A Roman villa was typically a farmhouse or country house in the territory of the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire , sometimes reaching extravagant proportions.
78-570: Nevertheless, the term "Roman villa" generally covers buildings with the common features of being extra-urban (i.e. located outside urban settlements, unlike the domus which was inside them) and residential, with accommodation for the owner. The definition also changed with time: the earliest examples are mostly humble farmhouses in Italy, while from the Republican period a range of larger building types are included. The present meaning of "villa"
156-460: A commune perfugium , a universal haven or the agreed normal refuge of an individual: I am the consul for neither the forum... nor the campus... nor the Senate House... nor house, the common refuge of all, or bed, the place granted us for repose, nor the seat of honor have ever been free from ambush and peril of death The concept of legal abode such as domicilium or today's usage "domicile"
234-495: A stone pine tree. The prevailing winds at the time blew toward the southeast, causing the volcanic material to fall primarily on the city of Pompeii and the surrounding area. Since Herculaneum lay west of Vesuvius, it was only mildly affected by the first phase of the eruption. While roofs in Pompeii collapsed under the weight of falling debris, only a few centimetres of ash fell on Herculaneum, causing little damage; nevertheless,
312-515: A Roman villa near the city of Trier (now Echternach in Luxembourg ) which Irmina of Oeren , daughter of Dagobert II , king of the Franks , presented to him. Domus In ancient Rome , the domus ( pl. : domūs , genitive : domūs or domī ) was the type of town house occupied by the upper classes and some wealthy freedmen during the Republican and Imperial eras. It
390-564: A centre opening for the hearth's smoke to escape. This could have been the beginnings of the atrium, which was common in later homes. As Rome became more and more prosperous from trade and conquest, the homes of the wealthy increased in both size and luxury, emulating both the Etruscan atrium house and Hellenistic peristyle house. The domus included multiple rooms, indoor courtyards, gardens and beautifully painted walls that were elaborately laid out. The vestibulum ('entrance hall') led into
468-409: A large central hall: the atrium , which was the focal point of the domus and contained a statue of or an altar to the household gods. Leading off the atrium were cubicula (bedrooms), a dining room triclinium , where guests could eat dinner whilst reclining on couches, a tablinum (living room or study), and the culina (Roman kitchen). On the outside, and without any internal connection to
546-601: A legate of Sulla . Following the war the walls lost their protective purpose and were integrated into houses and adjacent structures, such as the House of the Inn . It became a Roman municipium in 89 BC. The eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79 buried Herculaneum under approximately 20 m (66 ft) of ash. It lay hidden and largely intact until discoveries from wells and tunnels became gradually more widely known, notably following
624-637: A long-term plan for the site. Since 2001, the Herculaneum Conservation Project has been involved in pilot conservation projects and has partnered with the British School at Rome for training students to maintain the site. One of the pilot projects started by the Conservation Project was on the tablinum that had been conserved by Maiuri 's team in 1938. Over time water had seeped into the wall causing
702-475: A military officer (with an elaborate dagger and belt), who was perhaps involved in a rescue mission. The volcanic ash and debris covering Herculaneum, along with the extreme heat, left it in a remarkable state of preservation for over 1,600 years. However, once excavations began, exposure to the elements began the slow process of deterioration. This was exacerbated by earlier excavation practices, which generally focused on valuable artifacts rather than preserving
780-459: A moment's notice. Much of what is known about the Roman domus comes from excavations at Pompeii and Herculaneum . While there are excavations of homes in the city of Rome, none of them retained the original integrity of the structures. The homes of Rome are mostly bare foundations, converted churches or other community buildings. The most famous Roman domus is the House of Augustus . Little of
858-463: A monastery in the ruins of a villa at Subiaco that had belonged to Nero . Around 590, Saint Eligius was born in a highly placed Gallo-Roman family at the 'villa' of Chaptelat near Limoges , in Aquitaine . The abbey at Stavelot was founded ca 650 on the domain of a former villa near Liège and Vézelay Abbey had a similar founding. As late as 698, Willibrord established Echternach Abbey at
