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154-593: Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Rahman al-Azharî (Arabic: محمد بن عبد الرحمن الأزهري), more commonly known as Bû Qabrayn (Arabic: بوقبرين, "the man with two tombs"), was an 18th-century Algerian Islamic scholar , saint and a Sufi mystic . He was born in 1715-29 into the Berber Ait Ismâ'îl tribe of the Qashtula, in Kabylia. He studied first in a nearby zawiya in his hometown of Jurjura . Then, he went on studying at

308-563: A "way of freeing the soul from the distractions of the world". Important early scholars who further elaborated on mysticism were Harith al-Muhasibi (781–857 AD) and Junayd al-Baghdadi (835–910 AD). The early Muslim conquests brought about Arab Muslim rule over large parts of the Hellenistic world . During the time of the Umayyad Caliphate , at latest, the scholars of the emerging Islamic society had become familiar with

462-908: A close ally of the jihadists enemy the Soviet Union , these jihadists tended to consider the Afghan jihad a "prelude" to jihad against the Algerian FLN state. After the Marxist government in Afghanistan fell, many of the Salafist-Jihadis returned to Algeria and supported the Islamic Salvation Front (FIS) and later the GIA insurgents. During and after the 1988 October Riots Islamists "set about building bridges to

616-501: A day and night. If the mûršîd (Arabic: مورشيد "the spiritual guide") is satisfied with the mûrîd's progress, then the mûrîd is allowed to continue with the six remaining names: Allâh (Arabic: الله "God") three times; huwa (Arabic: هو "He is"), ḥaqq (Arabic: الحق "The Absolute Truth") three times; ḥayy (Arabic: الحى "The Ever- Living) three times; qayyûm (Arabic: القيوم "The Sustainer, The Self Subsisting") three times; qahhâr (Arabic: القهار "The Ever-Dominating"). The Raḥmâniyya

770-526: A direct affront to the military hierarchy and cohesion. After a project to realign electoral districts came to light in May, the FIS called for a general strike. Violence ensued and on 3 June 1991 a state of emergency was declared, many constitutional rights were suspended, and parliamentary elections postponed until December. The FIS began to lose the initiative and within a month the two leaders (Mandani and Benhadj) of

924-464: A general label for pro-FIS guerrillas), declaring their allegiance to FIS. It national amir was Madani Merzag. By the end of 1994, they controlled over half the guerrillas of the east and west, but barely 20% in the center, near the capital, which was where the GIA were mainly based. They issued communiqués condemning the GIA's indiscriminate targeting of women, journalists and other civilians "not involved in

1078-402: A line of thought developed around the idea of mysticism , striving for the perfection ( Ihsan ) of worship. During the first Islamic century, Hasan al-Basri (642–728 AD) was one of the first Muslim scholars to describe, according to Albert Hourani (1991) "the sense of the distance and nearness of God ... in the language of love". During the 7th century, the ritual of Dhikr evolved as

1232-597: A link between the wahhabiyya and parts of the salafiyya movements. The theological differences between the two movements were altogether too large for a complete union of the two doctrines. However, the opening of the Salafi movement towards Wahhabism helped to reconcile the latter with the Islamic public after king Ibn Saud 's invasion of the Hijaz in 1924. The Central Arabian militias ( Iḫwān ) had occupied and looted

1386-535: A modern lifestyle. And in Kabylia, where the Raḥmāniyya is stronger, rates of affiliation are higher than in other regions. The principles of Raḥmâniyya are fairly egalitarian and democratic, which partly explains its success in Kabylia. The order recognizes local saints and integrates them in its Islamic teachings, achieving the synthesis between local traditions and Islamic orthodoxy. Its practices are simple and accessible, as they do not require an extensive knowledge of

1540-462: A mutual agreement on 14 January 1995: the Sant'Egidio platform . This presented a set of principles: respect for human rights and multi-party democracy, rejection of army rule and dictatorship, recognition of Islam, Arab and Berber ethnic identity as essential aspects of Algeria's national identity, demand for the release of FIS leaders, and an end to extrajudicial killing and torture on all sides. To

1694-425: A number of students out of the revenue from religious endowments ( waqf ) , allocated to a specific institution by the donor. In later times, the deeds of endowment were issued in elaborate Islamic calligraphy , as is the case for Ottoman endowment books (vakıf-name) . The donor could also specify the subjects to be taught, the qualification of the teachers, or which madhhab the teaching should follow. Moreover,

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1848-648: A period of political instability began with the collapse of the Safavid reign after shah Sultan Husayns death in 1722. In the light of the discontinuity and fragmentation of the central government, two social groups maintained continuity and, consequently, rose in power: Tribal chieftains established, amongst others, the Khanates of the Caucasus , the Afsharid and Zand dynasties . The second group who benefitted from

2002-541: A private activity, largely by medical men, pursued with discretion, and often met with suspicion". The founder of Islamic philosophical ethics is Ibn Miskawayh (932–1030 AD) He combined Aristotelian and Islamic ethics, explicitly mentioning the Nicomachean Ethics and its interpretation by Porphyry of Gaza as the foundation of his philosophical thoughts. In the 12th century, the early Islamic Neoplatonism which had developed out of Hellenistic philosophy

2156-470: A school and zawiya in the 1770s and initiated the Kabyles into the tarîqa . He rapidly attracted local notables and developed his zawiya into a prestigious center of learning, before his death in 1793/4. The Raḥmâniyya grew rapidly beyond Kabylia region, in eastern and south-eastern Algeria where it competed with other Sufi orders such as Qâdiriyya or Tijâniyya . However, within Kabylia, its influence

2310-591: A strategy of "immediate action to destabilize the enemy", by creating "an atmosphere of general insecurity" through "repeated attacks". It considered opposition to violence among some in the FIS as not only misguided but impious. It was far less selective than the MIA, which insisted on ideological training; as a result, it was regularly infiltrated by the security forces, resulting in a rapid leadership turnover as successive heads were killed. The various groups arranged several meetings to attempt to unite their forces, accepting

2464-463: A way out. At the same time, the number of visas granted to Algerians by other countries began to drop substantially. The violence continued throughout 1994, although the economy began to improve during this time; following negotiations with the IMF, the government succeeded in rescheduling debt repayments, providing it with a substantial financial windfall, and further obtained some 40 billion francs from

2618-471: Is a movement which emerged in North India in the mid-19th century. By rejecting taqlid (following legal precedent) and favoring ijtihad (independent legal reasoning) based on the foundational scriptures of Islam, they oppose the traditional madhhab and criticize their reliance on legal authorities other than the traditional texts. The Ahl-i Hadith was the first organization which printed and spread

2772-519: Is brought to us by former generations and foreign peoples. For him who seeks the truth there is nothing of higher value than truth itself. The works of Aristotle , in particular his Nicomachean Ethics , had a profound influence on the Islamic scholars of the Golden Age like Al-Farabi (870–950 AD), Abu al-Hassan al-Amiri (d. 992 AD) and Ibn Sina (ca. 980–1037 AD). In general, the Islamic philosophers saw no contradiction between philosophy and

2926-460: Is known as the ijazat at-tadris wa 'l-ifta ( lit.   ' license to teach and issue legal opinions ' ). Through time, this practice has established a chain of teachers and pupils who have become teachers in their own time. The traditional place of higher education is the madrasa . The institution likely originated in Khurasan during the 10th century AD, and spread to other parts of

3080-500: Is necessary to kill the non-believers for the good reason that they wish to substitute their authority for that of God. The FIS made "spectacular" progress in the first year of its existence, with an enormous following in the urban areas. Its doctors, nurses and rescue teams showed "devotion and effectiveness" helping victims of an earthquake in Tipaza Province ; its organized marches and rallies "applied steady pressure on

