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99-500: Phoenicia came under Roman rule in 64 BC, when Pompey created the province of Syria . With the exception of a brief period in 36–30 BC, when Mark Antony gave the region to Ptolemaic Egypt , Phoenicia remained part of the province of Syria thereafter. Emperor Hadrian (reigned 117–138) is said to have considered a division of the overly large Syrian province in 123–124 AD, but it was not until shortly after c. 194 AD that Septimius Severus (r. 193–211) actually undertook this, dividing

198-466: A medical discharge . This discharge would come with many benefits including exemption from some taxes and some civic duties. Legionary is also a term used for members of various military forces which have been accorded the title of "legion", although bearing no resemblance to the heavy infantry of ancient Rome. In the 18th and early 19th century this designation was sometimes accorded to units which comprised both mounted and foot components. More recently

297-548: A "country district" called Pagus Augustus , where are located the famous Niha temples with Latin inscriptions. Phoenicians would ascend to the throne of Rome during the Severan dynasty . The city of Heliopolis (now called Baalbek) was made a colonia by Septimius Severus (193–211) in 193 CE, having been part of the territory of Berytus on the Phoenician coast since 15 BCE. Work on the religious complex there lasted over

396-436: A belt ( balteus ), a pair of heavy sandals ( caligae ), a pair of greaves , a pair of manicas , a marching pack ( sarcina ), about fourteen days' worth of food, a waterskin (bladder for posca ), cooking equipment, two stakes ( sudes murale ) for the construction of palisades , a shovel , and a wicker basket . After the military reforms of Emperor Claudius (circa 41 AD), each legion would also be requisitioned

495-487: A century and a half and was never completed. The dedication of the present temple ruins, the largest religious building in the entire Roman empire, dates from the reign of Septimus Severus, whose coins first show the two temples. The great courts of approach were not finished before the reigns of Caracalla (211–217 CE) and Philip the Arab (244–249 CE). In commemoration of the dedication of the new sanctuaries, Severus conferred

594-419: A certain number of artillery pieces. Each cohort (roughly 480 men) would receive one ballista and each centuria (roughly 100 men) would receive one carroballista . In a standard legionary formation of ten cohorts and sixty centuriae, a legion would be equipped with ten ballistae and sixty carroballistae. The Roman legionary fought first and foremost with his contubernium , the basic eight man unit of

693-541: A comprehensive reform led by Marius is no longer widely accepted by specialists; 21st-century scholars have called the reforms a "construct of modern scholarship". As Augustus consolidated power in 27 BC and founded the Principate , he further professionalized the Roman legionary and sought to break the legionary's dependence on his general. Under him, a legionary's term of service was raised to 25 years (before that,

792-436: A different fear was used to motivate a soldier in spite of the fear of battle; that was the fear of harsh punishment by their commanding officers. In the words of Josephus "they are moreover hardened for war by fear; for their laws inflict capital punishments, not only for soldiers running away from the ranks, but for slothfulness and inactivity". A Roman legionary had two or three meals per day: The prandium (breakfast) and

891-440: A legionary's average term of service was only 10 years) and pay was standardized throughout the legions. The Roman legionaries were also guaranteed a land grant or a cash payment at the end of his service, making the Roman legionary less dependent on generals for rewards after campaigns. Augustus also changed the sacramentum so that soldiers swore allegiance only to the emperor, and not to the general. Thus, Augustus managed to end

990-536: A revival in construction and urban development; temples and palaces were built throughout the country, as well as paved roads that linked the main cities like Heliopolis and Berytus . Indeed, starting in the last quarter of the 1st century BCE (reign of Augustus ) and over a period of two centuries (reign of Philip the Arab ), the Romans built a huge temples complex in Heliopolis on a pre-existing tell dating to

1089-572: A successful campaign. Plunder and loot also supplement a legionary's income and is used as a large incentive for soldiers to follow their emperor in campaigns. At the end of their years of service, Roman legionaries received a small allotment of land or a monetary equivalent. As the Roman empire solidified, permanent legionary fortresses were constructed and many grew into towns. These fortresses contained bathhouses , taverns, and even amphitheaters where festivals and animal displays were held. However, legionaries were not allowed to legally marry until

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1188-475: A traditional Roman experience. Other Roman buildings included academic buildings that allowed for Roman cultural influence through education.  Additionally, evidence from cemeteries and death-related practices along the coast of Lebanon showed to be a combination of indigenous cultures, Roman influence, and also contained Hellenistic components as well. Shortly into the Romanization period of Berytus,