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#1732782749147936-488: A prominent cultural hub. The famous Villa of the Papyri , was built on the seashore on four terraces. It is thought to have belonged to consul Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus , Julius Caesar 's father-in-law, who was a patron of poets and philosophers and built there the only ancient library that has survived virtually intact. Between 1752 and 1754, a number of blackened, unreadable papyrus scrolls were recovered from
1014-496: A smaller layer of material covering the site (4m as compared to 20m at Herculaneum), diverted attention and effort. King Francis I ordered land acquisitions and promoted renewed excavations between 1828 and 1837. Acquisitions continued under the newly formed Kingdom of Italy , extending excavations eastwards till 1875. From 1927 until 1942, Amedeo Maiuri conducted a new campaign, sponsored by Mussolini 's regime, which unearthed approximately four hectares which today are part of
1092-455: A statue of a Cupid , once part of a candlestick. In the centre of the peristyle are the remains of a rectangular basin. The house consists of two adjoined structures with a mix of plain, simple spaces and finely-decorated rooms. The atrium is covered and lacks the usual impluvium . It retains its original flooring of opus tesselatum and opus sectile . A highly adorned biclinium (a dining-couch for two persons ) with frescoes in
1170-452: A striking influence on nascent European Neoclassicism ; by the end of the 18th century, motifs from Herculaneum began to appear on fashionable furnishings, including decorative wall-paintings, tripod tables, perfume burners, and teacups. Nonetheless, excavation ceased once again in 1762 as a result of Winckelmann 's harsh criticism of the treasure-hunting techniques. The discovery of neighbouring Pompeii, substantially simpler to excavate due to
1248-418: A vignette in a frescoed wall at the House of Marcus Lucretius Fronto in Pompeii still shows a row of seafront villas, all with porticos along the front, some rising up in porticoed tiers to an altana at the top that would catch a breeze. Villas were centres of a variety of economic activity such as mining, pottery factories, or horse raising such as those found in northwestern Gaul . Villas specialising in
1326-470: A villa in neighbouring Granatello, and to furnish it, he grew intrigued in local tales of wells containing antique sculptures and artworks. In 1709, he acquired the site of a recently-dug well and tunnelled out from its bottom in search of sculptures. The tunnel reached what would be later identified as a theatre, where remarkable sculptures were uncovered. Among the earliest sculptures discovered were two exquisitely carved Herculaneum women, currently housed in
1404-522: Is a documented and legal standard, common in Western society for thousands of years. An early reference to domicilium is found in the Lex Plautia Papiria , a Roman plebiscite enacted in 89 BC. Under this law, Italian communities that had previously been denied could now gain citizenship. [REDACTED] Media related to Domus at Wikimedia Commons Herculaneum Herculaneum
1482-425: Is an ancient Roman town located in the modern-day comune of Ercolano , Campania , Italy. Herculaneum was buried under a massive pyroclastic flow in the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD . Like the nearby city of Pompeii , Herculaneum is famous as one of the few ancient cities to be preserved nearly intact, as the solidified material from the volcano that blanketed the town protected it against looting and
1560-738: Is partially based on the fairly numerous ancient Roman written sources and on archaeological remains, though many of these are poorly preserved. The most detailed ancient text on the meaning of "villa" is by Varro (116–27 BC) dating from the end of the Republican period, which is used for most modern considerations. But Roman authors (e.g. Columella [4-70 AD], Cato the Elder [234-149 BC]) wrote in different times, with different objectives and for aristocratic readers and hence had specific interpretations of villa . The Romans built many kinds of villas and any country house with some decorative features in
1638-468: Is the House of Aristides. The entrance opens directly onto the atrium, but the ruins are not well preserved due to damage caused by previous excavations. The lower floor was probably used for storage. The second house in insula II takes its name from a lost fresco of Argus and Io that once adorned a reception room off the large peristyle . This structure was likely one of Herculaneum's finest villas. It
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#17327827491471716-594: The fourth style and a spacious triclinium originally marble-floored are found off the atrium . Several further rooms, including the apsed alcove after which the house is named, are accessible via a corridor receiving daylight from a small courtyard. Temple of the Augustales or priests of the Imperial cult . The Central baths ( thermae ) were built around the 1st century AD. There were separate bathing areas for men and women. The thermae also served as
