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133-530: Rachel Bromwich (30 July 1915 – 15 December 2010) born Rachel Sheldon Amos , was a British scholar. Her focus was on medieval Welsh literature , and she taught Celtic Languages and Literature in the Department of Anglo-Saxon, Norse and Celtic at the University of Cambridge , from 1945 to 1976. Among her most important contributions to the study of Welsh literature is Trioedd Ynys Prydein , her edition of

266-748: A Saxon invasion in 1063 just prior to the Norman invasion of Wales , but the House of Aberffraw restored by Gruffudd ap Cynan slowly recovered and Llywelyn the Great of Gwynedd was able to proclaim the Principality of Wales at the Aberdyfi gathering of Welsh princes in 1216. In 1277, the Treaty of Aberconwy between Edward I of England and Llywelyn's grandson Llywelyn ap Gruffudd granted peace between

399-661: A long house excavated from 6000 years ago. Further examples of human activity in Gwynedd and Anglesey are involved in places such as Bryn Celli Ddu on Anglesey, which was built in phases starting 5000 years ago. Archeological findings from the Bronze Age , millennia ago, include findings such as the Arthog cauldron , a bronze cauldron from 1100 BC found near the Merioneth border, also named 'The Nannau Bucket' (similar to

532-448: A 14th-century manuscript known as Llyfr Taliesin (Book of Taliesin). This manuscript contains a large body of later mystical poetry attributed to the poet, but scholars have recognised twelve poems that belong to the 6th century. They are all poems of praise: one for Cynan Garwyn , king of Powys about 580; two for Gwallawg, king of Elmet , a kingdom based around the modern Leeds ; and nine other poems associated with Urien Rheged ,

665-496: A Guild to protect their professional status, and from time to time their rules were revised and updated. Perhaps the most important such revisions were those concerning patronage and poetic rank made at the Caerwys eisteddfod of 1523. The work of numerous poets of this period survives; some are anonymous, but very many are identified. Here are a few of the most prominent and influential of these: Wales's greatest poet worked during

798-635: A Norse fleet from a settlement in Ireland to patrol the Menai and prevent the Norman army from crossing; however, the Normans were able to pay off the fleet to instead ferry them to Môn. Betrayed, Gruffudd and Cadwgan were forced to flee to Ireland in a skiff . The Normans landed on Anglesey, and their furious 'victory celebrations' which followed were exceptionally violent, with rape and carnage committed by

931-482: A Welshman's head (collected) together"). Not all of the poetry which survives from this period belongs to the tradition of the praise poetry of the nobility. Some groups of poets and genres of poetry stood completely outside that tradition. Women seem to be totally excluded from the Welsh poetic guild, or Order of bards. But we do know that some women did master the Welsh poetic craft and wrote poetry at this time, but only

1064-628: A campaign against the Normans was launched from Gwynedd in revenge for the execution of Gwenllian ferch Gruffudd ap Cynan , the wife of the King of Deheubarth and the daughter of Gruffudd. When word reached Gwynedd of Gwenllian's death and the revolt in Gwent, Gruffudd's sons Owain and Cadwaladr invaded Norman controlled Ceredigion, taking Llanfihangle , Aberystwyth , and Llanbadarn . Liberating Llanbadarn, one local chronicler hailed Owain and Cadwaladr both as "bold lions, virtuous, fearless and wise, who guard

1197-557: A commote in the Dyffryn Clwyd cantref, and Hywel ab Ithel , lord of Rhufoniog and Rhos , brought Powys and Chester into conflict in the Perfeddwlad. Powys brought a force of 400 warriors to the aid of its ally Rhufoniog, while Chester sent Norman knights from Rhuddlan to the aid of Dyffryn Clwyd. The bloody Battle of Maes Maen Cymro , fought 1 mile (1.5 kilometres) northwest of Ruthin, ended with Llywarch ab Owain slain and

1330-535: A cousin of Maglos the magistrate". The use of terms such as "citizen" and "magistrate" may be cited as evidence that Romano-British culture and institutions continued in Gwynedd long after the legions had withdrawn. The background involving the Kingdom of Gwynedd starts with the history of Wales . After the last ice age, Wales was settled during the prehistoric times. Neolithic sites have been discovered with tools made from flint , such as near Llanfaethlu ,

1463-600: A long time, and resolving to cut off all the race of the English within the borders of Britain. Despite the war and 14 battles undertaken by the allied forces of Gwynedd and Mercia against Northumbria, of which the chief one was the Battle of Cefn Digoll in 632, an alliance was concluded when Cadwallon married Alcfritha, daughter of Pybba of Mercia . However, the effect of these tumultuous events would come to be short-lived, for he died in battle in 634 close to Hadrian's Wall , at

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1596-547: A more stable realm than had hitherto existed in Gwynedd for more than 100 years. No foreign army was able to cross the Conwy into upper Gwynedd. The stability of Gruffudd's long reign allowed Gwynedd's Welsh to plan for the future without fear that home and harvest would "go to the flames" from invaders. Settlements became more permanent, with buildings of stone replacing timber structures. Stone churches, in particular, were built across Gwynedd, with so many limewashed that "Gwynedd

1729-517: A new era; the Romans founded towns with churches and installed governors . During the centuries of sub-Roman Britain , new political structures were established. The Brythonic Kingdom of Gwynedd was established in the 5th century, and it proved to be the most durable of these Brythonic states, surviving until the late 13th century. Boundaries and names emerging from the 1st millennium AD onwards are still being used today to define towns and counties of

1862-402: A number of 'kingdoms', each with its own independent ruler; this ensured that there was no shortage of courts available to the travelling professional poet or " bard ". After 1282 the poetic tradition survived by turning to the land-owning nobility to act as patrons, and these included some Norman lords who had successfully integrated themselves with the Welsh. Much of the poetry of this period

1995-464: A ruler of the kingdom of Rheged , located around the Solway Firth , and his son, Owain . Taliesin's verses in praise of Urien and Owain became models for later poets, who turned to him for inspiration as they praised their own patrons in terms that he had used for his. Aneirin , a near-contemporary of Taliesin, wrote a series of poems to create one long poem called Y Gododdin . It records

2128-426: A series of their kings. In this furious campaign, his armies devastated Northumbria , captured and sacked York in 633 and briefly controlled the kingdom. At this time, according to Bede , many Northumbrians were slaughtered, "with savage cruelty", by Cadwallon. [H]e neither spared the female sex, nor the innocent age of children, but with savage cruelty put them to tormenting deaths, ravaging all their country for

2261-476: A situation which led Cunedda , his sons and their entourage, to migrate in the mid-5th century from Manaw Gododdin (now Clackmannanshire ) to settle and defend North Wales against the raiders and bring the region within Romano-British control. Whether they were invited to keep out the invaders or were raiders themselves, however, is unknown. According to traditional pedigrees, Cunedda's grandfather