3234-450: Is organized following a hierarchy common in Sufi orders. Teaching and practicing are conducted in zawiyas under the direction of a shaykh (شيخ, šaiḫ, or religious scholar or master), assisted by a khalifa (ḫalifa or lieutenant) or a naib (نائب, nāʾib, or deputy), The muqaddams (representatives, delegates or local chiefs) and finally the ikhwan (إخوان, iḫwan, or brothers) constitute the bottom of

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3388-462: Is thought by many that security forces as well as Islamists were involved, as the government had infiltrated the insurgents. Children were widely used, particularly by the rebel groups. Total fatalities have been estimated at 44,000 to between 100,000 and 200,000. The conflict began in January 1992, when the new and enormously popular Islamic Salvation Front (FIS) party appeared poised to defeat

3542-411: The ijazah , the scholar's approval by another master, is key to the scholar's reputation, the latter would be greater in regions where the approving masters is more widely known. The second caliph, Umar ibn al-Khattab , funded a group of Muslims to study the revelations, stories of Muhammed's life, "and other pertinent data, so that when he needed expert advice" he could draw it from these "people of

3696-605: The Islamic Salvation Front (FIS) was born shortly afterwards in Algiers on 18 February 1989, and came into legal existence in September 1989. The front was led by two men. Abbassi Madani —a professor at University of Algiers and ex-independence fighter—represented a relatively moderate religious conservatism and symbolically connected the party to the Algerian War of Independence , the traditionally emphasized source of

3850-828: The Ja'fari and Zaidi schools. Minor madhhab also mentioned in the Amman message are the Ibadi and the Zahiri schools. All Sunni madhhabs recognize four sources of sharia (divine law): the Quran, sunnah (authentic hadith), qiyas (analogical reasoning), and ijma (juridical consensus). However, the madhhabs differ from each other in their conception of the Principles of Islamic jurisprudence , or uṣūl al-fiqh , as briefly summarised by Hourani (1991). The Hanbalis accepted only

4004-508: The Quran beyond a few important verses. Scholars and brothers widely use the Kabyle language and do not need a deep understanding of Arabic. A fundamental practice involves teaching the mûrîd (Arabic: موريد "the disciple") an array of seven "names". The first one consists in repeating lâ ilâha ilal 'llâhu (Arabic: لا إله إلا الله "there is no god except God") between 12,000 and 70,000 times in

4158-632: The Sahara desert, and bearded men feared to leave their houses lest they be arrested as FIS sympathizers. The government officially dissolved the FIS on 4 March and its apparatus was dismantled. Of the few FIS activists that remained free, many took this as a declaration of war. Throughout much of the country, remaining FIS activists, along with some Islamists too radical for FIS, took to the forests and mountains with whatever weapons were available and became guerrilla fighters. The very sparsely populated but oil-rich Sahara would remain mostly peaceful for almost

4312-401: The madrasas focuses on the law, but also includes what Zaman (2010) called "Sharia sciences" (al-ʿulūm al-naqliyya) as well as the rational sciences like philosophy, astronomy, mathematics or medicine. The inclusion of these sciences sometimes reflects the personal interests of their donors, but also indicates that scholars often study various different sciences. Early on in Islamic history,

4466-638: The ummah . His temporal authority would be set up in the Hejaz , whilst he would hold religious authority over the entire Muslim community, "assisted ... by a consultative council nominated by the Muslim rulers". Al-Kawākibīs idea that the Arabian doctrine represented a more puristic form of the Islam, according to Cleveland and Bunton (2016), prepared the ground for the 20th century Arab nationalism as well as

4620-488: The "eradicators". A few shadowy pro-government paramilitaries, such as the Organisation of Young Free Algerians (OJAL), emerged and began attacking civilian Islamist supporters. On 10 March 1994, over 1000 (mainly Islamist) prisoners escaped Tazoult prison in what appeared to be a major coup for the guerrillas; later, conspiracy theorists would suggest that this had been staged to allow the security forces to infiltrate

4774-788: The 11th century on, the Muʿtazila was suppressed by the Sunni Abbasid Caliphate and the Seljuk Empire , but it continued playing an important role in the formation of Shia theology. The Ash'ari school encouraged the use of Kalām as the basis of fiqh, and was followed in this approach by parts of the Shafi'i madhhab. In contrast, the Hanbali and Maliki madhhabs discouraged theological speculation. Abu Mansur al-Maturidi (853–944 AD) developed his own form of Kalām, differing from

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4928-567: The 16th century, scholars like the Shaykh al-Islām Kemālpaşazade (d. 1534), Aḥmād b. Muṣṭafā Taşköprüzāde (1494–1561), Kınalızāde ʿAli Çelebi (d. 1572) and Ali ben Bali (1527–1584) established a seamless chain of tradition from Abu Hanifa to their own time. Explicitly, some authors stated that their work must not only be understood as the historiography of the Hanafi madhhab , but that it should be consulted in case of eventual disagreements within

5082-790: The 18th century, and shaped the relationship between ulama and government during the reigns of the subsequent dynasties. With the accession of Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar to the Iranian throne, the Qajar dynasty consolidated the central power. However, the Qajar Shahs, in particular Naser al-Din Shah Qajar (r. 1848–1896), whose reign paralleled that of the Ottoman Sultans of the Tanzimat time, failed at obtaining central control over

5236-488: The 1980, the Nahdlatul Ulama schools also offered degrees in economy, jurisdiction, paedagogical and medical sciences. In the 1990s, under their leader Abdurrahman Wahid , the organization adopted an anti-fundamentalistic doctrine, teaching democracy and pluralism. Darul Uloom Deoband , next to al-Azhar one of the most influential madrasas, was founded in the city of Deoband , Uttar Pradesh , in 1867. Initially,

5390-536: The 500,000 members in Algerian Sufi orders. The situation of Sufi orders improved under the presidency of Chadli Benjedid (1979-1992), who returned some of the properties previously nationalized. Sufi orders managed to resume their activities and the number of their followers started to increase again. However, this reversal ended during the Algerian civil war in the 1990s. After the military took control of

5544-456: The Ash'ari view in the question of Man's free will and God's omnipotence. Maturidi Kalām was often used in combination with Hanafi fiqh in the northwestern parts of the Islamic world. A distinct school of theology often called traditionalist theology emerged under the leadership of Ahmad ibn Hanbal in the early centuries of Islam among hadith scholars who rejected rationalistic argumentation. In

5698-551: The Deoband School. Ashraf Ali Thanwi (1863–1943) is one of the most prominent teachers of Darul Uloom Deoband. Thanwi initiated and edited multi-volume encyclopedic commentaries on the Quran. However, he was also able to reach out to a larger audience: His book Bahishti Zewar , which is still widely read in South Asia, as it details, amongst other topics, the proper conduct and beliefs for Muslim women. Ahl-i Hadith

5852-436: The FIS were arrested and later sentenced to twelve years in prison. Support for armed struggle began to develop among Bouyali's followers and veterans of the Afghan jihad and on 28 November the first act of jihad against the government occurred when a frontier post (at Guemmar ) was attacked and the heads of army conscripts were cut off. Despite this, the FIS participated in the legislative elections, and on 26 December 1991 won

6006-413: The FIS. Instead, Zéroual embarked on a new plan: he scheduled presidential elections for 1995, while promoting "eradicationists" such as Lamari within the army and organizing "self-defense militias" in villages to fight the guerrillas. The end of 1994 saw a noticeable upsurge in violence. Over 1994, Algeria's isolation deepened; most foreign press agencies, such as Reuters , left the country this year, while