1287-467: A variety of different civil services along with their normal military role. Regular trained legionaries were known as milites and were the equivalent in rank of the modern private . Included in the ranks, aside from the milites , were the immunes , specialist soldiers with secondary roles such as engineer , artilleryman, drill and weapons instructor, carpenter and medic . These men were still fully trained legionaries, however, and would fight in

1386-615: A variety of foodstuffs but mainly wine , vinegar, vegetables (largely beans or lentils), salt, salt-pork , cheese, and olive oil . However, this did not include fruit. Through foraging, trade with merchants, requisitioning, or raiding during campaigns, the Roman legionary could obtain other foodstuffs not included in his rations. In combination, the average soldier's diet was generally nutritious and filling. Permanent Roman forts would contain hospitals, where doctors ( medici ) operated on wounded, injured, or sick legionaries. These medical personnel also isolated sick soldiers, thereby reducing

1485-482: A variety of other critical functions. Lacking a professional police force , governors would use legionaries to keep the peace and protect critical facilities. As the Roman empire lacked a large civil administration , the army would often be given many administrative positions. High ranking soldiers often acted as judges in disputes among local populations and the army was an important component of tax collection. Legionaries also served to spread Roman culture throughout

1584-462: A whole unit displayed cowardice, the unit might be decimated , in which one out of every ten soldiers were executed. Less extreme punishments included demotions, changing the wheat rations to barley, and the removal of some identifying military gear. Large armies would generally not begin battle immediately upon meeting. Rather, days or even weeks of redeployment and negotiation would take place before battle. Several days of maneuvering occurred before

1683-756: The Notitia Dignitatum , written shortly after the division, Phoenice I is governed by a consularis , while Libanensis is governed by a praeses , with both provinces under the Diocese of the East . This division remained intact until the Muslim conquest of the Levant in the 630s. Under the Caliphate , most of the two Phoenices came under the province of Damascus , with parts in the south and north going to

1782-450: The cena (dinner). For these meals, the soldiers were issued regular rations consisting mainly of wheat, which composed roughly 60–70% of a soldier's total rations. This would be consumed in the form of either bread or porridge. However, while on campaign, the soldiers would cook their wheat rations into hardtack , a long-lasting biscuit. Supplementing the soldier's wheat rations was the cibaria , rations other than grain. This included

1881-460: The Battle of Pharsalus began. Before battle, measures were taken to ensure legionaries were as effective as possible. These included giving legionaries their meals and resting them before the battle. Their commanders and general would also give speeches during this time. These speeches would heavily emphasize the amount of plunder and riches that winning the battle would give the legionaries, as this

1980-746: The Bekaa valley and included Heliopolis: it was the only area mostly Latin-speaking in the Syria-Phoenicia region, because settled by Roman colonists who even promoted agriculture in the fertile lands around actual Yammoune . From the 1st century BCE the Bekaa valley served as a source of grain for the Roman provinces of the Levant and even for the same Rome (today the valley makes up to 40 percent of Lebanon's arable land ): Roman colonists created there even

2079-540: The PPNB , consisting of three temples: Jupiter, Bacchus and Venus. On a nearby hill, they built a fourth temple dedicated to Mercury. Berytus was considered the most Roman city in the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire. It was one of four Roman colonies in the Syria-Phoenicia region and the only one with full Ius Italicum (meaning: exemption from imperial taxation). Its territory/district under Claudius reached

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2178-488: The Pax Romana , a rank-and-file Roman legionary would be paid 225 denarii per year. This was increased to 300 denarii during the reign of Domitian . However, during the third century crisis, inflation and chaos disrupted a legionary's pay, with emperors often letting legionaries seize goods from civilians. Their income was supplemented by donatives from emperors either to secure a legion's loyalty or to award them after

2277-492: The late Republic and Principate eras, alongside auxiliary and cavalry detachments. At its height, Roman legionaries were viewed as the foremost fighting force in the Roman world, with commentators such as Vegetius praising their fighting effectiveness centuries after the classical Roman legionary disappeared. Roman legionaries were recruited from Roman citizens under age 45. They were first predominantly made up of recruits from Roman Italy , but more were recruited from

2376-408: The rewards and punishments , which served as both incentives and deterrents for legionaries in battle. For example, the highly coveted corona civica was given to legionaries who saved a comrade in battle. However, death was the punishment for a variety of different offenses. Those who committed cowardice and dereliction of duty were stoned to death by their comrades. On very rare occasions when

2475-524: The third Gallic . The city quickly became Romanized. Large public buildings and monuments were erected and Berytus enjoyed full status as a part of the empire. Under the Romans, Berytus was enriched by the dynasty of Herod the Great , and was made a colonia , Colonia Iulia Augusta Felix Berytus , in 14 BCE. Beirut's school of law was widely known at the time. Two of Rome's most famous jurists, Papinian and Ulpian , both natives of Phoenicia, taught at

