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127-540: Rainworth Water is a watercourse that is a tributary of the River Maun near Rainworth , Nottinghamshire , England . It is characterised by a number of lakes, including that which forms part of the country park at Rufford Abbey . L Lake at Rainworth forms part of the Rainworth Lakes Site of Special Scientific Interest . There are two designated Local Nature Reserves along its length, one of which

254-424: A lake , bay or ocean but joins another river (a parent river). Sometimes also called a branch or fork. A distributary , or a distributary channel , is a stream that branches off and flows away from a main stream channel, and the phenomenon is known as river bifurcation . Distributaries are common features of river deltas , and are often found where a valleyed stream enters wide flatlands or approaches

381-408: A 1 in 100 year flood event. More serious flood events discharged water over a low point in the dam nearer to the mill, onto an auxiliary spillway. At the southern end of the lake, Rainworth Water is joined by Gallow Hole Dyke, and there was originally a single channel for the last 330 yards (300 m) down to the lake. In wet periods, this resulted in high water levels above that point, and to reduce

508-403: A bed armor layer, and other depositional features, plus well defined banks due to bank erosion, are good identifiers when assessing for perennial streams. Particle size will help identify a perennial stream. Perennial streams cut through the soil profile, which removes fine and small particles. By assessing areas for relatively coarse material left behind in the stream bed and finer sediments along

635-658: A continuous aquatic habitat until they reach maturity. Crayfish and other crustaceans , snails , bivalves (clams), and aquatic worms also indicate the stream is perennial. These require a persistent aquatic environment for survival. Fish and amphibians are secondary indicators in assessment of a perennial stream because some fish and amphibians can inhabit areas without persistent water regime. When assessing for fish, all available habitat should be assessed: pools, riffles, root clumps and other obstructions. Fish will seek cover if alerted to human presence, but should be easily observed in perennial streams. Amphibians also indicate

762-470: A continuous or intermittent stream. The same non-perennial channel might change characteristics from intermittent to ephemeral over its course. Washes can fill up quickly during rains, and there may be a sudden torrent of water after a thunderstorm begins upstream, such as during monsoonal conditions. In the United States, an intermittent or seasonal stream is one that only flows for part of

889-422: A drainage network. Although each tributary has its own source, international practice is to take the source farthest from the river mouth as the source of the entire river system, from which the most extended length of the river measured as the starting point is taken as the length of the whole river system, and that furthest starting point is conventionally taken as the source of the whole river system. For example,

1016-403: A freeboard of 1.3 feet (0.4 m) above the maximum expected flood level. This was achieved by removing the header course of bricks, adding an extra course of bricks, and finishing the wall with magnesian limestone coping, to match the detailing of the mill. With the water level permanently lowered, some work was required at the southern end of the lake to rewater the dry sections. The bottom of

1143-511: A large dome on the roof. The building was constructed of brick and stone, in a classical style, and was powered by two waterwheels. In the 1860s, Captain Henry Savile began exploiting timber from the estate commercially, and built a saw mill to the east of the corn mill, in a similar style. By that time, one wheel had been removed, and the remaining wheel was refurbished. It only powered the saw mill, as corn milling ceased in 1865. The saw mill

1270-399: A large head compared to other types of wheel which usually means significant investment in constructing the headrace. Sometimes the final approach of the water to the wheel is along a flume or penstock , which can be lengthy. A backshot wheel (also called pitchback ) is a variety of overshot wheel where the water is introduced just before the summit of the wheel. In many situations, it has

1397-412: A larger wall in front of the mill building, and raising the crest of the dam would have required major strengthening of the existing concrete walls, which were cracked as a result of the subsidence. The main spillway was lowered by 14 inches (0.35 m), and both it and the auxiliary spillway were made wider. The slope below the spillways had to be reprofiled, and the grassed appearance was maintained by

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1524-650: A legal framework for the protection and improvement of water quality for surface water and groundwater. This has been worked out locally by appointing the Nottinghamshire Wildlife Trust to act as Catchment Hosts for the River Idle Catchment, which includes Rainworth Water, in 2013. Their role has been to draw together all those who are affected by or can affect water quality, so that alterations that will improve water quality can be made. Initial discussions revealed that parts of both