6160-562: The FLN government after independence. In the 1980s the government imported two renowned Islamic scholars, Mohammed al-Ghazali and Yusuf al-Qaradawi , to "strengthen the religious dimension" of the ruling National Liberation Front (FLN) party's "nationalist ideology". Rather than doing this, the clerics worked to promote "Islamic awakening" as they were " fellow travelers " of the Muslim Brotherhood and supporters of Saudi Arabia and

6314-566: The FLN government, and interest in jihad against it include: a population explosion in the 1960s and 70s that outstripped the stagnant economy's ability to supply jobs, housing, food and urban infrastructure to massive numbers of young in the urban areas; a collapse in the price of oil, whose sale supplied 95% of Algeria's exports and 60% of the government's budget; a single-party state ostensibly based on Arab socialism , anti-imperialism , and popular democracy , but ruled by high-level military and consisting primarily of French-speaking clans from

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6468-550: The GIA 1999–2002 The Algerian Civil War ( Arabic : الحرب الأهلية الجزائرية ), known in Algeria as the Black Decade ( Arabic : العشرية السوداء , French : La décennie noire ), was a civil war fought between the Algerian government and various Islamist rebel groups from 11 January 1992 (following a coup negating an Islamist electoral victory) to 8 February 2002. The war began slowly, as it initially appeared

6622-427: The GIA had deviated from Islam and that this caliphate was an effort by ex-FIS leader Mohammed Said to take over the GIA. The GIA continued attacks on its usual targets, notably assassinating artists, such as Cheb Hasni , and in late August added a new practice to its activities: threatening insufficiently Islamist schools with arson . At the end of October, the government announced the failure of its negotiations with

6776-532: The GIA proper were hunted down over the next two years, and had practically disappeared by 2002, with the exception of a splinter group called the Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat (GSPC), which announced its support for Al-Qaeda in October 2003 and continued fighting an insurgency that would eventually spread to other countries in the region. Social conditions that led to dissatisfaction with

6930-474: The GIA, while the AIS, under attack from both sides, declared a unilateral ceasefire with the government in 1997. In the meantime, the 1997 parliamentary elections were won by a newly created pro-Army party supporting the president. In 1999, following the election of Abdelaziz Bouteflika as president, violence declined as large numbers of insurgents "repented", taking advantage of a new amnesty law. The remnants of

7084-471: The GIA. Meanwhile, under Cherif Gousmi (its leader since March), the GIA became the most high-profile guerrilla army in 1994, and achieved supremacy over the FIS. In May, several Islamist leaders that were not jailed (Mohammed Said, Abderraraq Redjem), including the MEI's Said Makhloufi, joined the GIA. This was a surprise to many observers, and a blow to the FIS since the GIA had been issuing death threats against

7238-1199: The Great Mosque in Algiers before undertaking his journey to Mašriq in 1739–40 to perform the hajj . Following his stay in the Hijaz, Bu Qubrayn settled in Egypt to attain greater knowledge at the Al-Azhar mosque in Cairo. This is where he was initiated to the Sufi order of khalwatîya under Muḥammad ibn Salim al-Hifnawi (1689-1767/8), the leader of the Egyptian khalwatîya and rector of al-Azhar. As part of his learning with al-Hifnawi, Bu Qubrayn traveled extensively to teach ḫalwatîya doctrines, including in Darfur for six years and as far as India. After three decades, Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Rahman returned to his village Jurjura in Algeria sometime between 1763 and 1770. There, he founded

7392-605: The Islamic doctrine. After Abduh's death in 1905, Rashīd Ridā continued editing al-Manār on his own. In 1924, he published a collection of writings by some ulama of Najd : Maǧmūʿat al-ḥadiṭ an-naǧdīya . Thus, the teachings of the Yemeni alim Muhammad ash-Shawkani (1759–1839), which had already been discussed since the 1880s, gained greater publicity. Likewise, the writings of the Hanbali scholar Ibn Taymiyyah (1263–1328) came to attention again. Ibn Taymiyyah's doctrine provided

7546-592: The Islamic renewal movement of the Nahda . In 1912, the Muhammadiyah organization was founded in Yogyakarta (in modern-day Indonesia ), which, together with Nahdlatul Ulama ("Reawakening of the ulama"), founded in 1926, form the two largest Muslim organizations in the world. Since the 1930s, their religious boarding schools ( pesantren ) also taught mathematics, natural sciences, English and history. Since

7700-710: The Islamic world from the late 11th century onwards. The most famous early madrasas are the Sunni Niẓāmiyya , founded by the Seljuk vizir Nizam al-Mulk (1018–1092) in Iran and Iraq in the 11th century. The Mustansiriya , established by the Abbasid caliph Al-Mustansir in Baghdad in 1234 AD, was the first to be founded by a caliph, and also the first known to host teachers of all four major madhhab known at that time. From

7854-534: The Islamic world to another can easily integrate themselves into the local Muslim community and hold offices there: The traveller Ibn Battuta (1304–1368 or 1369), born in Tangiers , Morocco, to a family of ulema, was appointed qadi by Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq of Delhi . Nuruddin ar-Raniri (d. 1658), born to a Gujarati Muslim family, travelled to, and worked as Shaykh ul-Islam in modern-day Indonesia under

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8008-425: The Islamic world. ʿAbduh understood Islah as a concept of "reform of mankind" (iṣlāḥ nauʿ al-insān) . In his works, he emphasized the special importance of a reform of the traditional madrasa system, which was taken to disadvantage by the parallel establishment of the secular, state-sponsored educational system in Egypt. He strove at reconciling the traditional and modern educational systems, thereby justifying from

8162-500: The MEI merged with the GIA in May 1994. The FIS itself established an underground network, with clandestine newspapers and even an MIA-linked radio station, and began issuing official statements from abroad starting in late 1992. However, at this stage the opinions of the guerrilla movements on the FIS were mixed; while many supported FIS, a significant faction, led by the "Afghans", regarded party political activity as inherently un-Islamic, and therefore rejected FIS statements. In 1993,

8316-568: The Moroccan border closed and the main foreign airlines cancelled all routes. The resulting gap in news coverage was further worsened by a government order in June banning Algerian media from reporting any terrorism-related news not covered in official press releases. A few FIS leaders, notably Rabah Kebir , had escaped into exile abroad. Upon the invitation of the Rome-based Community of Sant'Egidio , in November 1994, they began negotiations in Rome with other opposition parties, both Islamist and secular (FLN, FFS, FIS, MDA, PT, JMC). They came out with

8470-437: The Ottoman law scholars "Hanafi of Rūm [i.e., the Ottoman Empire]" (Rūmi ḫānāfi) , "Scholars of Rūm" (ʿulamā'-ı rūm) or "Scholars of the Ottoman Empire" ( ʿulamā' al-dawla al-ʿUthmaniyyā ). The Shaykh al-Islām ( Turkish : Şeyhülislam ) in Istanbul became the highest-ranking Islamic scholar within, and head of the ulama throughout the empire. The ulama in the Ottoman Empire had a significant influence over politics due to

8624-423: The Ottoman sultan Abdülhamid II of corrupting the Islamic community . The Ottoman despotism "encroaches on the rights of its citizens, keeps them ignorant to keep them passive, [and] denies their right to take an active part in human life". Therefore, the law must be reformed. By the use of ijtihad , a "modern and unified system of law" must be created, and "proper religious education" must be provided. Because of