2574-465: The 1 BCE to 1 CE and 4 CE to 1 CE. These grave cites were Roman but they displayed a distinctive likeness with a Phoenician burial. Scholars have made the prediction that these burial cities were performed by the Bomans but the individuals buried are of Phoenician descent. The Roman citizenship became universal across their conquered lands, and a result of this, as described previously, Beirut would become

2673-622: The 1st century BCE as part of the Roman conquest of the Eastern Mediterranean. Marcus Agrippa helped to found the colony of Berytus before the combination of destructive earthquakes and the emerging Byzantine Empire concluded the Romanization period of Berytus around the 5th c. CE. While the Roman Empire conquered the city of Berytus, the relationship between Romans and the people of Berytus was mutualistically beneficial. Romans were able to rely on Phoenicians' cities for goods and materials in which they acquired through trade.  On

2772-538: The 6th century BCE/5th century BCE. The Roman Phoenicia lasted from the 1st century to the 4th century BCE. In the 4th century BCE the Romans expanded their empire into the Italian peninsula and proceeded to expand into foreign areas. The Roman Republic invaded Carthage, where the Punic Wars were fought. This was one of the most prosperous periods in the history of the area that is now Lebanon. Phoenicia became one of

2871-535: The Bekaa valley north of the Beirut - Damascus road. Second, the area south of the same road, including the Wadi al-Taym and the western flank of Mount Hermon . Third, the area west of a line drawn along the ridge of Mount Lebanon . In the coastal area of Lebanon there are not many Roman ruins. It will be remarked that the coastal plain of Lebanon is singularly lacking in temple remains, but it must not be thought that

2970-546: The Byzantines to the Ottomans, temple debris – particularly the dressed blocks – was utilized in buildings. Even a cursory examination of the medieval fortifications along the coast – at Byblos, for instance – will reveal the extent of the pilfering from Roman buildings. Door frames, lintels, architraves, even altars and inscribed stelae, can be seen in the lower courses of castle and church walls. Agrippa greatly favoured

3069-539: The Byzantines used some materials from the abandoned temples Post-63 BCE, the Phoenician culture and its traits seemed to have disappeared. It is hypothesized that the Phoenician 'disappearance' stems from the fact that the Phoenicians were getting absorbed by the Greco-Roman culture.The word "Phoenician" was simply just a word of past tense that showed a person or place that was once its own civilization before

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3168-526: The Later Republic, Roman legionaries predominantly came from the areas surrounding Rome. However, as Rome expanded, recruits began to come from other areas in Italy. Slowly, recruits came from the regions where the legions were stationed rather than from Italy itself. By the reign of Trajan , there were 4–5 legionaries originating from the provinces for every legionary originating from Italy. When on

3267-564: The Phoenician city states (in the area of modern Lebanon , coastal Syria , the northern part of Galilee , Acre and the Northern Coastal Plain) ruled by Rome from 64 BCE to the Muslim conquests of the 7th century. The area around Berytus (and to a lesser degree around Heliopolis ) was the only Latin speaking and Romanized part of Aramaic -speaking Phoenicia. The history of the Roman Republic began between

3366-404: The Roman Empire and served as a policing force in the provinces. They built large public works projects, such as walls, bridges, and roads. The legionary's last five years of service were on lighter duties. Once retired, a Roman legionary received a parcel of land or its equivalent in money and often became a politically prominent member of society. The Marian reforms were putative changes to

3465-414: The Roman Empire became Roman citizens , effectively erasing the distinction between auxiliaries and legionaries. This, coinciding with the continued expansion of the Roman army, meant recruits of more dubious standards joined the legions, decreasing the quality of the Roman legionary further. During the 3rd Century Crisis , a more mobile army became necessary, as threats arose across the long borders of

3564-409: The Roman Empire. As such, mounted cavalry became essential to respond to the varied challenges to the empire. Because of this, Roman heavy infantry faded further from dominance. By the 4th century, Roman infantry lacked much of the body armor of the classical legionary and used darts rather than the pila of their predecessors. Though the legionary was first and foremost a soldier, he provided

3663-735: The Roman General Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, more commonly known as Pompey the Great, lead his military and defeated the Seleucid Empire. This defeat captured Seleucid Syria and Phoenicia (Lebanon), adding to the Roman State . Economic and intellectual activities flourished in Lebanon during the Pax Romana . The inhabitants of the principal Phoenician cities of Byblos , Sidon , and Tyre were granted Roman citizenship. These cities were centers of

