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41-546: Raymond Pearl (June 3, 1879 – November 17, 1940) was an American biologist , regarded as one of the founders of biogerontology . He spent most of his career at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore . Pearl was a prolific writer of academic books, papers and articles, as well as a committed populariser and communicator of science. At his death, 841 publications were listed against his name. An early eugenicist, he eventually became an important critic of eugenics. He also advanced

82-460: A B.A. as the youngest in his class. At Dartmouth, he was known to be an exceptional student as well as a skilled musician. He was capable of playing almost every wind instrument, and he planned amateur music performances with his friends and colleagues. In 1899, Pearl attended the University of Michigan where he received his PhD in zoology for his work on the behavior of planarians. He also

123-410: A Finnish Dorset lamb named Dolly. An undergraduate degree in biology typically requires coursework in molecular and cellular biology , development , ecology , genetics , microbiology , anatomy , physiology , botany , and zoology . Additional requirements may include physics , chemistry ( general , organic , and biochemistry ), calculus , and statistics . Students who aspire to

164-496: A critic of Pearl and did not believe he was fit for this position. Wilson believed that great detail and attention should be used when dealing with the math of biological data and thought that Pearl had been messy with his handling and reasoning of math in the field of biology. Wilson's first issue with Pearl was his study of population growth in the 1920s. Pearl stated that he discovered the law of population that represented an S-shaped curve of growth, but Wilson thought that his data

205-667: A critique of the Rate of Living Hypothesis see Living fast, dying when? .) Pearl was widely known for his lust for life and his love of food, drink, music and parties. He was a key member of the Saturday Night Club which also included H. L. Mencken . Prohibition made no dent in Pearl's drinking habits (which were legendary). Raymond Pearl is, also, known for his population biology work, as in his 1928 volume, The Rate of Living: Being an Account of Some Experimental Studies on

246-857: A department of laboratory statistics when he was recruited by Johns Hopkins University to be the Professor of Biometry and Vital Statistics. In 1920 he was elected as a Fellow of the American Statistical Association , which he also served as president. He was also an elected member of the American Philosophical Society , the United States National Academy of Sciences , and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences . In 1929, Pearl's friend William Morton Wheeler

287-552: A position to veto or approve their ideas. These scientists must consider the business effects of their work. Swift advances in knowledge of genetics and organic molecules spurred growth in the field of biotechnology, transforming the industries in which biological scientists work. Biological scientists can now manipulate the genetic material of animals and plants, attempting to make organisms (including humans) more productive or resistant to disease. Basic and applied research on biotechnological processes, such as recombining DNA, has led to

328-711: A research-oriented career usually pursue a graduate degree such as a master's or a doctorate (e.g., PhD) whereby they would receive training from a research head based on an apprenticeship model that has been in existence since the 1800s. Students in these graduate programs often receive specialized training in a particular subdiscipline of biology. Biologists who work in basic research formulate theories and devise experiments to advance human knowledge on life including topics such as evolution , biochemistry , molecular biology , neuroscience and cell biology . Biologists typically conduct laboratory experiments involving animals , plants , microorganisms or biomolecules . However,

369-772: A small part of biological research also occurs outside the laboratory and may involve natural observation rather than experimentation. For example, a botanist may investigate the plant species present in a particular environment, while an ecologist might study how a forest area recovers after a fire. Biologists who work in applied research use instead the accomplishments gained by basic research to further knowledge in particular fields or applications. For example, this applied research may be used to develop new pharmaceutical drugs , treatments and medical diagnostic tests . Biological scientists conducting applied research and product development in private industry may be required to describe their research plans or results to non-scientists who are in

410-529: A solution to the problems he was concerned with in biology, zoology and eugenics . On his return to the US he continued his interests, but was converted from biometry to Mendelian genetics . Pearl's interest in statistical methods in biology began at the University of London, where he worked alongside Karl Pearson. He stayed as an instructor at the University of Michigan until 1906, and that same year, he went to

451-538: Is regarded as one of founders of biogerontology . In 1908 Max Rubner observed that mammals of different size and longevity had equal mass specific metabolic output. Partly based on the observation that the longevity of fruit flies varies inversely with ambient temperature, Pearl (like Rubner) also asserted that maximum life span is inversely proportional to basal metabolic rate . Pearl accepted Alexis Carrel 's erroneous ideas that normal somatic cells don't age, and that aging must therefore be due to dysfunction at

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492-408: Is undermined by the observation that a rat and a bat have similar metabolic rate, but a bat lives several times longer. More recently, further doubts have been raised on the Rate of Living Hypothesis by the demonstration that, when modern statistical methods for correcting for the effects of body size and phylogeny are employed, metabolic rate does not correlate with longevity in mammals or birds. (For

533-832: The University of Pennsylvania to be an instructor in zoology. A year later, he became the head of the Department of Biology of the Main Agricultural Experiment Station at the University of Maine in Orono where he studied the genetics of poultry and other domestic animals. From 1917 to 1919, Pearl was the Chief of the Statistical Division of the United States Food Administration . In 1918, Pearl developed