8778-439: The Quran and sunnah of the Prophet. The capacity of its interpretation lies with the ulama. By the eleventh century, the major schools of Sunni and Shia law ( madhhab ) had emerged. Whilst, historically, the schools were at times engaged in mutual conflicts, the differences became less controversial over time, and merely represent regional predominances today. The four most important Sunni schools are: Shia madhhab include

8932-414: The Quran and Hadith. Supplementing the sharia were customs ( ʿurf ) within a given society. Islamic law and regional customs were not opposed to each other: In 15th century Morocco, qadis were allowed to use a process called ʻamal in order to choose from different juridical opinions one which applied best to the local customs, even if they were not supported by the consensus of the majority. More often,

9086-437: The Raḥmâniyya was the largest Sufi order in Algeria, with 177 zawiyas and over 155,000 members. In the 20th century, Sufism declined in Algeria for multiple reasons. First, the French colonial authorities both used Sufi orders and tried to weaken them. Second, reformers from the Islamic Modernism movement attacked Sufis, claiming they were into deviational and heretical practices, superstitions keeping people ignorant. Also, under

9240-401: The Raḥmâniyya. However, Kabyle troops suffered decisive defeats in June and July, and the repression that followed was severe. After the insurrection of 1871, the main zawiya definitively lost control over the other branches of the order, which were now following and adapting the Raḥmâniyya teachings more or less independently. The order lost some of its influence but remained vigorous. In 1897,

9394-424: The Shah. Thus, under the Qajar dynasty, the ulama provided a source of religious legitimacy and served as interpreters of religious law in a dual legal system where the state administered law based on custom ( ʻurf ) . Starting in the first half of the 19th century, direct contacts began and gradually increased between members of the ulama and modern Western Europe. The Egyptian alim Rifa'a al-Tahtawi (1801–1873)

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9548-464: The Shaykh al-Islām Ahīzāde Ḥüseyin Efendi. In 1656, Shaykh al-Islām Ḥocazāde Mesʿud Efendi was sentenced to death by sultan Mehmed IV . The use of the Sunni Islam as a legitimisation of the Ottoman dynastic rule is closely linked to Sultan Süleyman I and his kazasker and later Schaykh al-Islām Ebussuud Efendi . Ebussuud compiled an imperial book of law ( ḳānūn-nāme ), which combined religious law (sharīʿah) with secular dynastic law ( ḳānūn ) in

9702-463: The Sunni Hanafi doctrine which then served as the official religious doctrine of the empire. The formal acknowledgment by decree of the sultan became a prerequisite to issue fatwas. In the 17th century, the annalist al-Hamawi used the expression "sultanic mufti" ( al-ifta' al-sultani ) to delineate the difference between the officially appointed religious leaders and those who had followed the traditional way of education. Other authors at that time called

9856-399: The Sunni concept of analogy (qiyās) , Shia ulama prefer "dialectical reasoning" ( 'Aql ) to deduce law. The body of substantive jurisprudence ( fiqh ) defines the proper way of life through interpretation of sharia , which Muslims should follow if they want to live according to God's will. Over time, the madhhabs established "codes of conduct", examining human actions in the light of

10010-452: The basic principles of Islamic jurisprudence in his book ar-Risālah . The book details the four roots of law (Qur'an, Sunnah , ijma , and qiyas ) while specifying that the primary Islamic texts (the Qur'an and the hadith) must be understood according to objective rules of interpretation derived from scientific study of the Arabic language. According to Feldman (2008), under many Muslim caliphate states and later states ruled by sultans,

10164-408: The beginning of the 19th century, the Ottoman ulama still retained their political influence. When sultan Selim III tried to reform the Ottoman army , the ulama opposed his plans, which they rejected as an apostasy from Islam . Consequently, his reform failed. However, Selims successor Mahmud II (r. 1808–1839) was more successful: He called the new troops, organised according to European models, by

10318-418: The belief in God and in life after death, which together provide the foundation of action in the pursuit of sa'āda (Happiness). According to Shia Islam , the authority to interpret the messages of the Quran and the Hadith lies with the Imamah , a line of infallible interpreters of the truth. The Sunni majority, however, reject this concept and maintain that God's will has been completely revealed in

10472-407: The belief that secular institutions were all subordinate to Islamic law, the Sharia ( Turkish : Şeriat ). The ulama were responsible for interpreting the religious law, therefore they claimed that their power superseded that of the government. Within the Ottoman hierarchy of ulama, the Shaykh al-Islām held the highest rank. He exerted his influence by issuing fatwas, his written interpretations of

10626-434: The bench". According to Tamim Ansary , this group evolved into the Ulama The formative period of Islamic jurisprudence stretches back to the time of the early Muslim communities. In this period, jurists were more concerned with pragmatic issues of authority and teaching than with theory. Progress in theory began to develop with the coming of the early Muslim jurist Muhammad ibn Idris ash-Shafi'i (767–820), who codified

10780-449: The bombing along with the other major parties, but the FIS's influence over the guerrillas turned out to be limited. The regime began to lose control of mountain and rural districts. In working class areas of the cities insurgents expelled the police and declared "liberated Islamic zones". Even the main roads of the cities passed into the hands of the insurgents. The first major armed movement to emerge, starting almost immediately after

10934-469: The central position of the Arabic peoples in the ummah and the Arabic language in the intellectual discourse, but also because "Arabian Islam is ... free from modern corruptions and the bedouin are free from the moral decay and passivity of despotism", the balance of power must shift from the Turks towards the Arabs. The Ottoman dynasty must give up their claim to the caliphate , and a new caliph of Quraysh descent must be elected by representatives of

11088-643: The classical philosophical and scientific traditions of the world they had conquered. The collection of classical works and their translation into the Arabian language initiated a period which is known today as the Islamic Golden Age . According to Hourani (1991), the works of the classical scholars of antiquity were met with considerable intellectual curiosity by Islamic scholars. Hourani quotes al-Kindi (c. 801–873 AD), "the father of Islamic philosophy", as follows: We should not be ashamed to acknowledge truth from whatever source it comes to us, even if it

11242-572: The collaborationist Hamas party and the urban poor for jihad; and the other side, the government, had to be interested in the agreement. Those two features being lacking, the platform's effect was at best limited – though some argue that, in the words of Andrea Riccardi who brokered the negotiations for the Community of Sant'Egidio, "the platform made the Algerian military leave the cage of a solely military confrontation and forced them to react with

11396-603: The consensus of the Companions of the Prophet (aṣ-ṣaḥābah) , which gave more leeway to independent reasoning ( ijtihad ) within the boundaries of the rules of qiyās . The Hanafis hold that strict analogy may at times be supported by a limited use of juristic preference ( istihsan ) , whereas the Maliki school also allows pragmatic considerations in the interest of public welfare ( istislah ) are also acceptable. Instead of

11550-548: The continued use of French in higher education and public life jarring and disadvantageous. In January 1991 following the start of the Gulf War , the FIS led giant demonstrations in support of Saddam Hussein and Iraq. One demonstration ended in front of the Ministry of Defense where radical leader Ali Benhadj gave an impassioned speech demanding a corp of volunteers be sent to fight for Saddam. The Algerian military took this as

11704-489: The coup, was the Islamic Armed Movement (MIA). The group was founded by former militants of Mustafa Bouyali "group" such as Abdelkader Chebouti, Mansouri Meliani, and Ezzedine Baa and they named themselves after his group active in the 80's. It was led by the ex-soldier "General" Abdelkader Chebouti, a longstanding Islamist. The MIA was "well-organized and structured and favored a long-term jihad" targeting