3762-541: The Roman army. The men of the same contubernium fought, slept, ate, and trained together. This strong sense of camaraderie gave Roman legionaries a sense of pride and kept them fighting on the battlefield. The standard bearers, signiferi , were of great importance in keeping Roman soldiers in the battle. The loss of a standard was a disgrace to the centuria the standard belonged to. As such, standard bearers served as someone to rally around and as someone to exhort legionaries to battle. Optiones , Roman officers at

3861-502: The Roman decision to create a huge "Great Court" of a big pagan temple complex in this mountain site, located at nearly 1100 meters of altitude and on the eastern Borders of the Roman Empire : it took three centuries to create this colossal Roman paganism 's temple complex. Under Constantine the Great Christianity was declared officially the religion of the Roman empire and the pagan Temples started to be neglected. Later

3960-421: The Roman legions. With the state providing the equipment to the recruits and no property requirements, even the poorest Roman citizens were able to join the legions. However, the army was viewed as an honorable and valued profession. With a steady pay, good retirement benefits, and even certain legal advantages, a legionary had many perks that common citizens found desirable. As such, though poor citizens could join

4059-410: The Romans. The Phoenician language, culture, religion, ethnicity, and political standings were not viable enough to give a person/place the name of Phoenician, as these traits were washed away. However, experts will argue over the fact that the Phoenicians are not a "...reflection or inversion of Greek and Roman civilization but in relation to it." Christianity flooded Ancient Lebanon in hopes of guiding

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4158-563: The abuses and corruptions prevailing at that time in the empire. Heavy tributes and religious dissension produced disorder and confusion. Furthermore, the ecumenical councils of the fifth and sixth centuries CE were unsuccessful in settling religious disagreements. This turbulent period weakened the empire and made it easy prey to the newly converted Muslim Arabs of the Arabian Peninsula . Roman influence in Berytus began around

4257-433: The ancient world. Though there were many different formations that legionaries fought in, they tended toward close, ordered formations with gaps between formations. These gaps would allow for reserve units to enter battle or serve as avenues for skirmishing forces to retreat back behind the legionaries. During lulls in the battle, wounded soldiers could further be taken back behind battle lines through these gaps. During

4356-526: The army. The betrayed troops of Agathocles decided to make peace with Carthage. Agathocles tried to get revenge, with the little he had left. Agathocles was killed using poison in 289 BCE. This prompted for Sicily and Carthage to draft treaties to maintain compliance with one another. However, in 279 BCE, their fourth treaty was drawn, it established mutual aid and. defense against a common enemy, Pyrruhus , King of Epirus. Pyrruhus settled in Sicily and quickly made

4455-627: The base of the Legio III Gallica in Raphanaea were now subject to governor in Tyre. Veterans of this military unit were settled in Tyre, which also received the rank of colonia . After the death of the 2nd century Roman emperor Commodus , a civil war erupted, in which Berytus , and Sidon supported Pescennius Niger . While the city of Tyre supported Septimius Severus , which led Niger to send Mauri javelin men and archers to sack

4554-445: The center of the shield. This allowed the legionary to not only use the scutum as defensive equipment but also as an offensive weapon. Legionaries would have used this iron boss to punch and shove the enemy combatants. Accompanying this was the gladius , a primarily stabbing weapon though it could also be used to cut. These fairly simple tools combined with impressive discipline made the Roman legionary an extremely effective soldier in

4653-444: The chance of a possibly infectious disease spreading through the army. Roman forts and camps were also planned in such a way as to minimize the spread of water-borne illnesses , which ravaged many ancient armies. Engineers took special care in piping fresh water to the camps and carrying sewage downstream of any watering places. Those legionaries who were seriously and permanently wounded or injured would be granted missio causaria , or

4752-531: The city attracted students from the Mediterranean region who desired to learn Roman law from elite professors. Local excavations at Berytus showed both Greek and Roman laws present in Berytus with evidence of a school for lawyers and teachers that formed around the 3rd century CE. Today one of the best examples of Roman Temple architecture is in Lebanon at the ruins of Baalbek. The Roman temple sites in Lebanon can be divided into three main groups. First,

4851-406: The city of Berytus, and adorned it with a splendid theatre and amphitheatre, beside baths and porticoes, inaugurating them with games and spectacles of every kind, including shows of gladiators. In two hundred and fifty years – from Augustus to Philip the Arab – were made all the Roman temples, with a very similar design: they show the golden era of Roman rule in Lebanon. In the first century

