaea , and Galilee , as well as several regions east of the Jordan River — Perea , Batanaea , Auranitis , and Trachonitis . The first intervention of Rome in

1872-571: Was a legion of the Imperial Roman army . The cognomen Gallica suggests that its earliest recruits came from veterans of the Gallic legions of Gaius Julius Caesar , a supposition supported by its emblem, a bull , a symbol associated with Caesar. The legion was based for most of its existence at Raphanea , Roman Syria , and was still active in Egypt in the early 4th century. The legion

1920-496: Was besieged in Jerusalem by his brother's armies. He sent an envoy to Marcus Aemilius Scaurus , Pompey's representative in the area. Aristobulus offered a massive bribe to be rescued, which Pompey promptly accepted. Afterwards, Aristobulus accused Scaurus of extortion. Since Scaurus was Pompey's brother-in-law and protégé, the general retaliated by putting Hyrcanus in charge of the kingdom as Prince and High Priest . When Pompey

1968-480: Was defeated by Julius Caesar , Hyrcanus was succeeded by his courtier Antipater the Idumaean , also known as Antipas, as the first Roman Procurator . In 57–55 BCE, Aulus Gabinius , proconsul of Syria , split the former Hasmonean Kingdom into five districts of Sanhedrin / Synedrion (councils of law). After Julius Caesar was murdered in 44 BCE, Quintus Labienus , a Roman republican general and ambassador to

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2016-457: Was executed in 29 BCE, but was survived by her granddaughter Herodias and her great-granddaughter Salome. Herodias managed to survive miraculously, and was eventually exiled to Gaul , with her second husband, Herod Antipas . Herod Antipas was accused by his nephew Agrippa I of conspiracy against the new Roman emperor Caligula , who sent him into exile in Gaul, where he was accompanied by Herodias,

2064-648: Was founded in either 49 or 48 BC by Julius Caesar to help in Caesar's war against Pompey. The soldiers of the legion were exclusively from Transalpine Gaul and Cisalpine Gaul . After Caesar died, the III Gallica joined Mark Antony 's army. While in the service of Mark Antony the legion would fight at the battle of Munda and Phillipi . They were included in the army levied by Fulvia and Lucius Antonius to oppose Octavian , but ended by surrendering in Perugia , in

2112-491: Was governor of the province of Judea between 120 and 130, possibly prior to the Bar Kokhba revolt . As related by Theodor Mommsen , The governor of Syria retained the civil administration of the whole large province undiminished, and held for long alone in all Asia a command of the first rank. [...] It was only in the course of the second century that a diminution of his prerogatives occurred, when Hadrian took one of

2160-524: Was inconsistent across different regions, and where it existed, it varied, including Aramean , Phoenician , and neo-Hittite influences. However, many areas documented exclusively Greek elements. In contrast to Jews , who shared collective historical memories, Syrians lacked a unified cultural or social identity. The unifying aspects in Roman Syria were Greek civic structures and narratives promoted by Roman imperial rule, suggesting that Syrian culture

2208-687: Was largely defined through Greek and Roman influences. The term 'Syrian' therefore primarily functioned as a geographical designation. Ancient episcopal sees of the late Roman province of Syria Prima (I) listed in the Annuario Pontificio as titular sees : Ancient episcopal sees of the late Roman province of Syria Secunda (II) listed in the Annuario Pontificio as titular sees : 36°12′N 36°09′E  /  36.200°N 36.150°E  / 36.200; 36.150 Herodian Kingdom of Judea Canaan State of Israel (1948–present) The Herodian kingdom

2256-525: Was married to Herod, but fell victim to his notorious fear of being assassinated. Her sons by Herod, Aristobulus IV and Alexander, were in their adulthood also executed by their father, but not before Aristobulus IV having sired Herodias. Hyrcanus II had been held by the Parthians since 40 BCE. For four years, until 36 BCE, he lived amid the Babylonian Jews , who paid him every mark of respect. In that year Herod, who feared that Hyrcanus might induce

2304-512: Was succeeded by his son Titus . Based on an inscription recovered from Dor in 1948, Gargilius Antiquus was known to have been the governor of a province in the eastern part of the Empire, possibly Syria, between his consulate and governing Asia. In November 2016, an inscription in Greek was recovered off the coast of Dor by Haifa University underwater archaeologists, which attests that Antiquus

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