1794-404: The lectus genialis , was placed in the atrium, on the side opposite the door or in one of the alae . Cubiculum : bedroom. The floor mosaics of the cubiculum often marked out a rectangle where the bed should be placed. Culina : the kitchen in a Roman house. The culina was dark, and the smoke from the cooking fires filled the room as the best ventilation available in Roman times
1872-582: The Gulf of Naples . In the 4th century BC, Herculaneum came under the domination of the Samnites . In the 2nd century BC the city walls were built (between 2 and 3 metres thick), constructed primarily of large pebbles, with the exception of the coastal section made of opus reticulatum . It participated in the Social War (91–88 BC) on the side of the "Allies" against Rome and was defeated by Titus Didius ,
1950-593: The Naples National Archaeological Museum . After years of mismanagement, Herculaneum fell into a dire state. However, in 2001, the Packard Humanities Institute began the Herculaneum Conservation Project, a private–public partnership initially set to provide financial aid to local authorities addressing critical issues. The program eventually shifted to include providing skilled expert support and formulating
2028-525: The Prince d'Elbeuf's explorations in the early 18th century. Excavations continued sporadically up to the present and today many streets and buildings are visible, although over 75% of the town remains buried. Today, the Italian towns of Ercolano and Portici lie above Herculaneum. Ercolano was called Resina until 1969 when the modern name was adopted in honour of the old city. The course and timeline of
2106-682: The Skulpturensammlung in Dresden . The excavation ceased in 1711 out of concern about the stability of the structures above. Major excavations resumed in 1738 under the patronage of Charles III of Spain , who had recently begun building his nearby palace in Portici. He appointed the Italian military engineer Giovanni Antonio Medrano and Roque Joaquin de Alcubierre to supervise the extensive new project. The publication of " Le Antichità di Ercolano " ("The Antiquities of Herculaneum") had
2184-521: The Villa of the Papyri and its library at Herculaneum preserved by the ashfall from the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79. Areas within easy reach of Rome offered cool lodgings in the heat of summer. Hadrian's Villa at Tibur ( Tivoli ) was in an area popular with Romans of rank. Cicero had several villas. Pliny the Younger described his villas in his letters. The Romans invented the seaside villa:
2262-444: The domus . Separated by the length of another room, entry to a different portion of the residence was accessed by these passageways which would now be called halls, hallways, or corridors. Tablinum : between the atrium and the peristyle was the tablinum , an office of sorts for the dominus , who would receive his clients for the morning salutatio . The dominus was able to command the house visually from this vantage point as
2340-552: The villa urbana in Central Italy. A third type of villa was a large commercial estate called latifundium which produced and exported agricultural produce; such villas might lack luxuries (e.g. Cato) but many were very sumptuous (e.g. Varro). The whole estate of a villa was also called a praedium , fundus or sometimes, rus . A villa rustica had 2 or 3 parts: Under the Empire, many patrician villas were built on
2418-476: The "Suburban District" (SD). Individual buildings have their own entrance number. For example, the House of the Deer is labelled (Ins IV, 3). The Forum , temples, theatre, numerous houses and necropoles are still buried. Due to bradyseism , which affects the entire Vesuvius region, portions of the historic city of Herculaneum today lie as much as 4 metres below sea level. A single main drain collected water from
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2496-403: The 1990s uncovered 296 skeletons on the beach or huddled in 9 of the 12 stone vaults facing the sea. While the town was almost completely evacuated, these people found themselves trapped. The "Ring Lady" (see image), named for the rings on her fingers, was discovered there in 1982. Eventually, 340 bodies were identified in this area. Analyses of the skeletons suggest it was mainly men who died on
2574-602: The Forum and from house impluviums , latrines and kitchens along Cardo III. Other drains emptied directly into the street, except latrines equipped with a cesspit. For water supply, the city was directly connected to the Serino aqueduct , built in the Augustan age, which brought water to buildings through a series of lead pipes under the roads, regulated by valves; wells had been used previously. The first building in insula II