4950-519: The city was given a foundation of Roman imperialism. It is seen thought that Emesa was in association with Phoenicia. The overall strike through the Phoenician label to bear the characteristics of Roman became a regular activity in the region during this time. As Rome heads west across the Mediterranean Sea, they come across Carthage , modern-day Tunisia. Some think of ancient Carthage to be have been their own empire, founded by Dido , where

5049-489: The city. However, Niger lost the civil war, and Septimius Severus decided to show his gratitude for Tyre's support by making it the capital of Phoenice. Diocletian (r. 284–305) separated the district of Batanaea and gave it to Arabia , while sometime before 328, when it is mentioned in the Laterculus Veronensis , Constantine the Great (r. 306–337) created the new province of Augusta Libanensis out of

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5148-451: The civil wars which defined the late Roman Republic and created an army that was broadly loyal to only the emperor. Legionaries would expand Rome's borders to include lower Britannia , Dacia , North Africa, and more through military campaigns under Augustus and future emperors. From the reign of Septimus Severus onward, the Roman legionary gradually lost his preeminence. Though there were multiple causes for this decline, all pointed to

5247-456: The composition and operation of the Roman army during the late Roman republic usually attributed to Gaius Marius (a general who was consul in 107, 104–100, and 86 BC ). The most important of those putative changes concerned the altering of the socio-economic background of the soldiery. Other changes were supposed to have included the introduction of the cohort ; the institution of a single form of heavy infantry with uniform equipment;

5346-650: The consent of Rome." After all of this, the Third Punic War arose. The war resulted in Rome ultimately ending Carthage and destroying the city, once again. The Carthaginian territory became a province of Rome. Unlike, the Phoenicians, who lost their culture, the Carthaginian language, religion, and culture was preserved for years after the defeat. It is true that Carthage lost the Punic Wars to Rome; however Rome allowed Carthage and other African cities were given

5445-456: The eastern half of the old province, encompassing the territory east of Mount Lebanon . Constantine's province was short-lived, but formed the basis of the re-division of Phoenice c. 394 into the Phoenice I or Phoenice Paralia ( Greek : Φοινίκη Παραλία , "coastal Phoenice"), and Phoenice II or Phoenice Libanensis (Φοινίκη Λιβανησία), with Tyre and Emesa as their respective capitals. In

5544-682: The final years of Nero's reign (37–68 A.D.). the Great Court Complex of the temple of Jupiter, with its porticoes, exedrae, altars and basins, was built in the 2nd century A.D. Construction of the so-called temple of Bacchus was also started about this time.The Propylaea and the Hexagonal Court of the Jupiter temple were added in the 3rd century under the Severan Dynasty (193–235 A.D.) and work was presumably completed in

5643-452: The gradual degradation of loyalty and/or discipline. Septimus Severus, perhaps unwittingly, began this decline when he lavished his legionaries with donatives and pay increases, recognising that they were his key to becoming and staying emperor. However, this proved detrimental to the discipline of the legionaries, as they began to expect more and more rewards from their emperors. Under Caracalla , Septimus Severus's successor, all freedmen in

5742-569: The intellectual and economic hubs of the eastern half of the empire and a destination for merchants and intellectuals. The Romans built the temples of Baalbek, the temples at Mount Hermon , the temples of Niha and various other structures now in ruins that include smaller temples, hippodromes , baths and the Law school of Berytus . The last century of Seleucid rule in Lebanon was marked by disorder and dynastic struggles. These ended in 63 BCE, when

5841-500: The island of Sicily his own territory. Sicily and Carthage defeated Pyrruhus and his army, drawing him out of Sicily. After this defeat, Carthage landed itself in the horizon of Rome. Thus, began the First Punic War , from 264 BCE to 241 BCE, the war was ended with yet again, another treaty stating that Sicily was now of Rome's possession and a payment was demanded due to the damages from the war. This left Carthage desperate as

5940-538: The label of free cities and became formal cities of the Roman Empire. Rome made this decision because Carthage and their allies were once loyal allies to the empire. Therefore, the Punic world was able to live on. Legionary The Roman legionary (in Latin legionarius ; pl. : legionarii ) was a citizen soldier of the Roman army . These soldiers would conquer and defend the territories of ancient Rome during

6039-433: The law school under the Severan emperors. When Justinian assembled his Pandects in the 6th century, a large part of the corpus of laws were derived from these two jurists, and Justinian recognized the school as one of the three official law schools of the empire in 533 CE. Upon the death of Theodosius I in 395 CE, the empire was divided in two: the eastern or Byzantine part with its capital at Constantinople , and