11858-579: The course of the 19th century, this new elite carried on the Sultan's reforms and helped initiating a new era of reform, the Tanzimat . In parallel, the political influence of the ulama was circumvented and reduced step by step. A ministry for religious endowments was created in order to control the finances of the vakıf . Thus, the ulama lost direct control over their finances, which significantly reduced their capacity to exert political influence. In Iran,

12012-520: The deeds of the Ottoman sultans in terms of idealised Islamic ghazi warriors. According to Burak (2015), the Ottoman literature genres of the "rank order" ( Turkish : tabaḳat and the "biografic lexicon" ( Turkish : Eş-şakaiku'n ) compiled the biographies of scholars in such ways as to create a concise and coherent tradition of the doctrine and structure of the Ottoman imperial scholarship. During

12166-613: The divisions within the guerrilla movement became more distinct. The MIA and MEI, concentrated in the maquis , attempted to develop a military strategy against the state, typically targeting the security services and sabotaging or bombing state institutions. From its inception on, however, the GIA, concentrated in urban areas, called for and implemented the killing of anyone supporting the authorities, including government employees such as teachers and civil servants. It assassinated journalists and intellectuals (such as Tahar Djaout ), saying that "The journalists who fight against Islamism through

12320-462: The donor is free to specify in detail the curriculum, as was shown by Ahmed and Filipovic (2004) for the Ottoman imperial madrasas founded by Suleiman the Magnificent . As Berkey (1992) has described in detail for the education in medieval Cairo , unlike medieval Western universities, in general madrasas have no distinct curriculum , and do not issue diplomas . The educational activities of

12474-521: The east side of the country; "corruption on a grand scale"; underemployed Arabic-speaking college graduates frustrated that the "Arab language fields of law and literature took a decisive back seat to the French-taught scientific fields in terms of funding and job opportunities"; and in response to these issues, "the most serious riots since independence" occurring in October 1988 when thousands of urban youth (known as hittistes ) took control of

12628-574: The entire duration of the conflict. This meant that the government's principal source of foreign exchange—oil exports—was largely unaffected. The tense situation was compounded by the economy, which collapsed even further that year, as almost all of the longstanding subsidies on food were eliminated. At first Algeria remained relatively calm. But in March 1993 "a steady succession of university academics, intellectuals, writer, journalist, and medical doctors were assassinated." While not all were connected with

12782-522: The fact that the zones were surrounded by the army, impoverished and victimized the pious business class which eventually fled the zones, severely weakening the Islamist cause. On 26 August, the GIA even declared a caliphate , or Islamic government, for Algeria, with Gousmi as " Commander of the Faithful ". However, the very next day, Said Mekhloufi announced his withdrawal from the GIA, claiming that

12936-414: The first round with 188 deputies elected, as opposed to just 16 for the FLN, despite getting one million fewer votes than it had in the 1990 elections. It appeared to be on track to win an absolute majority in the second round on 16 January 1992. The FIS had made open threats against the ruling power, condemning them as unpatriotic and pro-French, as well as financially corrupt. Additionally, FIS leadership

13090-662: The founders of the School of Isfahan , and Ahmad ibn Muhammad Ardabili (d. 1585). By their teachings, they further developed the Shi'a Islamic teachings and religious practice. However, as religion did no longer suffice to support political power in Persia, Abbas I had to develop independent concepts to legitimise his rule. He did so by creating a new ghulam army, thus evoking the Turco-Mongol tradition of Timur and his reign. By

13244-440: The founders of the political Islam and of the late 19th and 20th century Salafi movement . The Egyptian Grand Mufti Muhammad Abduh (1849–1905), who was granted the degree of 'Alim by al-Azhar university in 1877, was the first who used the term Islāh in order to denote political and religious reforms. Until 1887 he edited together with al-Afghani the newspaper al-ʿUrwa al-Wuthqā ("The firm bond"). The gazette widely spread

13398-403: The government and its supporters. They formed themselves into various armed groups , principally the Islamic Armed Movement (MIA), based primarily in the mountains, and the more hard-line Armed Islamic Group (GIA), based primarily in the towns. The GIA motto was "no agreement, no truce, no dialogue" and it declared war on the FIS in 1994 after the latter had made progress in negotiations with

13552-624: The government had successfully crushed the Islamist movement, but armed groups emerged to declare jihad and by 1994, violence had reached such a level that it appeared the government might not be able to withstand it. By 1996–97, it had become clear that the Islamist resistance had lost its popular support, although fighting continued for several years after. The war has been referred to as 'the dirty war' ( la sale guerre ), and saw extreme violence and brutality used against civilians. Islamists targeted journalists , over 70 of whom were killed, and foreigners, over 100 of whom were killed, although it

13706-536: The government. The MIA and various smaller insurgent bands regrouped, becoming the FIS-loyalist Islamic Salvation Army (AIS). After talks collapsed, elections were held in 1995 and won by the army's candidate, General Liamine Zéroual . The GIA fought the government, as well as the AIS, and began a series of massacres targeting entire neighborhoods or villages which peaked in 1997. The massacre policy caused desertion and splits in

13860-564: The growing power of the GIA, inside the "liberated Islamic zones" of the insurgency, conditions were beginning to deteriorate. The Islamist notables, entrepreneurs, and shopkeepers had at first funded the insurgent amirs and fighters, hoping for revenge against the government that had seized power from the FIS movement they supported. But over the months the voluntary "Islamic tax" became a "full-scale extortionist racket, operated by band of armed men claiming to represent an ever more shadowy cause," who also fought each other over turf. The extortion and

14014-526: The guardians, transmitters, and interpreters of religious knowledge in Islam. "Ulama" may refer broadly to the educated class of such religious scholars, including theologians , canon lawyers ( muftis ), judges ( qadis ), professors, and high state religious officials. Alternatively, "ulama" may refer specifically to those holding governmental positions in an Islamic state . By longstanding tradition, ulama are educated in religious institutions ( madrasas ). The Quran and sunnah (authentic hadith ) are

14168-401: The hierarchy. Ulama In Islam , the ulama ( / ˈ uː l ə ˌ m ɑː / ; Arabic : علماء , romanized :  ʿulamāʾ , lit.   'the learned ones'; singular Arabic : عالِم , romanized :  ʿālim ; feminine singular alimah ; plural aalimath ), also spelled ulema , are scholars of Islamic doctrine and law. They are considered

14322-682: The holy towns of Mecca and Medina, thereby destroying monuments which they considered pagan ( shirk ). Starting with the Pan-Islamic Congress in Mecca in 1926, the pro-Saudi movement developed into one of the most relevant currents of Islamic thought. In his Egyptian exile, the Syrian alim Abd ar-Rahman al-Kawakibi (1854–1902) met al-Afghani, Abduh and Rida. In his books Ṭabāʾiʿ al-istibdād ("The nature of despotism ") and Umm al-Qurā ("Mother of villages [i.e., Mecca]", 1899) he accused

14476-421: The imperial bureaucracy, and Ottoman secular law into Islamic law. In contrast, Shah Abbas I of Persia was unable to gain similar support by the Shi'a ulama, who retained a more independent position. During the late Safavid empire, the Shi'a ulama developed into one of the warrantors of continuity in a period of instability of the central government, thus securing a relative independency which they retained during

14630-512: The imprisoned FIS leadership, releasing some prisoners by way of encouragement. The talks split the pro-government political spectrum. The largest political parties, especially the FLN and FFS , continued to call for compromise, while other forces—most notably the General Union of Algerian Workers (UGTA), but including smaller leftist and feminist groups such as the secularist RCD —sided with