574-501: The 1920s and 1930s, Pearl focused on the effect that the environment, which included disease, alcohol, and tobacco, has on longevity. He published a book called Alcohol and Longevity in 1926, where he claimed that moderate consumption of alcohol could be beneficial for cardiovascular health, which was met with much debate due to prohibition. Controversy continued when Pearl conducted a study on tobacco in which he demonstrated that smoking decreases longevity while drinking does not. Pearl

615-506: The Biology of Life Duration. In this book, he presents extensive research regarding population density effects on life duration in fruit flies, demonstrating that an optimal population density existed for that insect in his experimental model. This raised the question of whether or not the same effect might not occur in other species, including humans. His work demonstrating longer lifespans for flies with lower metabolic rates, also, raised

656-681: The Board of Overseers at Harvard rejected Pearl's nomination by a vote of ten to nine. Pearl continued his scientific pursuits at Hopkins until his death. Pearl was a eugenicist who held traditional Galtonian beliefs. He wanted to use eugenics and biometry in medicine and public health in order to gain knowledge of human heredity. Pearl founded the Constitutional Clinic at the Johns Hopkins Hospital . He believed in constitutional medicine, which focuses on examining

697-866: The basic assumptions of eugenics. The article was the first general attack on eugenics by someone perceived as being within the movement. It also contributed to the emergence of reform eugenics and the population control movement. Pearl was an influential member of the Advisory Committee of the World Population Conference , after which Pearl helped found the International Union for the Scientific Study of Population Problems . Pearl's ideas about human population growth, which were separable from his ideas about eugenics, owed to both his biological research but also

738-402: The basis of modern genetics . In 1953, James D. Watson and Francis Crick described the basic structure of DNA, the genetic material for expressing life in all its forms, building on the work of Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin , suggested that the structure of DNA was a double helix. Ian Wilmut led a research group that in 1996 first cloned a mammal from an adult somatic cell,

779-427: The body level. Pearl speculated that lifespan was limited by vital cell components that were depleted or damaged more rapidly in animals with faster metabolisms. Denham Harman 's free-radical theory of aging later provided a plausible causal mechanism for Pearl's hypothesis. The Rate of Living Hypothesis enjoyed prominence as one of the foremost theories of aging for nearly 50 years. The Rate of Living Hypothesis

820-597: The concept of carrying capacity, although he didn't use the term, and was a Malthusian concerned with resource limits. He was a critique of mass consumption. Pearl was born into an upper-middle-class family on June 3, 1879, in Farmington, New Hampshire , the son of Ida May (McDuffee) and Frank Pearl. At an early age, Pearl was exposed to the classics. His parents and grandparents wanted him to study Greek and Latin. However, when he attended Dartmouth College at 16 years old, he became fascinated by biology and graduated with

861-431: The correlation between tuberculosis and cancer and published a paper that claimed that there is a negative correlation. This research had mistakes in its data analysis, so Wilson saw this study as an opportunity to attack Pearl and prevent him from becoming the new dean. Wilson denounced Pearl's use of mathematics in the cancer study to different departments at Harvard and published about it as well. His efforts paid off as

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902-670: The discovery of genes associated with specific diseases and inherited health risks, such as sickle cell anemia. Advances in biotechnology have created research opportunities in almost all areas of biology, with commercial applications in areas such as medicine, agriculture, and environmental remediation . Most biological scientists specialize in the study of a certain type of organism or in a specific activity, although recent advances have blurred some traditional classifications. Biologists typically work regular hours but longer hours are not uncommon. Researchers may be required to work odd hours in laboratories or other locations (especially while in

943-837: The field may work in warm or cold climates, in all kinds of weather . The highest honor awarded to biologists is the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine , awarded since 1901, by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Another significant award is the Crafoord Prize in Biosciences; established in 1980. Francis Galton Too Many Requests If you report this error to the Wikimedia System Administrators, please include

984-581: The field), depending on the nature of their research. Many biologists depend on grant money to fund their research. They may be under pressure to meet deadlines and to conform to rigid grant-writing specifications when preparing proposals to seek new or extended funding. Marine biologists encounter a variety of working conditions. Some work in laboratories; others work on research ships, and those who work underwater must practice safe diving while working around sharp coral reefs and hazardous marine life. Although some marine biologists obtain their specimens from

1025-507: The first birth control clinics in the United States called Baltimore's Bureau for Contraceptive Advice. Pearl was a supporter of birth control, but had a more conservative and scientific approach when compared to the ideologies of Margaret Sanger . The clinic performed a eugenic medicine study that looked at how the distribution of birth control information that was provided by a clinic affected society. Pearl's main focus of interest

1066-532: The founder of biology , is recognized to be one of the greatest biologists of all time. Robert Hooke, an English natural philosopher , coined the term cell , suggesting plant structure's resemblance to honeycomb cells. Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace independently formulated the theory of evolution by natural selection , which was described in detail in Darwin's book On the Origin of Species , which

1107-429: The goal of developing medically useful products for humans. In modern times, most biologists have one or more academic degrees such as a bachelor's degree , as well as an advanced degree such as a master's degree or a doctorate . Like other scientists, biologists can be found working in different sectors of the economy such as in academia , nonprofits , private industry , or government . Francesco Redi ,