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6138-420: The march in hostile territory, the legionary would carry or wear full armour , supplies and equipment. This commonly consisted of chain ( lorica hamata ) , scaled ( lorica squamata ) , or in the 1st–3rd century sectioned ( lorica segmentata ) armour, shield ( scutum ), helmet ( galea ), two javelins (one heavy pilum and one light verutum ), a short sword ( gladius ), a dagger ( pugio ),

6237-583: The mid-3rd century. The small circular structure known as the Temple of Venus, was probably finished at this time as well. When Christianity was declared an official religion of the Roman Empire in 313 A.D., Byzantine Emperor Constantine officially closed the Baalbeck temples. At the end of the 4th century, the Emperor Theodosius tore down the altars of Jupiter's Great Court and built a basilica using

6336-416: The military, members from across the plebeian class were found in the Roman legions. Indeed, the army served as one of the few avenues of upward mobility in the Roman world. The army actively sought out recruits with useful skills such as smiths, carpenters, and butchers. Though not required, literacy was useful since promotion to higher ranks such as centurion required a knowledge of writing. During

6435-508: The most famous Roman Law School. "By 250, and likely earlier, there was no Phoenician "people," only Romans living in the provinces called Phoenice." The regions that were known to be "Phoenician" were given new names that were pseudo-ethnonyms, this did not cut the geographical regions off completely from Phoenicia, but gave it loose ties to the former region. The grave held grave goods that showed Phoenician habits, but also held exotic objects that are from abroad regions. The Phoenicians were not

6534-653: The most important connection throughout the Western Mediterranean. However, the Gadir administration was overtaken by the Romans, where they implemented its organizational structures of Roman empire into the Phoenicia and the other regions apart of the former administration. In recent years, experts and archeologists excavated multiple burial places, or necropolises , in the city of Cádiz that helped Roman Empire decent. These discoveries are predicted to be from

6633-483: The only ones feeling this Roman wave of over them, the Greeks were enduring the influence of the Romans, too. These Mediterranean regions were trying their hardest to combat the "co-opted nation", to hold against this, the nations had to make it known of their assertion to not be overcome; and to promote cultural difference, this is to distinguish the homeland culture from the push of Romans beliefs. The city of Emesa , in

6732-542: The only option for expansion was Spain, but Spain was already secured. The Second Punic Wars (218 BCE to 202 BCE) struck Carthage and Rome following the assassination of Hasdrubal , where Hannibal prompted this war. Carthage fought Rome on the basis of the burdensome demands and lack of peace that the treaties were supposed to impose. In the end, the Carthaginian Army was destroyed, and endured even more debt, and "... had to undertake never to go to war without

6831-464: The other hand, Romans provided economic activity for local Phoenician cities in which they traded agricultural and craft products (wine, oil, glass, purple, silk, textiles, ceramics) that were exported to Rome and other surrounding areas. Roman influence in Berytus is visible through the social/cultural evidence, but also the physical/architectural evidence that has been exposed through archaeological excavations. Berytus became known as “Little Rome” and

6930-578: The people to assimilate to the Roman beliefs. The Phoenician gods and goddesses were eliminated from the force of Christianity. The people and the cities had to abide by the Christian teachings. Most of the Mediterranean sea regions relied heavily on the Gadir administration, known to be located in the South of the Iberian Peninsula and now situated in the city of Cádiz, Spain, this metropolis was

7029-407: The pottery, glass, and purple dye industries; their harbors also served as warehouses for products imported from Syria, Persia , and India . They exported cedar , perfume, jewelry, wine, and fruit to Rome. This prosperity meant Phoenicia became a notable destination for intellectuals, tradesmen and merchants; even farmers, from all over the empire and especially the east. Economic prosperity led to

7128-431: The principal coastal cities went unembellished during the Roman era. Berytus, Byblos, Sidon, Tyre, Tripolis, Botrys (Batroon), Caesarea ad Libanum (Arka), were all prosperous enough to have mints and to strike coins under the Romans. There were certainly temples in all these cities; the coin types are sufficient evidence for this. The reverse of a coin of Berytus, for example, illustrates a temple of Astarte (Venus); this coin

7227-433: The province into Syria Coele in the north and Syria Phoenice in the south. Tyre became the capital of the new province, but Elagabalus (r. 218–222) raised his native Emesa to co-capital, and the two cities rivalled each other as the head of the province until its division in the 4th century. The province was much larger than the area traditionally called Phoenicia : for example, cities like Emesa and Palmyra and

7326-476: The provinces as time went on. As legionaries moved into newly conquered provinces, they helped Romanize the native population and helped integrate the disparate regions of the Roman Empire into one polity. They enlisted in a legion for 25 years of service, a change from the early practice of enlisting only for a campaign. Legionaries were expected to fight, but they also built much of the infrastructure of