2394-469: A somewhat later period: the whole of Canu Heledd is generally thought to be from the 9th century; while the earliest parts of Canu Llywarch are probably also 9th century, other parts of the cycle may be as late as the 11th or 12th century. These poems, in the form of monologues, express the sorrow and affliction felt at the loss of the eastern portion of the Kingdom of Powys (present day Shropshire ) to

2527-405: A title used to "denote a less archaic form of kingship ," according to Professor John Davies. Genealogical lists compiled around 960 bear out that a number of these early rulers claimed degrees of association with the old Roman order, but do not appear in the official royal lineages. "It may be assumed that the stronger kings annexed the territories of their weaker neighbours and that the lineages of

2660-716: A town in Pembrokeshire ), probably produced by a court poet in Dyfed to celebrate the New Year (Welsh: Calan ). The book also includes important poems which were probably not composed by Taliesin, including the Armes Prydein ( The Great Prophecy of Britain ) and Preiddeu Annwfn , ( The Spoils of Annwn ), and the Book of Aneirin has preserved an early Welsh nursery rhyme , Peis Dinogat ( Dinogad's Smock ). Much of

2793-732: Is a convenient label for a collection of tales preserved in two manuscripts known as the White Book of Rhydderch and the Red Book of Hergest . They are written in Middle Welsh, the common literary language between the end of the eleventh century and the fourteenth century. They include the four tales that form Pedair Cainc y Mabinogi ("The Four Branches of the Mabinogi "): Two are native tales embodying traditions about King Arthur : Two more are native tales embodying traditions about

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2926-586: Is believed that the earliest written Welsh is a marginal note of some sixty-four words in Llyfr Teilo ( The Book of St. Teilo ), a gospel book originating in Llandeilo but now in the library of St. Chad's Cathedral, Lichfield , and also known as the Lichfield Gospels , or, The Book of St. Chad . The marginal note, known from its opening (Latin) word as The Surexit memorandum , dates from

3059-635: Is considered "a central work of the scholarship on medieval Welsh literature", according to her Cambridge obituary. Her other major contribution to Welsh scholarship was her series of books and articles on Dafydd ap Gwilym , the outstanding Welsh poet of the period, mostly summarised in Aspects of the Poetry of Dafydd ap Gwilym (Cardiff, 1985). With D. Simon Evans she produced editions of the major medieval Welsh tale Culhwch and Olwen in both Welsh (1988) and English (1992). She served in leadership positions with

3192-496: Is dated to the 6th, 7th, and 8th centuries it has survived only in 13th- and 14th-century manuscript copies. Some of these early poets' names are known from the 9th-century Historia Brittonum , traditionally ascribed to the historian Nennius . The Historia lists the famous poets from the time of King Ida , AD 547–559: Of the poets named here it is believed that works that can be identified as Aneirin's and Taliesin's have survived. The poetry of Taliesin has been preserved in

3325-509: Is now South and Central Scotland . The long distances these armies travelled suggests they were moving across the Irish Sea , but, because almost all of what is now northern England was at this point (c. 550) under Brittonic rule, it is possible that his army marched to Strathclyde overland. Rhun returned to Gwynedd, and the rest of his reign was for the majority uneventful until the relatives of Elidir renewed their aggressions against Rhun who

3458-511: Is one of the most significant poets of this period. It is said that he was exiled to south Wales for overstepping the mark in his poetry and spent the rest of his life outside Gwynedd . The 20th-century critic Saunders Lewis saw particular significance in his work. Lewis saw him as a poet of philosophy who praised the ideal ruler as he praised his patrons who saw that within the Welsh tradition all who had privilege and power also had responsibilities towards family, community and nation. Tudur Aled

3591-549: Is praise poetry, in praise of the patron and his family, his ancestors, his house and his generosity; and the cywydd is the most popular poetic metre used. Because of the popularity of the cywydd , this period is also known as the period of the Cywyddwyr (poets who wrote using the cywydd metre). The poetry was very often sung to the accompaniment of the harp. Though praise was the main matter of poetry, satire (Welsh: dychan ) also thrived. The poets organised themselves into

3724-811: The Anglo-Saxon language before shifting departments to focus on Middle Welsh . In 1938 she moved to the University College of Wales, Bangor and studied under Ifor Williams . Amos took a great interest in Medieval Welsh literature, and particularly the Arthurian legend ; it was Williams' suggestion that she edit the Welsh Triads. She also studied Old Irish at Queen's University, Belfast , during World War II . Bromwich taught Old Welsh and Old Irish at Cambridge, beginning in 1945. She

3857-643: The Battle of Catraeth , fought between the Britons of the kingdom of Gododdin (centred on Eidyn , the modern Edinburgh ) and the Saxon kingdoms of Deira and Bernicia in the north east of England. This battle was fought at Catterick in about the year 598. It has survived in Llyfr Aneirin (The Book of Aneirin), a manuscript dating from c. 1265. The poetry associated with Llywarch Hen , Canu Llywarch Hen and with Heledd, Canu Heledd , dates from

3990-664: The Battle of Heavenfield . On account of these deeds, he and his son Cadwaladr , (who fought at the Battle of the Winwaed ) appear to have been considered the last two High Kings of Britain . Cadwaladr presided over a period of consolidation and devoted much time to the Church, earning the title " Bendigaid " for "Blessed". As a monk in later life, he was involved with Clynnog's abbey , and St Cadwaladr's Church, Llangadwaladr on Anglesey. The Tudors of Penmynydd and Henry VII of England in particular claimed descent from Cadwaladr in

4123-703: The Battle of Mynydd Carn in 1081 over his Mathrafal rivals then in control of Gwynedd. However, Gruffudd's victory was short-lived as the Normans launched an invasion of Wales following the Saxon revolt in northern England , known as the Harrowing of the North . Shortly after the Battle of Mynydd Carn in 1081, Gruffudd was lured into a trap with the promise of an alliance but seized by Hugh d'Avranches, Earl of Chester , in an ambush near Corwen . Earl Hugh claimed

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4256-469: The Conwy , defeating Hugh, Earl of Chester. In 1101, after Earl Hugh's death, Gruffudd and Cadwgan came to terms with England's new king, Henry I , who was consolidating his own authority and also eager to come to terms. In the negotiations which followed Henry I recognised Gruffudd's ancestral claims of Anglesey, Llŷn, Dunoding ( Eifionydd and Ardudwy ) and Arllechwedd , being the lands of upper Gwynedd to

4389-514: The Deceangli , Ordovices , and Gangani in the 5th century. The sons of their leader, Cunedda , were said to have possessed the land between the rivers Dee and Teifi . The true borders of the realm varied over time, but Gwynedd proper was generally thought to comprise the cantrefs of Aberffraw , Cemais , and Cantref Rhosyr on Anglesey and Arllechwedd , Arfon , Dunoding , Dyffryn Clwyd , Llŷn , Rhos , Rhufoniog , and Tegeingl at