2652-524: The Pompeian domus were often painted in one of four Pompeian Styles : the first style imitated ashlar masonry, the second style represented public architecture, the third style focused on mythological creatures, and the fourth style combined the architecture and mythological creatures of the second and third styles. The home's importance as a universally recognized haven was written about by Cicero after an early morning assassination attempt. He speaks of
2730-537: The Roman style may be called a "villa" by modern scholars. Two kinds of villas were generally described: Other examples of villae urbanae were the middle and late Republican villas that encroached on the Campus Martius , at that time on the edge of Rome, the one at Rome's Parco della Musica or at Grottarossa in Rome, and those outside the city walls of Pompeii which demonstrate the antiquity and heritage of
2808-593: The Villa of the Papyri by workmen. These scrolls became known as the Herculaneum papyri or scrolls , the majority of which are today stored at the National Library, Naples . Although badly carbonized, a number of scrolls have been unrolled with varying degrees of success. Computer-enhanced multi-spectral infrared imaging helped make the ink legible. There is now a real prospect that it will be possible to read
2886-427: The already-excavated portions of the city rather than exposing more. Smaller than Pompeii with a population of circa 5,000, Herculaneum was a wealthier town. It was a seaside retreat for the Roman elite, as reflected by the extraordinary density of luxurious houses featuring lavish use of coloured marble cladding. Buildings of the ancient city include the Villa of the Papyri and the so-called "boat houses", wherein
2964-413: The ancient beach (just in front of the city walls) and in the first six so-called "boat sheds". Long before this finding, it was believed that the majority of the town's inhabitants had managed to flee, as only a few skeletons had been unearthed during the excavations. However, this discovery led to a shift in perspective. The last inhabitants waiting for rescue from the sea were probably killed instantly by
3042-528: The archaeological park. Hundreds of skeletons were found in the so-called "boat houses", by the ancient shoreline, between 1980 and 1981. The Villa of the Papyri , the northwest baths, the House of the Dionysian Reliefs and a large collapsed monument were brought to light between 1996 and 1999. However, the area was left in a chaotic state until major conservation interventions from 2000 through 2007. Many public and private buildings, including
3120-697: The archaeological value of the site. Preservation of the skeletal remains became a top priority only in the early 1980s, under the direction of Sara C. Bisel . Intensive tourism, vandalism, substandard management, and political ineptitude contributed to the deterioration of numerous sites and buildings. Numerous building foundations have been weakened by water damage caused by modern Ercolano . Reconstruction initiatives have often proved counterproductive. However, recent conservation efforts have had greater success. Today excavations have been temporarily discontinued to direct all funding to conservation programs. A large number of artifacts from Herculaneum are preserved in
3198-472: The ash prompted most inhabitants to flee. The volcano continued spewing up a high-altitude column from which ash and pumice began to fall, blanketing the area. At 1 am the next day, the eruptive column collapsed onto Vesuvius and its flanks. The first pyroclastic surge , formed by a mixture of ash and hot gases, flowed down the mountain and through the mostly-evacuated town of Herculaneum at 160 km/h (100 mph). A succession of six flows and surges buried
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3276-525: The atrium were arranged the master's family's main rooms: the small cubicula or bedrooms, the tablinum , which served as a living room or study, and the triclinium , or dining-room. Roman homes were like Greek homes. Only two objects were present in the atrium of Caecilius in Pompeii : the lararium (a small shrine to the Lares , the household gods) and a small bronze box that stored precious family items. In
3354-477: The atrium, were tabernae (shops facing the street). In cities throughout the Roman Empire, wealthy homeowners lived in buildings with few exterior windows. Glass windows were not readily available: glass production was in its infancy. Thus a wealthy Roman citizen lived in a large house separated into two parts, and linked together through the tablinum or study or by a small passageway. Surrounding
3432-450: The beach, while women and children sheltered and died in the boat houses. A scientific study, published in 2021, showed that chemical analysis of the remains was able to provide further insights into the health and nutrition of Herculaneum's population. Stable isotope analysis of bone samples from 17 individuals (11 men and 6 women) revealed the men ate 1.6 times more fish than the women, who consumed more meat, eggs, and dairy; this fits into