7425-513: The provinces of Jordan and Emesa respectively. The ecclesiastical administration paralleled the political, but with some differences. The bishop of Tyre emerged as the pre-eminent prelate of Phoenice by the mid-3rd century. When the province was divided c. 394, Damascus , rather than Emesa, became the metropolis of Phoenice II. Both provinces belonged to the Patriarchate of Antioch , with Damascus initially outranking Tyre, whose position

7524-405: The provinces where they were stationed. As legionaries settled in the provinces, towns sprang up around them, often becoming large cities. In this way, as legionaries co-mingled and intermarried with the local populace, they helped Romanize the provinces they protect. Roman legionaries served as a source of labor and expertise as well. As such, much of the infrastructure which connected the empire

7623-409: The ranks if called upon. They were excused from some of the more arduous tasks such as drill and fatigues and received better pay than their comrades in arms. Though Roman legionaries were predominantly made up of volunteer citizens, conscription of recruits continued through Republic era and into the Principate , especially in times of crisis. This meant that levees remained a significant part of

7722-434: The rear of a formation, had many essential roles outside of battle. However, during battle, their task was to prevent legionaries from routing. Carrying a staff with a ball-end, an optio would force legionaries fleeing from battle back into formation. Leading at the front, centurions would fight alongside legionaries under their command, serving as a role model for his legionaries to remain in combat. Finally, there were

7821-531: The recruit to develop strength as he trained with these wooden weapons. Alongside battle training, the recruit was also taught other necessary skills such as swimming and setting up camp. Most of all, however, the recruit was taught discipline, and was drilled twice a day during his training period. After this period, which could last up to six months, the recruit would become a milite and sent to his respective legion. The Roman soldier underwent especially rigorous training throughout his military career; discipline

7920-470: The region exhibited strength and power amongst its neighbors. In 317 BCE, tyrant Agathocles came to power in ancient Syracuse , a city in Sicily. Agathocles "...filled the cities of Sicily with outrage and slaughter" In the history of Sicily, there had never been a Tyrant like him, his abuse and brutality gave him power over the people. With Agathocles being granted complete and absolute control of Sicily, he took his army of thousands and continued to control

8019-406: The reign of Septimius Severus (though their spouses were often recognized), most likely because of the implicit necessity to care for the widow in the event of a legionary's death. When first enlisted, a fresh Roman recruit ( tiro ) was not given real weapons to train with. Instead, he was given wooden swords and shields designed to be twice the weight of their counterparts in battle. This allowed

8118-413: The remaining Carthaginians in Sicily. The tyrant made an elite army and planned to set sail for Africa to attack Carthage. The Carthaginians ended up defeating Agathocles. The Syracusan army was weakened, putting the tyrant in a panic. He made a secret plan to save himself and a few of his closest men, word got around of this betrayal to his men and he was arrested. However, he managed to escape and flee from

8217-583: The republic . Belief in a comprehensive scheme of reforms under Marius emerged in 1840s German scholarship, which posited that any changes in the Roman army between the times of Polybius and Marius were attributable to a single reform event. This belief was spread relatively uncritically and was accepted as largely proven by the 1850s and through much of the 20th century. There is, however, little ancient evidence for any permanent or significant change to recruitment practice in Marius' time. The occurrence of such

8316-540: The rest of the most prominent cities in Sicily. With word of this tyrant scavenging through his own cities, Carthage became afraid of what would happen to their armies that they held in Sicily. Carthage then sent their forces over to Sicily to restrain Agathocles conquest to destroy their strongholds. Unfortunately, this did not go in the favor of the Carthaginians, and in return, Agathocles drew up plans to rid

8415-420: The rights of the ius Italicum on the city. Today, only six Corinthian columns remain standing of this huge Jupiter temple. Severus also separated the area of modern Lebanon and parts of Syria from the greater province of Syria Coele , and formed the new province of Phoenice . Furthermore, the veterans of two Roman legions were established in the city of Berytus (actual Beirut): the fifth Macedonian and

8514-407: The soldiers behind them. Even if the pila failed to pierce the shields, the neck of the javelin would bend, making the shield useless. This then made the enemy vulnerable to missile fire and legionary attack. The disruption and damage wrought by pila would then be followed by the charge of Roman legionaries. Though Roman scutum had various different designs, they all shared a large metal boss in

8613-494: The stoning of individuals or unit executions involving decimation . However, honors, rewards, and promotions were frequently awarded to legionaries who distinguished themselves in battle or through exemplary service. One of the goals for strong disciplinary training was to expel fear from a Roman soldier. Fear, and the panic that often follows, is a devastating force to an army on the battlefield. The Romans aimed to remove fear through strict physical and mental training. However,