4522-725: The Dowris bucket ). And the Moel Hebog shield which is also 3,000 years old (similar to the Rhyd-y-gors example), and more recently the Trawsfynydd tankard, which was used to drink mead and beer between 100 BC and 75 AD. Examples of early settlement in Gwynedd are Bryn Eryr near Llansadwrn, Anglesey , now found at the St Fagans National Museum of History , and Garn Boduan , a Celtic hillfort on

4655-765: The Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion , the International Arthurian Society , and the Irish Texts Society . In 1939 Rachel Amos married archaeologist and historian John Bromwich (1915-1990), the son of mathematician Thomas John I'Anson Bromwich ; they had one son, Brian. Rachel Bromwich died in 2010, aged 95 years, in Aberystwyth . Medieval Welsh literature The Welsh language became distinct from other dialects of Old British sometime between AD 400 and 700;

4788-590: The Irish Sea to Dublin , – a place which would come to host many royal refugees from Gwynedd. All must have seemed lost but Cadwallon ( Welsh : Meigen ) raised an enormous army and after a brief time in Guernsey he invaded Dumnonia , relieved the West Welsh who were suffering a Mercian invasion and forced the pagan Penda of Mercia into an alliance against Northumbria. With new vigour Cadwallon returned to his Northumbrian foes, defeated their armies and slew

4921-807: The Llŷn Peninsula . Iron Age forts were being adapted until after the Roman conquest of Britain , 'Castle of Buan' (Garn Boduan) in Llŷn was recorded as being fortified until the 7th century. During the Roman period, new roads and forts were constructed throughout the Roman empire and for centuries in Wales and England, Welsh examples include Caer Gybi (fort) on Anglesey , and Segontium in Caernarfon , Gwynedd. The establishment of Christianity in Wales also gave rise to

5054-579: The Mathrafal dynasty of Powys , Gruffudd's maternal half-brothers, came to terms with Harold and took over the rule of Gwynedd and Powys. Shortly after the Norman conquest of England in 1066 the Normans began to exert pressure on the eastern border of Gwynedd. They were helped by internal strife following the killing of Bleddyn ap Cynfyn in 1075 by his second cousin Rhys ap Owain King of Deheubarth. Another relative of Bleddyn's Trahaearn ap Caradog seized

5187-538: The Scandinavian York mercenaries. These raids no doubt had a seriously debilitating effect on the country but fortunately for Gwynedd, the victims of the Vikings were not confined to Wales. The House of Cunedda – as the direct descendants of Cunedda are known – eventually expired in the male line in 825 upon the death of Hywel ap Rhodri Molwynog and, as John Edward Lloyd put it, "a stranger possessed

5320-554: The Welsh Triads , a compendium of mnemonics for poets and storytellers. The stories that have survived are literary compositions based on oral tradition. In the Middle Ages Welsh was used for all sorts of purposes and this is reflected in the type of prose materials that has survived from this period: original material and translations, tales and facts, religious and legal, history and medicine. The name Mabinogion

5453-732: The Welsh Triads . Bromwich was born Rachel Sheldon Amos in Hove, Sussex (some obituaries said Brighton ), in 1915, and spent her early childhood in Egypt . Her father, Maurice Amos , was an English legal expert who served as international law adviser to the Egyptian government; her mother, Lucy Scott-Moncrieff Amos, was Scottish . The Amos family were Quakers . The family moved frequently before settling in Cumbria in 1925. In 1934 Rachel Amos attended Newnham College, Cambridge , where she studied

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5586-527: The cantrefs . On the death of Einion ap Cadwgan, lord of Meirionnydd , a quarrel engulfed his kinsmen on who should succeed him. Meirionnydd was then a vassal cantref of Powys , and the family there a cadet of the Mathrafal house of Powys. Gruffudd gave licence to his sons Cadwallon and Owain to press the opportunity the dynastic strife in Meirionnydd presented. The brothers raided Meirionnydd with

5719-449: The pencerdd (chief musician). The pencerdd was the top of his profession, and a special chair was set aside for him in the court, in an honoured position next to the heir. When he performed he was expected to sing twice: once in honour of God, and once in honour of the king. The bardd teulu (household poet) was one of the 24 officers of the court and he was responsible for singing for the military retinue before going into battle, and for

5852-458: The "twenty-second degree". During the later part of the 9th and 10th centuries, the coastal areas of Gwynedd, particularly Anglesey, were coming under increasing attack by the Vikings . Wales had also been at war with the neighbouring English Kingdoms of Mercia and Wessex who were assisted by Anglo-Saxons and Danes (Vikings). But it was the kings of Welsh kingdoms who were protected by

5985-803: The 1st century marked the Llŷn Peninsula as the "Promontory of the Gangani ", which is also a name he recorded in Ireland. It is theorised in the 1st century BC some of the Gangani tribe may have landed in what is now the Llŷn Peninsula and had driven out the Deceangli or the Ordovices tribe from that area either peacefully or by force. In the late and post-Roman eras, Irish from Leinster may have arrived in Anglesey and elsewhere in northwest Wales with

6118-500: The Aberffraw line from Gwynedd making himself ruler there, and by 1055 was able to make himself king of most of Wales. He became powerful enough to present a real menace to England and annexed some neighbouring parts after several victories over English armies. Eventually, he was defeated by Harold Godwinson in 1063 and later killed by his own men in a deal to secure peace with England. Bleddyn ap Cynfyn and his brother Rhiwallon of

6251-512: The Book of Taliesin which sees a coalition of Irish , British , and Scandinavian forces defeating the English and restoring Britain to the Welsh. This period also produced religious poetry, such as the englynion in praise of the Trinity found in the 9th-century Juvencus Manuscript (Cambridge MS Ff. 4.42), which is now at Cambridge University Library . In the Book of Taliesin we find a 9th-century poem Edmyg Dinbych ( In Praise of Tenby ,

6384-418: The Britons of southern Scotland and northern England and it is very likely that Merfyn Frych brought many of these legends as well as his pedigree with him when he came to north Wales. It appears most probable that it was at Merfyn's court that all the lore of the north was collected and written down during his reign and that of his son. Rhodri the Great (844–878), son of Merfyn Frych and Nest ferch Cadell,

6517-480: The Conwy which were already firmly in Gruffudd's control. Cadwgan regained Ceredigion , and his share of the family inheritance in Powys, from the new earl of Shrewsbury, Robert of Bellême . With the settlement reached between Henry I and Gruffudd, and other Welsh lords, the dividing of Wales between Pura Wallia , the lands under Welsh control; and Marchia Wallie , Welsh lands under Norman control, came into existence. Author and historian John Davies notes that