3510-403: The city's buildings to approximately 20 m (66 ft) depth, causing little damage in some areas and preserving structures, objects and victims almost intact. However, other areas were damaged significantly, knocking down walls, tearing away columns and other large objects; a marble statue of Marcus Nonius Balbus near the baths was blown 15 m (49 ft) away and a carbonised skeleton
3588-489: The coasts ( villae maritimae ) such as those on picturesque sites overlooking the Bay of Naples like the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum , or on the isle of Capri , at Circeii and at Antium . Wealthy Romans also escaped the summer heat in the hills within easy reach of Rome , especially around Frascati and including the imperial Hadrian's Villa -palace at Tivoli . Cicero allegedly possessed no fewer than seven villas,
3666-431: The elements. Although less known than Pompeii today, it was the first and, for a long time, the only discovered Vesuvian city (in 1709). Pompeii was revealed in 1748 and identified in 1763. Unlike Pompeii, the mainly pyroclastic material that covered Herculaneum carbonized and preserved more wooden objects such as roofs, beds, and doors, as well as other organic-based materials such as food and papyrus . According to
3744-425: The eruption can be reconstructed based on archaeological excavations and two letters from Pliny the Younger to the Roman historian Tacitus . At around 1 pm on the first day of eruption, Mount Vesuvius began spewing volcanic material thousands of metres into the sky. After the plume had reached a height of 27–33 km (17–21 mi), the top of the column flattened, prompting Pliny to describe it to Tacitus as
3822-471: The first century BC, the "classic" villa took many architectural forms, with many examples employing an atrium or peristyle for interior spaces open to light and air. Villas were often furnished with heated bath suites ( thermae ) and many would have had under-floor heating known as the hypocaust . The late Roman Republic witnessed an explosion of villa construction in central Italy (current regions of Toscana, Umbria, Lazio, and Campania), especially in
3900-443: The forum complex, are yet to be excavated. The classical street layout separates the city into blocks ( insulae ), defined by the intersection of the east–west ( cardi ) and north–south ( decumani ) streets. Hence Insula II to Insula VII run counterclockwise from Insula II. To the east are two additional blocks: Orientalis I (oI) and Orientalis II (oII). To the south of Orientalis I (oI) lies one additional group of buildings known as
3978-467: The head of the social authority of the pater familias . Triclinium : the Roman dining room. The area had three couches, klinai , on three sides of a low square table. The oecus was the principal hall or salon in a Roman house, which was used occasionally as a triclinium for banquets. Alae : the open rooms (or alcoves) on each side of the atrium. Ancestral death masks, or imagines , may have been displayed here. The wedding couch or bed,
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#17327827491474056-406: The house, where guests and dependents ( clients ) were greeted. The atrium was open in the center, surrounded at least in part by high-ceilinged porticoes that often contained only sparse furnishings to give the effect of a large space. In the center was a square roof opening called the compluvium in which rain could come, draining inwards from the slanted tiled roof. Directly below the compluvium
4134-488: The intense heat of the pyroclastic flow , despite being sheltered from direct impact. A study of victims' postures and the effects on their skeletons seemed to indicate that the first surge caused instant death as a result of fulminant shock due to a temperature of about 500 °C (930 °F). Extreme heat caused hands and feet to contract and perhaps fractured bones and teeth. After a period of finds being mismanaged and deterioration of skeletons, further excavations in
4212-470: The lethal effects of the pyroclastic surges in the Vesuvius area has shown that, in the vicinity of Pompeii and Herculaneum, intense heat was the main cause of the death of people who had previously been thought to have died by ash suffocation. Exposure to ≥250 °C (480 °F) had likely killed residents within 10 km, including those sheltering in buildings. Prince d' Elbeuf began constructing
4290-406: The master bedroom was a small wooden bed and couch which usually consisted of some slight padding. As the domus developed, the tablinum took on a role similar to that of the study. In each of the other bedrooms there was usually just a bed. The triclinium had three couches surrounding a table. The triclinium often was similar in size to the master bedroom. The study was used as a passageway. If