8712-455: The temple's stones and architectural elements. The remnants of the three apses of this basilica, originally oriented to the west, can still be seen in the upper part of the stairway of the Temple of Jupiter. Near the Temple of Venus are the remains of "The Temple of the Muses", dating from the beginning of the 1st century A.D. — Paul Reynolds The presence of a huge quarry was one of the reasons for

8811-590: The third and fourth century, was labeled as a Phoenician city from ancient literature. However, it was found that Emesa was not Phoenician, and instead labeled as Arab. There were no signs of the city being of Phoenician descent, as the language was not spoken there. Excavations found in Emesa are inscribed in Greek, and some in Latin. The city was annexed by Syria, then broke off and became apart of Syria Phoenice. From here on,

8910-466: The universal adoption of the eagle standard ; and the abolition of the citizen cavalry . It was commonly believed that Marius changed the soldiers' socio-economic background by allowing citizens without property to join the Roman army, a process called "proletarianisation". This was thought to have created a semi-professional class of soldiers motivated by land grants; these soldiers in turn became clients of their generals, who then used them to overthrow

9009-441: The upper limit was not exceeded. This policy appears to have been continued during the third century AD, as seen in the case of Aurelian raising the garrisons of Phoenice to the normal strength of two legions. In the fourth century, as a whole, almost 30 governors of Phoenicia are known with 23 governors of Phoenicia being in office between 353 and 394. Phoenicia under Roman rule Phoenicia under Roman rule describes

9108-536: The western part with its capital at Ravenna . Under the Byzantine Empire, intellectual and economic activities in Beirut, Tyre, and Sidon continued to flourish for more than a century. However, in the sixth century a series of earthquakes demolished the temples of Baalbek and destroyed the city of Beirut, leveling its famous law school and killing nearly 30,000 inhabitants. To these natural disasters were added

9207-409: The worldwide famous temples in the area of Heliopolis (actual Baalbek) started to be built, using the nearby quarries with famous "Monoliths" . The Temple of Jupiter in Heliopolis (in a complex area called even Sanctuary of Heliopolitan Zeus ) was the biggest pagan temple in the classical world. The (Jupiter) temple was begun in the last quarter of the 1st century B.C., and was nearing completion in

9306-438: The “most Roman city” due to the amount of Roman influence, both physically and culturally, on the city. Agrippa I, who was closely associated with Roman authorities, was a driving factor in the Romanization of Berytus.  His Roman influence was shown through the implementation and construction of Roman baths, porticoes, a theater, and an amphitheater.  The large amphitheater served as an arena to host gladiatorial shows,

9405-463: Was a primary incentive for the legionaries to do battle. Light skirmishing would then take place, with cavalry and auxiliaries probing enemy lines before a pitched battle commenced. The Roman legionary's three principal weapons were the pilum (javelin), scutum (shield), and gladius (short sword). Ideally, the legionaries would throw their pila first as they approached the enemy army. These pila could often penetrate enemy shields and hit

9504-548: Was also briefly challenged by the see of Berytus c. 450; after 480/1, however, the Metropolitan of Tyre established himself as the first in precedence ( protothronos ) of all the Metropolitans subject to Antioch. Since the time of Septimius Severus , it had been the practice to assign not more than two legions to each frontier province, and, although in some provinces one legion was sometimes deemed sufficient,

9603-422: Was built by legionaries. Roads, canals, and bridges were built by legionaries as well as more defensive structures such as fortresses and walls. Hadrian's wall , a monumental example of Roman engineering , was built by the three legions stationed in the area. Legionaries were not just limited to building large-scale engineering projects. Surveyors, doctors, artisans, and engineers within the army would be used for

9702-482: Was struck during the reign of Caracalla (A.D. 211–217), and has the bust of his mother, Julia Domna, on the obverse side. A similar temple appears on the Byblos coinage, and this city struck under Macrinus, the successor to Caracalla, the well-known coin depicting a temple precinct and courtyard built round a baetyl, or sacred cone. But in these urban surroundings, ashlars and column drums were too useful to lie unused; from

9801-510: Was the base of the army's success, and the soldiers were relentlessly and constantly trained with weapons and especially with drill —forced marches with full load and in tight formation were frequent. As discipline was important, infractions were heavily punished by the centurions . Punishments could range from being obliged to spend the night outside the protective security of a fortified camp, through being beaten with clubs ( fustuarium —a common punishment for 'slowpokes' during long marches), to

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