1148-447: The height, weight, handedness, measurements of different body parts, and physical descriptions. Just like Galton, he believed that race was an important factor in human characteristics and believed in using biology and genetics to improve the long-term health of the population. Although he tried to be quantitative, objective, and systematic, his classifications of different races were influenced by social norms and prejudices. However, in

1189-449: The late 1920s, Pearl condemned eugenics. Pearl criticized the use of race in eugenics despite conducting research that recognized racial differences. He believed that eugenics was doing the right thing badly and that human biology was eugenics done right if it consisted of reliable statistics, objectivity, a liberal social agenda, and medical affiliations. In 1927, he published the landmark article The Biology of Superiority , which attacked

1230-412: The production of important substances, including human insulin and growth hormone. Many other substances not previously available in large quantities are now produced by biotechnological means. Some of these substances are useful in treating diseases. Those working on various genome (chromosomes with their associated genes) projects isolate genes and determine their function. This work continues to lead to

1271-432: The question of whether or not a similar phenomenon might be found in other species, including humans. Thus, he became a mentor to John B. Calhoun, famous for his ecological studies of rodent populations and their possible importance for modern humans. Population density effects on duration of life is thought, by population biologists, to be Raymond Pearl's greatest contribution to biological science. In November 1940, Pearl

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1312-531: The role he believed population played in the origins of World War I as well as his concern that mass consumption would push against resource limits. His research on population limits helped develop the concept of carrying capacity. Despite his apparent rejection of eugenics, Pearl maintained relatively good relations with key eugenicists and expressed classist views. He made statements which have been interpreted as being anti-Semitic . From 1927 to 1932, Pearl and his colleague Alan Meyer were important figures of one of

1353-571: The sea, many still spend a good deal of their time in laboratories and offices, conducting tests, running experiments, recording results, and compiling data. Biologists are not usually exposed to unsafe or unhealthy conditions. Those who work with dangerous organisms or toxic substances in the laboratory must follow strict safety procedures to avoid contamination . Many biological scientists, such as botanists, ecologists, and zoologists, conduct field studies that involve strenuous physical activity and primitive living conditions. Biological scientists in

1394-421: The soil on which a seed falls. He later became the director of a new Institute of Biological Research at Johns Hopkins in 1925 that was aimed at examining the genetics and environmental factors of disease. This research institute combined biometry, genetics, and medicine to investigate the hereditary predisposition of tuberculosis and hypertension . When conducting his research of these diseases, Pearl recorded

1435-583: Was about to retire as the Dean of the Bussey Institution at Harvard University . At this time, there were plans to alter the current biological departments and create a field of human biology at Harvard. Due to his connections at Harvard, Pearl was mentioned as a possible candidate to succeed Wheeler and had many supporters there. However, Edwin Bidwell Wilson , a Harvard mathematician, was

1476-560: Was in apparently good health and paid a visit to the Baltimore Zoo . He cut his trip short complaining of chest pains and died later that day. Biologist Biologists who are involved in basic research have the aim of advancing knowledge about the natural world. They conduct their research using the scientific method , which is an empirical method for testing hypotheses . Their discoveries may have applications for some specific purpose such as in biotechnology , which has

1517-569: Was in biostatistics. As one of the first biostatisticians to use mathematics as a way to interpret population genetics, Pearl published a book called Modes of Research in Genetics in 1915 and another book called Introduction to Medical Biometry and Statistics in 1923. They were both widely read and were influential in showing the importance of statistics in the genetic and medical fields. Even though many of his books were well-received, some of his beliefs still caused controversy. One such belief

1558-434: Was insufficient and did not support this assertion. Despite his criticism of Pearl, in 1925, Wilson reached out to Pearl for help on his cancer research. Pearl was unaware of Wilson's criticism of him at the time. He did not help Wilson because he thought that he did not have a sufficient understanding of the biological and medical fields, which further ignited Wilson's distaste of Pearl. In 1929, Pearl conducted research on

1599-696: Was involved in studying the variation of fish for the Biological Survey of the Great Lakes . While working in a zoological laboratory, he met his future wife, Maude M. De Witt. In 1903, they married, and together in 1905 and 1906, they traveled abroad and worked at the University of London , University of Leipzig , and Marine Biological Station in Naples. In 1906, he spent a year studying under Karl Pearson at University College, London. During this year he discovered biometry , which seemed to offer

1640-399: Was published in 1859. In it, Darwin proposed that the features of all living things, including humans, were shaped by natural processes of descent with accumulated modification leading to divergence over long periods of time. The theory of evolution in its current form affects almost all areas of biology. Separately, Gregor Mendel formulated the principles of inheritance in 1866, which became

1681-550: Was that when a brother and sister reproduce, there would not be an increase in homozygosity. Pearl believed that with brother-sister breeding and no selection past the F3 generation, heterozygosity would not fall below 50%. While his main interest was biostatistics, Pearl had a wide range of interests in biology and was known for his broad knowledge of the subject. He published works on animal behavior, population growth, food and prices, Jewish and Christian marriages, and vegetarianism. In

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