4368-461: The master of the house was a banker or merchant, the study often was larger because of the greater need for materials. Roman houses lay on an axis, so that a visitor was provided with a view through the fauces, atrium, and tablinum to the peristyle. Vestibulum ( fauces ): the vestibulum was the main entrance hall of the Roman domus . It is usually seen only in grander structures; however, many urban homes had shops or rental space directly off
4446-519: The oldest of them, which he inherited, near Arpinum in Latium. Pliny the Younger had three or four which are well known from his descriptions. By the 4th century, "villa" could simply connote an agricultural holding: Jerome translated in the Gospel of Mark (xiv, 32) chorion , describing the olive grove of Gethsemane , with villa, without an inference that there were any dwellings there at all. By
4524-450: The original architecture survives; only a single multi-level section of the vast complex remains. Even in its original state, the House of Augustus would not have been a good representation of a typical domus , as the home belonged to one of Rome's most powerful, wealthy and influential citizens. In contrast, the homes of Pompeii were preserved intact, exactly as they were when they were occupied by Roman people 2,000 years ago. The rooms of
4602-506: The outer papyrus, marking "a revolution for papyrologists ". While researchers can identify certain words on the scrolls, the stories on the scrolls cannot yet be unlocked. In 2024 the winners of a contest called the Vesuvius Challenge, with the help of AI, managed to reveal hundreds of words across 15 columns of text, corresponding to around 5% of a scroll. In 1980–82, excavations initially turned up more than 55 skeletons on
4680-576: The private homes of the prosperous. The homes of the early Etruscans (predecessors of the Romans) were simple, even for the wealthy or ruling classes. They were small familiar huts constructed on the axial plan of a central hall with an open skylight. It is believed that the Temple of Vesta was, in form, copied from these early dwellings because the worship of Vesta began in individual homes. The huts were probably made of mud and wood with thatched roofs and
4758-508: The rapid vaporisation and replacement of the flesh of the victims by the hot ash (ca. 500 °C). A cast of the skeletons unearthed in chamber 10 is on display at the Museum of Anthropology in Naples. Of exceptional interest is the analysis, published in 2021, of one of the skeletons (n. 26) discovered in 1982 on the beach next to a boat (on display in the boat pavilion). The remains belong to
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#17327827491474836-645: The rolls stored at the French National Academy in Paris have been extensively examined by X-ray in summer 2009. However, the text imaging failed because Roman writers likely used carbon-based inks, essentially invisible to the X-ray scans. Similar later attempts all failed. In 2015, a team of scientists managed to increase the contrast between the carbon ink and the carbon-based papyrus using X-ray Phase Contrast Tomography , and read Greek words along
4914-534: The seagoing export of olive oil to Roman legions in Germany became a feature of the southern Iberian province of Hispania Baetica . In some cases villas survived the fall of the Empire into the Early Middle Ages ; large working villas were donated by aristocrats and territorial magnates to individual monks, often to become the nucleus of famous monasteries . For example, Saint Benedict established
4992-458: The shops are typical of October – and conversely the summer fruit typical of August was already being sold in dried, or conserved form. Wine fermenting jars had been sealed, which would have happened around the end of October; coins found in the purse of a woman buried in the ash include one with a 15th imperatorial acclamation among the emperor's titles and could not have been minted before the second week of September. Multidisciplinary research on
5070-632: The skeletal remains of at least 300 people were found. Dionysius of Halicarnassus states that the Greek hero Heracles ( Hercules in Latin ) founded the city. However, according to Strabo , the Oscans founded the first settlement. The Etruscans took control of the area, and were later overthrown by the Greeks. The Greeks named the town Heraklion and used it as a trading post because of its proximity to
5148-402: The streets with the front door between. The vestibulum would run the length of these front tabernae shops. This created security by keeping the main portion of the domus off the street. In homes that did not have spaces for let in front, either rooms or a closed area would still be separated by a separate vestibulum . Atrium ( pl. : atria): the atrium was the most important part of
5226-519: The summer triclinium to stave off the heat. Most of the light came from the compluvium and the open peristylium . There were no clearly defined separate spaces for slaves or for women. Slaves were ubiquitous in a Roman household and slept outside their masters' doors at night; women used the atrium and other spaces to work once the men had left for the forum. There was also no clear distinction between rooms meant solely for private use and public rooms, as any private room could be opened to guests at