6650-452: The Empire retreated from Britain, particularly with the use of Latin in writing and sustaining the Christian religion. The ruling classes continued to emphasise Roman ancestors within their pedigrees as a way to link their rule with the old imperial Roman order, suggesting stability and continuity with that old order. According to Professor John Davies , "[T]here is a determinedly Brythonic, and indeed Roman, air to early Gwynedd." So palpable

6783-440: The English king as the Norman army advanced. There were no battles or skirmishes fought in the face of the vast host brought into Wales; rather, Owain and Gruffudd entered into truce negotiations. Owain ap Cadwgan regained royal favour relatively easily. However, Gruffudd was forced to render homage and fealty and pay a heavy fine, though he lost no land or prestige. The invasion left a lasting impact on Gruffudd, who by 1116

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6916-431: The English, but they are also works where nature is an important element in the background, reflecting the main action and feelings of the poetry itself. Though the Anglo-Saxon invaders seem to break Welsh hearts in most of the early poetry, there are some poems of encouragement and the hope of an eventual and decisive defeat that would drive them back into the sea. One such poem is the 10th-century Armes Prydein from

7049-432: The House of Aberffraw was restored. Nonetheless, surviving manuscripts of Cyfraith Hywel recognise the importance of the lords of Aberffraw as overlords of Wales along with the rulers of Deheubarth . Between 986 and 1081 the throne of Gwynedd was often in contention with the rightful kings frequently displaced by rivals within and outside the realm. One of these, Gruffydd ap Llywelyn , originally from Powys, displaced

7182-486: The House of Cunedda and the new House of Aberffraw, as Merfyn's descendants came to be known, shared Coel Hen as a common ancestor, although the House of Cunedda traced their line through Gwawl his daughter and wife of Cunedda. Merfyn married Nest ferch Cadell , the sister or daughter of Cyngen ap Cadell , the King of Powys of the Gwertherion dynasty , and founded the House of Aberffraw , named after his principal court on Anglesey. No written records are preserved from

7315-406: The Lord of Powys as important there as he was in the Perfeddwlad. However, it would not be until 1136 that the cantref was firmly within Gwynedd's control. Perhaps because of their support of Earl Hugh of Chester, Gwynedd's rival, in 1124, Cadwallon slew the three rulers of Dyffryn Clwyd, his maternal uncles, bringing the cantref firmly under Gwynedd's vassalage that year. And in 1125 Cadwallon slew

7448-465: The Mathrafal house of Powys, their traditional dynastic rivalry notwithstanding. Gruffudd and Cadwgan led the Welsh resistance to the Norman occupation in the north and mid-Wales. However, by 1098 Earl Hugh of Chester and Hugh of Montgomery, 2nd Earl of Shrewsbury advanced their army to the Menai Strait , with Gruffudd and Cadwgan regrouping on defensible Anglesey , where they planned to make retaliatory strikes from their island fortress. Gruffudd hired

7581-407: The Norman army left unchecked. The earl of Shrewsbury had an elderly priest mutilated and made the church of Llandyfrydog a kennel for his dogs. During the 'celebrations' a Norse fleet led by Magnus Barefoot , King of Norway , appeared off the coast at Puffin Island, and in the battle that followed, known as the Battle of Anglesey Sound , Magnus shot dead the earl of Shrewsbury with an arrow to

7714-437: The Perfeddwlad up to the River Clwyd (the commotes of Tegeingl and Rhufoniog ; the modern counties of Denbighshire , Flintshire , and Wrexham ) as part of Chester, and viewed the restoration of the Aberffraw family in Gwynedd as a threat to his own expansion into Wales. The lands west of the Clwyd were intended for his cousin Robert of Rhuddlan , and their advance extended to the Llŷn Peninsula by 1090. By 1094 almost

7847-508: The Perfeddwlad, particularly from Rhos , at the time harassed by Richard, 2nd Earl of Chester . Alarmed by Gruffudd's growing influence and authority in north Wales, and on pretext that Gruffudd sheltered rebels from Rhos against Chester, Henry I launched a campaign against Gwynedd and Powys in 1116, which included a vanguard commanded by King Alexander I of Scotland . While Owain ap Cadwgan of Ceredigion sought refuge in Gwynedd's mountains, Maredudd ap Bleddyn of Powys made peace with

7980-461: The Scot , Bishop of Bangor , between 1120 and 1139. Gruffudd's remains were interred in a tomb in the presbytery of Bangor Cathedral. Owain ap Gruffudd ( Owain Gwynedd c.  1100  – 23 or 28 November 1170 ) succeeded his father to the greater portion of Gwynedd in accordance with Welsh law , the Cyfraith Hywel , the Laws of Hywel; and became known as Owain Gwynedd to differentiate him from another Owain ap Gruffudd,

8113-529: The Welsh parishioners remained hostile to Hervey's appointment, and the bishop was forced to carry a sword with him and rely on a contingent of Norman knights for his protection. Additionally, Hervey routinely excommunicated parishioners who he perceived as challenging his spiritual and temporal authority. Gruffudd escaped imprisonment in Chester and slew Robert of Rhuddlan in a beachside battle at Deganwy on 3 July 1093. Gruffudd recovered Gwynedd by 1095, and by 1098 Gruffudd allied with Cadwgan ap Bleddyn of

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8246-417: The Welsh of Gwynedd to concentrate on those martial skills necessary for their very survival, and the Romano-Britons of western Britain did offer stiffer and ultimately successful resistance. The region of Venedotia, however, had been under Roman military administration and included established Gaelic settlements, and the civilian element there was less extensive, perhaps facilitating technological loss. In

8379-424: The Welsh thought of themselves and others, tracing their origins back to Brutus of Troy , the mythical founder of Britain. In fact the Welsh word brut is derived from Brutus's name and originally meant "a history of Brutus" and then "a chronicle history". Kingdom of Gwynedd United Kingdom The Kingdom of Gwynedd ( Medieval Latin : Venedotia / Norwallia / Guenedota ; Middle Welsh : Guynet )

8512-405: The Welshman Maredudd ap Tudur , Ednyfed Fychan being his famous ancestor, his family were seneschals to the Kings of Gwynedd. The Tudor dynasty became ancestors to the House of Stuart , and the Stuarts formed the European Jacobite family , they include direct descendants in United Kingdom , Ireland , France , Germany , Italy and other countries on the continent of Europe, and all around

8645-416: The birth of the Welsh language until the arrival of the Normans in Wales towards the end of the 11th century. The oldest Welsh literature does not belong to the territory we know as Wales today, but rather to northern England and southern Scotland (collectively Yr Hen Ogledd ), and so could be classified as being composed in Cumbric , a Brythonic dialect closely related to Old Welsh . Though it

8778-528: The border shifted on occasion, "in one direction and in the other", but remained more or less stable for almost the next two hundred years. After generations of incessant warfare, Gruffudd began the reconstruction of Gwynedd, intent on bringing stability to his country. According to Davies, Gruffudd sought to give his people the peace to "plant their crops in the full confidence that they would be able to harvest them". Gruffudd consolidated royal authority in north Wales, and offered sanctuary to displaced Welsh from