14784-511: The influence of Sufi mysticism weakened, the Shah's role as the head of the Safaviyya lost its significance as a justification for his political role. Abbas I thus sought to associate himself with eminent ulama like Shaykh Bahāʾi (1574–1621 AD), whom he made Shaykh al-Islām in his new capital, Isfahan. Other famous ulama working under Abbas's patronage were Mir Damad (d. 1631 or 1632 AD), one of

14938-416: The intellectual circles of one region could be unknown in another. The ability of scholars from one region to support their argument in another might therefore be limited by the familiarity with the respective texts of the community they are working in. In an era without book print or mass communication media, a scholar's reputation might have remain limited if he was unfamiliar with the local canon of texts. As

15092-483: The intention of the school was to help Indian Muslims, who had become subjects of the British Empire after 1857, to lead their lives according to Islamic law. The Deobandi propagate a Sunni Islam of the Hanafi school, which was the most prevalent madhhab in South Asia. Still today, they aim at a revival of the Islamic society and education. Following the example of Deoband, thousands of madrasas were founded during

15246-464: The international community to back its economic liberalization . As it became obvious that the fighting would continue for some time, General Liamine Zéroual was named new president of the High Council of State ; he was considered to belong to the dialoguiste (pro-negotiation) rather than éradicateur ( eradicator ) faction of the army. Soon after taking office, he began negotiations with

15400-444: The issuing of fatwa as well as the use of Arabic, and later also Persian as common languages of discourse constituted the religious authority of the ulama throughout the entire Islamic world. Zaman has demonstrated that, as personal contacts were key to acquiring knowledge, Islamic scholars sometimes travel far in search of knowledge (ṭalab al-ʿilm) . Due to their common training and language, any scholars travelling from one region of

15554-592: The late 19th century which adopted the Deobandi way of studying fundamental texts of Islam and commenting on Quran and Hadith. By referring back to traditional Islamic scholars, the Deobandi School aims at defending the traditional Islamic madhhab, especially the Hanafi, against criticism which arose from other Islamic schools like the Ahl-i Hadith . During the 1990s, the Afghan taliban also referred to

15708-513: The leaders since November 1993. The move was interpreted either as the result of intra-FIS competition or as an attempt to change the GIA's course from within. FIS-loyal guerrillas, threatened with marginalization, attempted to unite their forces. In July 1994, the MIA, together with the remainder of the MEI and a variety of smaller groups, united as the Islamic Salvation Army (a term that had previously sometimes been used as

15862-542: The less-traditional educated French-speaking class. It imposed the veil on female municipal employees; pressured liquor stores, video shops and other un-Islamic establishments to close; and segregated bathing areas by gender. Co-leader of the FIS Ali Benhadj declared his intention in 1990, "to ban France from Algeria intellectually and ideologically, and be done, once and for all, with those whom France has nursed with her poisoned milk." Devout activists removed

16016-496: The most distinguished Islamic law scholars of his territory. In his 2015 study on the "second formation of Islamic law", Burak has shown in detail how the Ottoman state gradually imposed upon the traditional ulama a hierarchy of "official imperial scholars", appointed and paid by the central government. From the conquest of the Mamluk Sultanate of Cairo in 1517 onwards, the Ottoman ulama set up their own interpretation of

16170-550: The name "Victorious army of Muhammad" ( Asâkir-i Mansure-i Muhammediye ). By doing so, he was able to overcome the accusation of apostasy and secure the ulama's support. Mahmuds reforms created a new imperial elite class who spoke Western European languages and were knowledgeable of the Western European societies and their political systems. As the political and economic pressure increased on the Ottoman Empire in

16324-419: The order for a decade. The Raḥmâniyya, along with other Sufi orders, fulfilled an important role as education centers and charitable organizations. The zawiyas offered different teachings and supports across the order, but it included studies on religion, grammar, religious law, geography, and mathematics. The Raḥmâniyya and Shaykh al-Haddâd [fr] played a major role during the Algerian uprising of 1871. After

16478-429: The other Gulf monarchies. Al-Ghazali issuing a number of fatawa (Islamic judicial rulings) favorable to positions taken by local "radical" imams. Another Islamist, Mustafa Bouyali , a "gifted inflammatory preacher" and veteran of the Algerian independence struggle, called for the application of the sharia and creating of an Islamic state by jihad . After persecution by the security services in 1982 he founded

16632-414: The overall leadership of Chebouti in theory. At the last of these, at Tamesguida on 1 September, Chebouti expressed his concern about the movement's lack of discipline, in particular worrying that the Algiers airport attack, which he had not approved, could alienate supporters. The meeting was broken up by an assault from the security forces, provoking suspicions which prevented any further meetings. However

16786-409: The pan-islamistic concept of Islam representing a religious bond which was believed to be stronger than nationality or language. From 1876 on, Abduh edited the newspaper al-Ahrām . Since 1898, he also edited, together with Rashid Rida (1865–1935), the newspaper al-Manār ("The Beacon"), in which he further developed his ideas. al-Manār appeared in print for almost 40 years and was read throughout

16940-479: The pen will perish by the sword." It soon stepped up its attacks by targeting civilians who refused to live by their prohibitions, and in September 1993 began killing foreigners, declaring that "anyone who exceeds" the GIA deadline of 30 November "will be responsible for his own sudden death." 26 Foreigners were killed by the end of 1993 and virtually all foreigners left the country; indeed, (often illegal) Algerian emigration too rose substantially, as people sought

17094-588: The person of the sultan. For example, Ebussuud provided a reason why the government could own land, or could levy and increase taxes, as the government was responsible for the protection of the common good of all Muslims. Shaikh Safi-ad-Din Ardabili (1252–1334) was the founder of the Safaviyya tariqa . Safi ad-Din's great-great grandson Ismail , who from 1501 onwards ruled over the Persian Empire ,

17248-450: The point of view of Islam the introduction of modern institutions by the national state. He referred to the Islamic concept of the collective interest or common good of the Muslim community (maṣlaḥa) , to which he accorded overarching importance (al-maṣlaḥa shar) in the interest of his fellow Muslims. The concept of islāh gained special relevance for the future, as it strives at understanding and justifying all aspects of modern life from

17402-502: The presidencies of Ahmed Ben Bella (1963-1965) and Houari Boumedienne (1965-1978), Sufi orders were further weakened by governments trying to increase their control of Algerian society. Sufi shaykhs were often subject to house arrest, and Sufi-owned properties were nationalized. However, the Raḥmâniyya experienced a renewed activity after the independence, and around 1950, it had around 230,000 members, mostly Berbers, namely almost half of

17556-693: The protection of Iskandar Thani , Sultan of Aceh . Both scholars were able to move freely in an "interconnected world of fellow scholars". According to Zaman, their offices and positions as respected scholars were only questioned if they proved themselves unfamiliar with local customs (as happened to Ibn Battuta]), or met resistance from opponents with stronger local roots (ar-Raniri). Through their travels and teachings, ulama are able to transmit new knowledge and ideas over considerable distances. However, according to Zaman (2010), scholars have often been required to rely on commonly known texts which could support their fatwas . A text which might be widely known within

17710-462: The regime, they were French-speaking and so "in the eyes of the young urban poor who had joined the jihad ... associated with the hated image of French-speaking intellectuals". It also "exploded" the idea of the government's triumph over the Islamists. Other attacks showed a willingness to target civilians. The bombing of the Algiers airport claimed 9 lives and injured 128 people. The FIS condemned

17864-487: The reign of subsequent dynasties. After the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, the leaders and subjects of the Ottoman Empire became increasingly aware of its role as a great power of its time. This new self-awareness was associated with the idea to legitimise the new political role by linking the religious scholarship to the political system: Ottoman historians of the 15th and 16th century like Ibn Zunbul or Eyyûbî, described