5304-452: The traditional tale, the city was rediscovered by chance in 1709 during the drilling of a well. Remnants of the city, however, were already found during earlier earthworks. In the years following the site's uncovering, treasure seekers excavated tunnels and took artifacts . Regular excavations commenced in 1738 and have continued irregularly since. Today, only a fraction of the ancient site has been excavated. The focus has shifted to preserving
5382-401: The unopened rolls using X-rays . The same techniques could be applied to the rolls waiting to be discovered in the as-yet unexcavated part of the villa, eliminating the risk of potential damage from unrolling. Later CT scan revealed the scrolls' fibres structure, sand, and other debris trapped in the scrolls. These findings help a safer unrolling. However, the text remains illegible. Two of
5460-489: The walled and fortified city . The elite classes of Roman society constructed their residences with elaborate marble decorations, inlaid marble paneling, door jambs and columns as well as expensive paintings and frescoes. Many poor and lower-middle-class Romans lived in crowded, dirty and mostly rundown rental apartments, known as insulae . These multi-level apartment blocks were built as high and tightly together as possible and held far less status and convenience than
5538-436: The wider dietary trend from Herculaneum and Roman Italy. Casts of skeletons were also produced to replace the original bones after taphonomic study, scientific documentation and excavation. In contrast to Pompeii, where casts resembling the body features of the victims were produced by filling hollowed spaces of the body imprints in the ash deposit with plaster, the shape of corpses at Herculaneum could not be preserved due to
5616-511: The years following the dictatorship of Sulla (81 BC). For example the villa at Settefinestre from the 1st century BC was the centre of one of the latifundia involved in large-scale agricultural production in Etruria . In the imperial period villas sometimes became quite palatial, such as the villas built on seaside slopes overlooking the Gulf of Naples at Baiae and those at Stabiae and
5694-405: Was a hole in the ceiling (the domestic chimney would not be invented until the 12th century CE). This is where slaves prepared food for their masters and guests in Roman times. Posticum : a servant's entrance is also used by family members wanting to leave the house unobserved. The back part of the house was centred on the peristyle , much as the front centred on the atrium. The peristylium
5772-416: Was a small garden often surrounded by a columned passage, the model of the medieval cloister. Surrounding the peristyle were the bathrooms, kitchen and summer triclinium . The kitchen was usually a very small room with a small masonry counter wood-burning stove. The wealthy had a slave who worked as a cook and spent nearly all his or her time in the kitchen. During a hot summer day the family ate their meals in
5850-501: Was found in almost all the major cities throughout the Roman territories. The modern English word domestic comes from Latin domesticus , which is derived from the word domus . Along with a domus in the city, many of the richest families of ancient Rome also owned a separate country house known as a villa . Many chose to live primarily, or even exclusively, in their villas; these homes were generally much grander in scale and on larger acres of land due to more space outside
5928-468: Was found lifted 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in) above ground level in the garden of the House of the Relief of Telephus . The date of the eruption has been shown to be on or after 17 October. Support for an October/November eruption has long been known in several respects: buried people in the ash were wearing heavier clothing than the light summer clothes typical of August; fresh fruit and vegetables in
6006-402: Was the impluvium . Impluvium : an impluvium was basically a drained pool, a shallow rectangular sunken portion of the atrium to gather rainwater, which drained into an underground cistern. The impluvium was often lined with marble, and around which usually was a floor of small mosaic. Fauces : these were similar in design and function to the vestibulum , but were found deeper into
6084-475: Was the first time that a second story had been unearthed in such detail when the house was discovered in the late 1820s. The excavation uncovered a balcony on the second level overlooking Cardo III, as well as wooden shelving and cupboards now lost. North of the House of Argus lies the House of the Genius . Although it has only been partially uncovered, it appears to have been a vast structure. Its name derives from
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