8911-402: The challenge of survival they faced: "Militarized tribal societies, despite their political fragmentation and internecine strife, seem to have offered better protection against Germanic invasion than exclusive dependence on a professional Roman army (that in the troubled years of the fifth century was all too prone to melt away or mutiny)." Reverting to a more militaristic tribal society allowed

9044-399: The churches and their indwellers, defenders of the poor [who] overcome their enemies, affording a safest retreat to all those who seek their protection". The brothers restored the Welsh monks of Llanbadarn, who had been displaced by monks from Gloucester brought there by the Normans who had controlled Ceredigion. By late September 1136, a vast Welsh host gathered in Ceredigion , which included

9177-419: The class of literary creations, but the split into two distinct groups. While the first group, Brut y Tywysogion , tends to stick to historical facts, the second, Brut y Brenhinedd , is the fantastic creation of Geoffrey of Monmouth . Brut y Tywysogion ( Chronicle of the Princes ) consists of variant Welsh translations of Latin original annales telling the history of Wales from the seventh century to

9310-467: The combined forces of Gwynedd, Deheubarth, and Powys, and met the Norman army at the Battle of Crug Mawr at Cardigan Castle . The battle turned into a rout, and then into a resounding defeat of the Normans. When their father Gruffudd died in 1137, the brothers Owain and Cadwaladr were on a second campaign in Ceredigion and took the castles of Ystrad Meurig , Lampeter ( Stephen's Castle ), and Castell Hywell ( Humphries Castle ) Gruffudd ap Cynan left

9443-405: The death of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd in 1282. It is believed that the original and its translation were produced at the Cistercian Strata Florida Abbey . Brut y Brenhinedd ( Chronicle of the Kings ) is the name given to a number of texts that ultimately trace their origins back to translations of Geoffrey of Monmouth 's Historia Regum Britanniae (1136). As such they were key works in shaping how

9576-622: The defeat of his ally Trahaearn ap Caradog in 1081, a move which earned him the epithet Bradwr "the Traitor" ( Welsh : Owain Fradwr ), among the Welsh. In late 1098 Gruffudd and Cadwgan landed in Wales and recovered Anglesey without much difficulty, with Hervé the Breton fleeing Bangor for safety in England. Over the course of the next three years, Gruffudd was able to recover upper Gwynedd to

9709-439: The defeat of Dyffryn Clwyd. However, it was a pyrrhic victory as the battle left Hywel ab Ithel mortally wounded. In the last of his line, when Hywel ab Ithel died six weeks later, he left Rhufoniog and Rhos bereft. Powys, however, was not strong enough to garrison Rhufoniog and Rhos, nor was Chester able to exert influence inland from its coastal holdings of Rhuddlan and Degannwy. With Rhufoniog and Rhos abandoned, Gruffudd annexed

9842-515: The earliest surviving literature in Welsh is poetry dating from this period. The poetic tradition represented in the work of Y Cynfeirdd ("The Early Poets"), as they are known, then survives for over a thousand years to the work of the Poets of the Nobility in the 16th century. The core tradition was praise poetry; and the poet Taliesin was regarded as the first in the line. The other aspect of

9975-517: The early history of Britain: The final three are the Arthurian Welsh Romances , showing the influence of French poet Chrétien de Troyes : Tradition holds that Hywel Dda summoned a conference at Whitland , Carmarthenshire , in about 945. At this conference Welsh law was codified and set down in writing for posterity. Since the earliest manuscripts containing these legal texts date from about two hundred and fifty years after

10108-564: The eldest son, is said to have died in Manaw Gododdin, but his son Meirion (Marianus) comes into the picture as lord of Meirionydd . Einion Yrth completes the number". Cadwallon Lawhir ap Einion one of his grandsons, was the final leader to defeat the Irish on Anglesey. However, this overly neat origin myth has been met with skepticism, "Early Welsh literature contains a wealth of stories seeking to explain place-names, and doubtless,

10241-413: The elegies his fellow poets wrote in his memory attested to his greatness as a poet. He was renowned as a praise poet of both secular and religious noblemen, and also reflects the changes at the beginning of the 16th century which were threatening the future of the bardic system. A native of Llangollen , Gruffudd Hiraethog was one of the foremost poets of the 16th century to use the cywydd . Though he

10374-482: The event they are probably not a record of what was codified there, if such a conference was even convened. In fact, until the annexation of Wales in 1536, native Welsh law grew and developed organically and for that reason many more copies of it have survived than of the native tales. The use of Welsh for legal texts shows that it had the words and the technical terms with definite and exact meanings needed in such circumstances. It also shows that reading and writing Welsh

10507-420: The eye. The Norse left as suddenly and as mysteriously as they had arrived, leaving the Norman army weakened and demoralized. The Norman army retired to England, leaving a Welshman, Owain ab Edwin of Tegeingl , in command of a token force to control Ynys Môn (now Anglesey) and upper Gwynedd, and ultimately abandoning any colonisation plans there. Owain ap Edwin transferred his allegiance to Chester following

10640-485: The former tradition, but he was among the first to sing the praises of the nobles and others using the cywydd . One of his main patrons was Ithel ap Robert, archdeacon of St Asaph. Perhaps his most famous work is a cywydd in praise of Owain Glyndŵr's home at Sycharth. Traditionally associated with Breconshire , Siôn Cent is most famous for using his poetry in the service of his Christian beliefs, and standing outside

10773-615: The four corners of Wales whose houses he visited on his journeys. He was a master of the praise tradition in poetry. Guto was also a soldier who fought on the Yorkist side during the War of the Roses, but spent his last years as a lay guest at the Cistercian abbey of Valle Crucis , near Llangollen (a short distance from Glyn Ceiriog). Dafydd Nanmor , born at Nanmor (or Nantmor), Gwynedd ,

10906-407: The grandsons of Edwin ap Goronwy of Tegeingl , leaving Tegeingl bereft of lordship. However, in 1132 while on campaign in the commote of Nanheudwy , near Llangollen , 'victorious' Cadwallon was defeated in battle and slain by an army from Powys. The defeat checked Gwynedd's expansion for a time, "much to the relief of the men of Powys", wrote historian Sir John Edward Lloyd (J.E Lloyd). In 1136

11039-429: The greater part of Wales. When Rhodri died in 878 AD (battle against Ceolwulf I of Mercia ) the relative unity of Wales ended and it was once again divided into its component parts each ruled by one of his sons. Rhodri's eldest son Anarawd ap Rhodri inherited Gwynedd and would firmly establish the princely House of Aberffraw . His son Merfyn ap Rhodri was given the Kingdom of Powys to rule and Cadell founded