18018-448: The religion of Islam. However, according to Hourani, al-Farabi also wrote that philosophy in its pure form was reserved for an intellectual elite, and that ordinary people should rely for guidance on the sharia . The distinction between a scholarly elite and the less educated masses "was to become a commonplace of Islamic thought". As exemplified by the works of al-Razi ( c. 865–925 AD), during later times, philosophy "was carried on as

18172-552: The religious concept of the Muslim collective interest ( maṣlaḥa ) to make his point, thereby applying the idea of ijtihad to public affairs. Positions comparable to the Western Islamic ulama were also taken in the Eastern parts of the Islamic world by Syed Ahmad Khan , the pioneering Muslim modernist in South Asia, and Jamal al-Din al-Afghani . The latter is regarded as the mentor of Pan-Islamism , but also as one of

18326-430: The repression", and attacked the GIA's school arson campaign. The AIS and FIS supported a negotiated settlement with the government/military, and the AIS's role was to strengthening FIS's hand in the negotiations. The GIA was absolutely opposed to negotiations and sought instead "to purge the land of the ungodly", including the Algerian government. The two insurgent groups would soon be "locked in bloody combat." Despite

18480-525: The royal family's claim at descendency from Musa al-Kadhim , the Seventh Imam, and thus to legitimise the Safavid rule. During the reign of Shah Abbas I (1571 – 1629 AD), the argument of the theocratic unity of religious and political power was no longer sufficient to legitimise the Shah's authority: Shi'a ulama renounced the monarch's claim to represent the hidden Imam by teaching that descendancy did not necessarily mean representation. Likewise, as

18634-555: The ruling FLN 's legitimacy. His aim was to "Islamise the regime without altering society's basic fabric." Ali Benhadj , a charismatic preacher and high school teacher appealed to a younger and less educated class. An impassioned orator, he was known for his ability to both enrage or calm at will the tens of thousands of young hittiestes who came to hear him speak. However, his radical speeches and opposition to democratic rule alarmed non-Islamists and feminists. Neither Madani or Benhadj were committed to democracy. In December 1989 Madani

18788-478: The ruling National Liberation Front (FLN) party in the national parliamentary elections in December 1991 . The elections were canceled after the first round and the military effectively took control of the government, forcing pro-reform president Chadli Bendjedid from office. After the FIS was banned and thousands of its members arrested, Islamist guerrillas rapidly emerged and began an armed campaign against

18942-609: The satellite dishes of households receiving European satellite broadcast in favor of Arab satellite dishes receiving Saudi broadcasts. Educationally, the party was committed to continue the Arabization of the educational system by shifting the language of instruction in more institutions, such as medical and technological schools, from French to Arabic. Large numbers of recent graduates, the first post-independence generation educated mainly in Arabic, liked this measure, as they had found

19096-537: The school of law. This exemplifies their purpose to establish a canon of Hanafi law within the Ottoman imperial scholarship. which modern Ottomanists termed the "Ottoman Islam". After 1453, Mehmed the Conqueror (1432–1481) had established eight madrasas in former Byzantine church buildings, and later founded the sahn-ı şeman or "Eight courtyards madrasa", adjacent to the Fatih mosque , where he brought together

19250-429: The scriptural sources of traditional Islamic law . Students of Islamic doctrine do not seek out a specific educational institution, but rather seek to join renowned teachers. By tradition, a scholar who has completed their studies is approved by their teacher. At the teacher's individual discretion, the student is given the permission for teaching and for the issuing of legal opinions ( fatwa ) . The official approval

19404-579: The sharia had authority over the entire Ottoman population. In the 16th century, as the support by the ulama of the sultan and the central government was essential for shaping the still-growing empire, the importance of the office rose, and its power increased. As members of the Ilmiye , the imperial scholars were part of the Ottoman elite class of the Askeri , and were exempt from any taxes. However, by approving scholars and appointing them to offices, over time

19558-515: The state and its representatives and based on a guerrilla campaign like that of the War of Independence. From prison, Ali Benhadj issued a fatwa giving the MIA his blessing. In February 1992, ex-Algerian officer, ex-Afghan fighter, former FIS head of security and editor of the FIS official newspaper El Mounqid, Said Mekhloufi founded the Movement for an Islamic State (MEI). The other main jihad group

19712-661: The state" to force a promise of early elections. Despite President Bendjedid and his party, the FLN's new liberal reforms, in the 12 June 1990 local elections —the first free elections since independence—the Algerian voters chose the FIS. The party won 54% of votes cast, almost double that of the FLN and far more than any of the other parties. Its supporters were especially concentrated in urban areas. Once in power in local governments, its administration and its Islamic charity were praised by many as just, equitable, orderly and virtuous, in contrast to its corrupt, wasteful, arbitrary and inefficient FLN predecessors. But it also alarmed

19866-486: The state, they sanctioned not only Salafi and Wahhabi groups but also Sufi orders. At the end of the war, President Abdelaziz Bouteflika (1999-2019) endeavored to support "Sufism as a more moderate alternative to more radical Salafis and more conservative Wahhabis". Today, Sufi orders such as the Raḥmâniyya survive in Algeria despite their reduced influence in Algerian society. Sufism is viewed positively, even though most Algerian youth don't practice what they don't consider

20020-430: The streets despite the killing of hundreds by security forces. Islam in Algeria after independence was dominated by Salafist " Islamic revivalism " and political Islam rather than the more apolitical popular Islam of brotherhoods found in other areas of North Africa. The brotherhoods had been dismantled by the FLN government in retaliation for lack of support and their land had been confiscated and redistributed by

20174-466: The sultan's influence increased over the religious scholars, although, as a Muslim, he still stood under the Islamic law. Even the Shaykh al-Islām was subordinate to the sultan; his position, like the ranks of the muftis, was described as a "service" ( Turkish : hizmet ) or "rank" ( Turkish : rütbe or paye-ı Sahn ), to which a candidate was appointed or elevated. Sometimes, the sultans made use of their power: In 1633, Murad IV gave order to execute

20328-475: The surprise of many, even Ali Belhadj endorsed the agreement, which meant that the FIS had returned into the legal framework, along with the other opposition parties. The initiative was also received favorably by "influential circles" in the United States. However, for the agreement to work, the FIS still had to have the support of its original power base, when in fact the pious bourgeous had abandon it for

20482-551: The time of the Persian Ilkhanate (1260–1335 AD) and the Timurid dynasty (1370–1507 AD) onwards, madrasas have often become part of an architectural complex which also includes a mosque, a Sufi ṭarīqa , and other buildings of socio-cultural function, like baths or a hospital . Madrasas are considered sacred places of learning. They may provide boarding and salaries to a limited number of teachers, and boarding for

20636-537: The traditional education of an alim, his interest focused on modern French concepts of administration and economy. He only referred to Islam in order to emphasize that Muslims can adopt practical knowledge and insights from Europe. As such, lt-Tahtawi's report reflects the political efforts of Muhammad Ali Pasha, who did not intend to reform al-Azhar university, but aimed at building an independent educational system sponsored by his government. Hayreddin Pasha (1822/3–1890)

20790-660: The transition from a military regime to a civilian regime, the Crémieux decree, and the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War , Shaykh Mokrani launched the revolt against French authorities in March 1871. But the insurrection really gained ground when Shaykh al-Haddâd proclaimed the holy war against the French in April. Soon, around 250 tribes and 150,000 combattants rose from everywhere in Kabylia, especially members of