11172-577: The late 12th century, the family asserted its rights as the senior line of descendants from Rhodri the Great who had conquered most of Wales during his lifetime. Gruffudd ap Cynan 's biography was first written in Latin and intended for a wider audience outside Wales. The significance of this claim was that the Aberffraw family owed nothing to the English king for its position in Wales and that they held authority in Wales "by absolute right through descent," wrote historian John Davies . The House of Aberffraw

11305-501: The lives of the native saints were composed in Latin originally, and that a long time after the saint's actual life and so of little or no interest to those looking for actual historical information. Perhaps the two most important is Buchedd Dewi ("The life of Dewi , or, David") written by Rhygyfarch in about 1094, and Buchedd Cadog ("Life of Cadog ") written by Lifris of Llancarfan in c. 1100. The Welsh medieval history texts belong to

11438-542: The medieval Welsh Royal House of Dinefwr in Deheubarth , this divided Wales into North Wales , Mid Wales and South Wales respectively. Gwynedd and the Aberffraw dynasty thrived with but a few interruptions until 1283. From the successes of Rhodri and the seniority of Anarawd among his sons the Aberffraw family claimed primacy over all other Welsh lords including the powerful kings of Powys and Deheubarth . In The History of Gruffudd ap Cynan , written in

11571-614: The mountainous mainland region of Snowdonia opposite. The name Gwynedd is believed to be a borrowing from early Irish (reflective of Irish settlement in the area in antiquity), either cognate with the Old Irish ethnic name Féni , "Irish People", from Primitive Irish * weidh-n- "Forest People"/"Wild People" (from Proto-Indo-European * weydʰ- "wood, wilderness"), or (alternatively) Old Irish fían "war band", from Proto-Irish * wēnā (from Proto-Indo-European * weyh₁- "chase, pursue, suppress"). Ptolemy in

11704-476: The name Llŷn derived from Laigin , an Old Irish form that means "Leinstermen, or simply Leinster." The 5th-century Cantiorix Inscription now in Penmachno church seems to be the earliest record of the name. It is in memory of a man named Cantiorix, and the Latin inscription is Cantiorix hic iacit/Venedotis cives fuit/consobrinos Magli magistrati : "Cantiorix lies here. He was a citizen of Gwynedd and

11837-539: The nature poetry, gnomic poetry , prophetic poetry, and religious poetry in the Black Book of Carmarthen and the Red Book of Hergest is also believed to date from this period. From c. 1100 to 1600 Welsh poetry can be divided roughly into two distinct periods: the period of the Poets of the Princes who worked before the loss of Welsh independence in 1282, and the Poets of the Nobility who worked from 1282 until

11970-638: The neighbouring Kingdom of Powys acted in concert to rebuff the Anglian advance but were defeated at the Battle of Chester in 613. Following this catastrophe, the approximate borders of northern Wales were set with the city of Caerlleon (now called Chester ) and the surrounding Cheshire Plain falling under the control of the Anglo-Saxons. Beli's grandson was Cadfan ap Iago from the line of Maelgwn, his tombstone in Gwynedd wrote in Latin : "Catamanus rex sapientisimus opinatisimus" (most renowned), he

12103-423: The ninth century, or even earlier, and is a record of a legal case over land. The native Welsh storyteller, known as the cyfarwydd ("the one who knows") was an official of the court. He was expected to know the traditional knowledge and the tales. But the storytelling tradition was basically oral, and only a few remnants suggest the wealth of that tradition. Amongst the most important are Trioedd Ynys Prydain , or

12236-513: The other hand, miracles performed against him by Christian saints. He is attributed in some old stories as hosting the first Eisteddfod , and he is also one of five Celtic British kings castigated for their sins by the contemporary Christian writer Gildas (who referred to him as Maglocunus, meaning 'Prince-Hound' in Brittonic), written in the De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae . Maelgwn

12369-506: The payment a poet could expect for his work. These payments varied according to how long a poet had been in training and also the demand for poetry at particular times during the year. Alongside the court poet, kings, princes and nobles patronised an official storyteller (Welsh: cyfarwydd ). Like poets, the storytellers were also professionals; but unlike the poets, little of their work has survived. What has survived are literary creations based on native Welsh tales which would have been told by

12502-669: The period of the English incorporation of Wales in the 16th century. In Welsh this period is known as Beirdd y Tywysogion (Poets of the Princes) or Y Gogynfeirdd (The Less Early Poets). The main source for the poetry of the 12th and 13th centuries is the Hendregadredd manuscript , an anthology of court poetry brought together at the Cistercian Strata Florida Abbey from about 1282 until 1350. The poets of this period were professionals who worked in

12635-513: The period of the Poets of the Nobility. He is known for such poems as " The Girls of Llanbadarn ", " Trouble at a Tavern ", " The Wind " and " The Seagull ". For more information about his life and work, see Dafydd ap Gwilym . From the Vale of Clwyd , Iolo Goch (English: "Red Iolo") bridged between the periods of the Poets of the Princes and Poets of the Nobility. Early in his career he composed in

12768-416: The plague in 547, leaving a succession crisis in his wake. His son-in-law, Elidyr Mwynfawr of the Kingdom of Strathclyde , claimed the throne and invaded Gwynedd to displace Maelgwn's son, Rhun Hir ap Maelgwn . Elidyr was killed in the attempt, but his death was then avenged by his relatives, who ravaged the coast of Arfon . Rhun counter-attacked and exacted the same penalty on the lands of his foes in what

12901-549: The post-Roman period, the earliest rulers of Wales and Gwynedd may have exerted authority over regions no larger than the cantrefi ( hundreds ) described in Welsh law codified centuries later, with their size somewhat comparable in size to the Irish tuath . These early petty kings or princelings (Lloyd uses the term chieftain ) adopted the title rhi in Welsh (akin to the Irish Gaelic rí ), later replaced by brenin ,

13034-400: The queen in the privacy of her chamber. The lowest ranking poets were the cerddorion (musicians). The poetry praises the military prowess of the prince in a language that is deliberately antiquarian and obscure, echoing the earlier praise poetry tradition of Taliesin. There is also some religious poems and poetry in praise of women. With the death of the last native prince of Wales in 1282,

13167-578: The realm during the time of relative peace following the Battle of Badon , where the Anglo-Saxons were defeated. During that peace, he established a mighty kingdom. After Cadwallon, Gwynedd appears to have held a pre-eminent position among the petty Cambrian states in the post-Roman period. The great-grandson of Cunedda, Maelgwn Hir (Maelgwn the Tall), was regarded as an able military leader, impetuous and generous. There are several legends about his life concerning either his own trickery and craftiness or, on

13300-513: The region. Noteworthy descendants from the Kingdom of Gwynedd include royalty such as Owain Glyndŵr , and the titular Prince of Wales , also the Salusbury family via Katheryn of Berain . The people mentioned can be associated with the Anglesey based Tudors of Penmynydd family. The Tudors were ancestors and namesake to the former English Royal House of Tudor , they were descended from

13433-496: The source either son or husband of Essyllt daughter of Cynan Dindaethwy a former King of Gwynedd. The most ancient genealogical sources agree that Merfyn was the son of Essyllt, heiress and cousin of the aforementioned Hywel ap Caradog, last of the ruling House of Cunedda in Gwynedd, and that Merfyn's male line went back to the Hen Ogledd to Llywarch Hen , a first cousin of Urien and thus a direct descendant of Coel Hen . Thus

13566-479: The south to the Dee in the east, and incorporating Anglesey. Other evidence supports Nennius 's claim that a leader came to North Wales and brought the region a measure of stability although an Irish Gaelic element remained until the mid-5th century. Cunedda's heir Einion Yrth ap Cunedda defeated the remaining Gaelic Irish on Anglesey by 470, while his son, Cadwallon Lawhir ap Einion , appears to have consolidated

13699-618: The story is propaganda aimed at justifying the right of Cunedda and his descendants to territories beyond the borders of the original Kingdom of Gwynedd. That kingdom probably consisted of the two banks of the Menai Straits and the coast over towards the estuary of the River Conwy, the foundations upon which Cunedda's descendants created a more extensive realm." The inhabitants of Gwynedd remained conscious of their Romano-British heritage, and an affinity with Rome survived long after

13832-522: The storytellers. The bulk of this material is found in the collection known today as the Mabinogion . Medieval Welsh prose was not confined to the story tradition but also included a large body of both religious and practical works, in addition to a large amount translated from other languages. In Welsh literature the period before 1100 is known as the period of Y Cynfeirdd ("The Early Poets") or Yr Hengerdd ("The Old Poetry"). It roughly dates from

13965-710: The throne but was soon challenged by Gruffudd ap Cynan , the exiled grandson of Iago ab Idwal ap Meurig who had been living in the Norse–Gael stronghold of Dublin . In 1081 Trahaearn was killed by Gruffudd in battle and the ancient line of Rhodri Mawr was restored. The Aberffraw dynasty suffered various depositions by rivals in Deheubarth, Powys, and England in the 10th and 11th centuries. Gruffudd ap Cynan (c. 1055–1137), who grew up in exile in Norse–Gael Dublin , regained his inheritance following his victory at

14098-506: The throne of Gwynedd." This "stranger" who became the next King of Gwynedd was Merfyn "Frych" (Merfyn "the Freckled"). When, however, Merfyn Frych's pedigree is examined – and to the Welsh pedigree meant everything – he seems not a stranger but a direct descendant of the ancient ruling line. He was the son of Gwriad, the contemporaneous King of Mann from the Isle of Man and depending on

14231-516: The tradition gradually disappears. In fact, Gruffudd ab yr Ynad Coch's ( fl. 1277–83) elegy on the death of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd , is one of the most notable poems of the era. Other prominent poets of this period include: A rather different poet of this period was Hywel ab Owain Gwynedd (d. 1170) who as the son of Prince Owain Gwynedd , was not a professional poet. The poetic tradition thrived in Wales as long as there were patrons available to welcome its practitioners. Until 1282, Wales consisted of

14364-505: The tradition of praise of patron. He uses the cywydd for his work, to attack the sins of this world. Perhaps his most famous poem is I wagedd ac oferedd y byd (English: "[In praise of] the vanity and dissipation of the world"). He turns his back on the praise of nobles, which he sees as flattery and falsehood, and sets his eyes on the blessedness of heaven. Guto'r Glyn is associated with Glyn Ceiriog , Denbighshire , where many of his patrons lived. He also wrote poems for other patrons in

14497-415: The tradition was the professionalism of the poets and their reliance on patronage from kings, princes and nobles for their living, similar to the way Irish bards and Norse skalds were patronized for the production of complex, often highly alliterative forms of verse. The fall of the Kingdom of Gwynedd and the loss of Welsh independence in any form in 1282 proved a crisis in the tradition, but one that

14630-516: The two but would also guarantee that Welsh self-rule would end upon Llywelyn's death, and so it represented the completion of the first stage of the conquest of Wales by Edward I . Welsh tradition credited the founding of Gwynedd to the Brittonic polity of Gododdin ( Old Welsh Guotodin , earlier Brittonic form Votadini ) from Lothian invading the lands of the Brittonic polities of

14763-477: The various princely courts in Wales. They were members of a Guild of poets whose rights and responsibilities were enshrined in native Welsh law; and as such, they worked within a developed literary culture and with inflexible traditions. Bardic families were still common—the poet Meilyr Brydydd had a poet son and at least two poet grandsons—but it was becoming more and more usual for the craft of poetry to be taught formally, in bardic schools which might only be run by

14896-470: The victors are the only lineages to have survived," according to Davies. Smaller and weaker chieftains coalesced around more powerful princelings, sometimes through voluntary vassalage or inheritance, though at other times through conquest, and the lesser princelings coalesced around still greater princelings until a regional prince could claim authority over the whole of north Wales from the River Dyfi in

15029-421: The victory of the 'Welshman' Henry VII in 1485 at the battle of Bosworth the poets believed that the prophecies had been fulfilled and the tradition comes to an end. Satire poetry (Welsh: canu dychan ) was part of the 'official' poets' repertoire and sparingly used within the praise tradition to chastise a miserly patron. But it was in private poetic bouts with fellow poets that the satire tradition flourished. It

15162-550: The whole of Wales was occupied by Norman forces. However, although they erected many castles, Norman control in most regions of Wales was tenuous at best. Motivated by local anger over the "gratuitously cruel" invaders, and led by the historic ruling houses, Welsh control over the greater part of Wales was restored by 1100. In an effort to further consolidate his control over Gwynedd, Earl Hugh of Chester had Hervey le Breton elected as Bishop of Bangor in 1092, and consecrated by Thomas of Bayeux , Archbishop of York . However,

15295-459: The work of one woman has survived in significant numbers, that of Gwerful Mechain . The prophetic poetry (Welsh: canu brud ) was a means of reacting to and commenting upon political situations and happenings. This poetry is intentionally ambiguous and difficult to understand. But at its heart it prophesies victory for the Welsh over their enemies, the English. This poetry looked towards a man of destiny who would free them from their oppressors. With

15428-543: The works of unknown monks and priests. The works themselves reflect the tastes and fashions of Christendom at the time: apocryphal narratives, dreams or visions, theological treatises and exegesis, and mystical works. About thirty lives of the saints , both native ones like Beuno, Curig, and Gwenfrewi and the more general such as the Mary, the mother of Jesus , Mary Magdalene , Martin of Tours , and Catherine of Alexandria survive, all translations into Welsh from Latin . Even

15561-535: The world. The region became known as Venedotia in Latin . The name was initially attributed to a specific Irish colony on Anglesey but broadened to refer to Irish settlers as a whole in North Wales by the 5th century. According to the 9th-century monk and chronicler Nennius , North Wales was left defenceless by the Roman withdrawal and subject to increasing raids by marauders from the Isle of Man and Ireland,