20944-408: The two opponent early modern Islamic empires, both relied on ulama in order to legitimise their power. In both empires, ulama patronised by the royal courts created "official" religious doctrines which supported the dynastic rule. At the high points of their political power, respectively, the development took different paths: The Ottoman Sultan Süleyman I successfully integrated the imperial ulama into

21098-604: The ulama were regarded as the guardians of Islamic law and prevented the Caliph from dictating legal results, with the ruler and ulama forming a sort of "separation of powers" in government. Laws were decided based on the Ijma (consensus) of the Ummah (community), which was most often represented by the legal scholars. The Sunni Ottoman, and the Shi'a Safavid Persian dynasties, rulers of

21252-637: The ulama's support in an attempt to strengthen their authority. Particularly, they associated themselves with a group of ulama who supported the "official" Twelver Shi'a doctrine, established by the Iranian Shaykh al-Islām Mohammad-Baqer Majlesi (1627–1699) during the later decades of Safavid rule. The dispute between the Twelver Shi'a and Mir Damad 's (d. 1631 or 1632) and Mulla Sadra 's (c. 1571/2 – 1640) School of Isfahan , who promoted Sufi mysticism and Islamic philosophy , continued throughout

21406-578: The ulama. The Shiite scholars retained their political influence on the Persian society. They also maintained unrestricted access to the financial resources from the religious endowments. In addition, the Islamic Zakat tax was paid to individual imams and not to state-sponsored tax collectors. Both their religious influence and their financial means allowed the Shiite ulama to act, at times, against

21560-458: The underground Mouvement Islamique Armé (MIA), "a loose association of tiny groups", with himself as amir . His group carried out a series of "bold attacks" against the regime and was able to continue its fight for five years before Bouyali was killed in February 1987. Also in the 1980s, several hundred youth left Algeria for camps of Peshawar to fight jihad in Afghanistan . As Algeria was

21714-452: The use of sharia led to changes in local customs. ʿIlm al-Kalām , the "science of discourse", also termed "Islamic theology", serves to explain and defend the doctrine of the Quran and Hadith. The concept of kalām was introduced during the first Islamic centuries by the Muʿtazila school. One of the most prominent scholars of the Muʿtazila was Abd al-Jabbar ibn Ahmad (935–1025 AD). From

21868-573: The wake of the Ash'arite synthesis between Mu'tazilite rationalism and Hanbalite literalism, its original form survived among a minority of mostly Hanbalite scholars. While Ash'arism and Maturidism are often called the Sunni "orthodoxy", traditionalist theology has thrived alongside it, laying rival claims to be the orthodox Sunni faith. Islamic theology experienced further developments among Shia theologians . The study of, and commentaries on Quran and hadith, debates about ijtihad and taqlid and

22022-435: The weakness of the central authority was the Shi'a ulama. According to Garthwaite (2010), "the ulama constituted one institution that not only provided continuity, but gradually asserted its role over and against royal authority." A process of change began which continued throughout the 19th century and into the present. Already some of the last Safavids, Sulayman Shah (r. 1666–1694) and Tahmasp II (r. 1722–1732) had sought

22176-853: The works of Muhammad ash-Shawkani, whose writings did also influence the doctrine of the Salafi movement in the Arab Middle East and worldwide. Algerian Civil War Algerian government victory Armed Islamic Group (from 1993) Minor involvement: [REDACTED]   Sudan (alleged) [REDACTED]   Iran (alleged) Egyptian Islamic Jihad (until 1995) Abdelhak Layada  ( POW ) Djafar al-Afghani   † Cherif Gousmi   † Djamel Zitouni   † Antar Zouabri   † [REDACTED] Armed Forces [REDACTED] police Gendarmerie State Security Local militias Escalation 1994–1996 Massacres and reconciliation 1996–1999 Defeat of

22330-565: The young urban poor". Evidence of their effectiveness was that the riots "petered out" after meetings between the President Chadli Bendjedid and Islamists Ali Benhadj and members of the Muslim Brotherhood . The FLN government responded to the riots by amending the Algerian Constitution on 3 November 1988, to allow parties other than the ruling FLN to operate legally. A broad-based Islamist party,

22484-400: Was assassinated by one of his bodyguards, Lieutenant Lambarek Boumaarafi . The assassin was sentenced to death in a closed trial in 1995. The sentence was not carried out. Many FIS members were arrested—5,000 by the army's account, 40,000 according to Gilles Kepel and including its leader Abdelkader Hachani —that the jails had insufficient space to hold them in; camps were set up for them in

22638-486: Was almost exclusive of any other order. In 1851, French military authorities estimated the membership of the order to 295,000 members. After the death of Bu Qubrayn, his successor 'Alî ibn 'Îsâ al-Maghribî remained the undisputed leader of the order until 1835. The leadership was then more disputed until 1860, which led to the division of the Raḥmâniyya into independent branches. But Muḥammad Amezzyân ibn al-Haddâd of Saddûk took over in 1860, bringing unity and dynamism back to

22792-477: Was amongst the first members of the ulama who travelled to Europe. As a religious counsellor to a delegation by the Egyptian khedive Muhammad Ali Pasha he stayed in Paris from 1826 to 1831. His report "The Extraction of Gold or an Overview of Paris" ( Taḫlīṣ al-ibrīz fī talḫīṣ Bārīz ) (1849) included some outlines of future reforms and potential improvements in his native country. Although al-Tahtawi had gone through

22946-418: Was an Ottoman Tunisian alim and statesman who reformed the administration and jurisdiction of the province. He was able to explain his ideas in French ( Réformes nécessaires aux États musulmans – Necessary reforms of the Muslim states. Paris, 1868), which he had learned whilst representing his sovereign Ahmad Bey at the court of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1855. In contrast to al-Tahtawi, Hayreddin Pasha used

23100-433: Was at best divided on the desirability of democracy, and some expressed fears that a FIS government would be, as U.S. Assistant Secretary of State Edward Djerejian put it, "one person, one vote, one time." On 11 January 1992 the army cancelled the electoral process, forcing President Bendjedid to resign and bringing in the exiled independence fighter Mohamed Boudiaf to serve as a new president. However, on 29 June 1992 he

23254-533: Was called the Armed Islamic Group (GIA, from French Groupe Islamique Armé ). In January 1993, Abdelhak Layada declared his group independent of Chebouti's. It became particularly prominent around Algiers and its suburbs, in urban environments. It took a hardline position, opposed to both the government and the FIS, affirming that "political pluralism is equivalent to sedition" and issuing death threats against several FIS and MIA leaders. It favored

23408-588: Was effectively criticised by al-Ghazali , one of the most influential scholars of Islam. In his works Tahāfut al-Falāsifa (The Incoherence of the Philosophers), Mizan al-'amal (Criterion of Action) and Kimiya-yi sa'ādat (The Alchemy of Happiness), he refuted the Philosophy of Ibn Sīnā , and demonstrated that the Aristotelian ethics is incompatible with Islamic ethics: The latter is based on

23562-517: Was quoted as saying: We do not accept this democracy which permits an elected official to be in contradiction with Islam, the Shari'a , its doctrines and values. and in February 1989, Benhadj stated: There is no democracy because the only source of power is Allah through the Koran , and not the people. If the people vote against the law of God, this is nothing other than blasphemy . In this case, it

23716-595: Was the founder of the Safavid dynasty . Shah Ismail I proclaimed the Twelver Shi'a as the new Persian state religion. To propagate the Safavid faith , he invited ulama from Qom , Jabal 'Āmil in southern Lebanon and Syria to travel around Iran and promote the Shi'a doctrine. In 1533, Shah Tahmasp I commissioned a new edition of the Safvat as-safa , Shaikh Ṣāfī's genealogy. It was rewritten in order to support

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