15694-597: Was Padarn Beisrudd , Paternus of the red cloak , "an epithet which suggests that he wore the cloak of a Roman officer", and perhaps it was evidence of a high-ranking officer. Cunedda ( fl.  5th century ) brought order to North Wales and after his death, Gwynedd was divided among his sons: Dynod was awarded Dunoding , another son Ceredig received Ceredigion ," Afloeg by Aflogion in Lleyn , Dogfael by Dogfeiling in Dyffryn Clwyd , and Edern by Edeirnion ... Osfeilion of Osfael has not yet been located; Tybion,

15827-546: Was a Welsh kingdom and a Roman Empire successor state that emerged in sub-Roman Britain in the 5th century during the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain . Based in northwest Wales , the rulers of Gwynedd repeatedly rose to dominance and were acclaimed as " King of the Britons " before losing their power in civil wars or invasions. The kingdom of Gruffydd ap Llywelyn —the King of Wales from 1055 to 1063—was shattered by

15960-408: Was a member of the medieval guild of poets and a notable upholder of that tradition, he was also closely associated with William Salesbury , Wales' leading Renaissance scholar. In fact one of the first Welsh literature to be published in print was Gruffudd's collection of proverbs in 1547, Oll synnwyr pen Kembero ygyd (Modern Welsh spelling: Holl synnwyr pen Cymro i gyd ; English:"All the wisdom of

16093-477: Was able to add the Powys to his realm after its king (his maternal uncle) died on a pilgrimage to Rome in 855. Later, he married Angharad ferch Meurig , the sister of King Gwgon of Seisyllwg . When Gwgon drowned without an heir in 872, Rhodri became a steward over the kingdom and was able to install his son, Cadell ap Rhodri , as a subject king. Thus, he became the first ruler since the days of Cunedda to control

16226-615: Was an ancestor of the future Kings of Gwynedd. The Battle of Chester did not end the ability of the Welsh to seriously threaten the Anglo-Saxon polities. Among the most powerful of the early kings was Cadwallon ap Cadfan (c. 624 – 634), grandson of Iago ap Beli . He became engaged in an initially disastrous campaign against Northumbria where following a series of epic defeats he was confined first to Anglesey, and then just to Puffin Island , before being forced into exile across

16359-532: Was bespangled with them as is the firmament with stars". Gruffudd had built stone churches at his royal manors, and Lloyd suggests Gruffudd's example led to the rebuilding of churches with stone in Penmon , Aberdaron , and Towyn in the Norman fashion . Gruffudd promoted the primacy of the Episcopal See of Bangor in Gwynedd, and funded the building of Bangor Cathedral during the episcopate of David

16492-405: Was curiously described as "the dragon of the island" by Gildas which was possibly a title, but explicitly as the most powerful of the five named British kings. "[Y]ou the last I write of but the first and greatest in evil, more than many in ability but also in malice, more generous in giving but also more liberal in sin, strong in war but stronger to destroy your soul." Maelgwn eventually died from

16625-594: Was displaced in 942 by Hywel Dda , a King of Deheubarth from a junior line of descent from Rhodri Mawr. This occurred because Idwal Foel , the King of Gwynedd, was determined to cast off English overlordship and took up arms against the new English king, Edmund I . Idwal and his brother Elisedd were both killed in battle against Edmund's forces. By normal custom Idwal's crown should have passed to his sons, Ieuaf and Iago ab Idwal , but Hywel Dda intervened and sent Iago and Ieuaf into exile in Ireland and established himself as ruler over Gwynedd until his death in 950 when

16758-458: Was eventually overcome. It led to the innovation of the development of the cywydd meter , a looser definition of praise, and a reliance on the nobility for patronage. The professionalism of the poetic tradition was sustained by a Guild of Poets, or Order of Bards, with its own "rule book" emphasising the making of poetry as a craft. Under its rules poets undertook an apprenticeship of nine years to become fully qualified. The rules also set out

16891-738: Was himself a nobleman and one of the greatest of the Poets of the Nobility. Born in Llansannan, Denbighshire , his most important patrons were the Salisbury family of Dyffryn Clwyd . He was one of the instigators of the Caerwys eisteddfod of 1523. In his final illness he took the habit of the Order of St. Francis and died in Carmarthen , where he was buried in the Brothers' Court. At his death

17024-440: Was in his 60s and with failing eyesight. For the remainder of his life, while Gruffudd continued to rule in Gwynedd, his sons Cadwallon , Owain , and Cadwaladr , would lead Gwynedd's army after 1120. Gruffudd's policy, which his sons would execute and later rulers of Gwynedd adopted, was to recover Gwynedd's primacy without blatantly antagonising the English crown. In 1120 a minor border war between Llywarch ab Owain , lord of

17157-503: Was killed in the conflict. He was succeeded by his son or in some accounts nephew Beli ap Rhun in c. 586. On the accession of Beli's son Iago ap Beli in c. 599, the situation in Britain had deteriorated significantly. Most of northern England had been overrun by the invading Angles of Deira and Bernicia , who were in the process of forming the Kingdom of Northumbria . In a rare show of common interest, it appears that Gwynedd and

17290-512: Was lost as the Romano-Britons shifted towards a streamlined militaristic near-tribal society that no longer included the use of coinage and other complex industries dependent on a money economy, architectural techniques using brick and mortar, and even more basic knowledge such as the use of the wheel in pottery production. Ward-Perkins suggests the Welsh had to abandon those Roman ways that proved insufficient, or indeed superfluous, to meet

17423-487: Was named University Reader in Celtic Languages and Literatures in 1973. She retired from teaching in 1976 and was succeeded by Patrick Sims-Williams . In 1985, she was awarded the degree of D.Litt. by the University of Wales for her services to Welsh scholarship. In 1961 Bromwich published Trioedd Ynys Prydein , her influential edition of the Welsh Triads . A third, revised edition was published in 2006. This

17556-488: Was not confined to priests and monks, but that there were also lawyers "whose skill is directed not to administrating the law (there were judges for that), but to writing it, to giving it permanence in words, to ordering words and sentences in such a way that what was stated should be quite clear" (Thomas Parry (1955), p. 68). The vast majority of Welsh religious texts from the Middle Ages are translations and mostly

17689-523: Was the Roman heritage felt that Professor Bryan Ward-Perkins of Trinity College, Oxford , wrote, "it took until 1282, when Edward I conquered Gwynedd , for the last part of Roman Britain to fall [and] a strong case can be made for Gwynedd as the very last part of the entire Roman Empire, east and west, to fall to the barbarians ." Nevertheless, there was generally quick abandonment of Roman political, social, and ecclesiastical practices and institutions within Gwynedd and elsewhere in Wales. Roman knowledge

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