1651-403: A listed mill building in the vicinity, and the fact that the site is a public amenity. In 1974, the dam had to be raised and sealed, the overflow works were reconstructed, and a retaining wall was built on the upstream side of the mill building. The outlet weir, which controls the level of the lake under normal conditions, is at the eastern end of the dam. Water is directed to it by a curved wall on

1778-454: A major change of the river. Their disadvantages are their low efficiency, which means that they generate less power and can only be used where the flow rate is sufficient. A typical flat board undershot wheel uses about 20 percent of the energy in the flow of water striking the wheel as measured by English civil engineer John Smeaton in the 18th century. More modern wheels have higher efficiencies. Stream wheels gain little or no advantage from

1905-565: A minor road and a disused railway embankment to the west of Bilsthorpe , with Bilsthorpe Sewage Works on its east bank. Robin Dam Bridge carries another minor road over it, after which the holiday complex of Center Parcs is located to its west. Although separated from the river by the A614 road, the complex has over 1000 villas, together with bars, shops and cafes, and is of sufficient size that it maintains its own private sewage treatment works,

2032-441: A moderate head . Undershot and stream wheel use large flows at little or no head. There is often an associated millpond , a reservoir for storing water and hence energy until it is needed. Larger heads store more gravitational potential energy for the same amount of water so the reservoirs for overshot and backshot wheels tend to be smaller than for breast shot wheels. Overshot and pitchback water wheels are suitable where there

2159-404: A path into mines or other underground chambers. According to official U.S. definitions, the channels of intermittent streams are well-defined, as opposed to ephemeral streams, which may or may not have a defined channel, and rely mainly on storm runoff, as their aquatic bed is above the water table . An ephemeral stream does not have the biological, hydrological, and physical characteristics of

2286-412: A perennial stream and include tadpoles , frogs , salamanders , and newts . These amphibians can be found in stream channels, along stream banks, and even under rocks. Frogs and tadpoles usually inhabit shallow and slow moving waters near the sides of stream banks. Frogs will typically jump into water when alerted to human presence. Well defined river beds composed of riffles, pools, runs, gravel bars,

2413-483: A perennial stream, fine sediment may cling to riparian plant stems and tree trunks. Organic debris drift lines or piles may be found within the active overbank area after recent high flow. Streams, headwaters, and streams flowing only part of the year provide many benefits upstream and downstream. They defend against floods, remove contaminants, recycle nutrients that are potentially dangerous as well as provide food and habitat for many forms of fish. Such streams also play

2540-544: A poem by Antipater of Thessalonica , which praises it as a labour-saving device (IX, 418.4–6). The motif is also taken up by Lucretius (ca. 99–55 BC) who likens the rotation of the waterwheel to the motion of the stars on the firmament (V 516). The third horizontal-axled type, the breastshot waterwheel, comes into archaeological evidence by the late 2nd century AD context in central Gaul . Most excavated Roman watermills were equipped with one of these wheels which, although more complex to construct, were much more efficient than

2667-405: A population of water voles and breeding waterfowl. The Cistercian Abbey was founded in 1147 by Gilbert de Gant, but was partly demolished in 1560 and converted into a country house. After extensions were added in the eighteenth and nineteenth century, it was partly demolished again in 1959. It is a grade I listed structure and an ancient monument, managed by English Heritage . Beyond the ruins of

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2794-407: A railway embankment associated with Rufford Colliery. By Inkersall Manor there are ponds on both sides with earthworks at the eastern end, located in an area of woodland known as Damside Covert. It was at one time a large wetland, and possibly a lake. Another lake is located to the east of the woodland, and then Red Bridge carries the A614 over the river. Beyond the road, it turns north, passing under

2921-449: A reversible water wheel was by Georgius Agricola and dates to 1556. As in all machinery, rotary motion is more efficient in water-raising devices than oscillating motion. In terms of power source, waterwheels can be turned by either human respectively animal force or by the water current itself. Waterwheels come in two basic designs, either equipped with a vertical or a horizontal axle. The latter type can be subdivided, depending on where

3048-406: A slow-moving wetted channel or stagnant area. This is evidence that iron-oxidizing bacteria are present, indicating persistent expression of oxygen-depleted ground water. In a forested area, leaf and needle litter in the stream channel is an additional indicator. Accumulation of leaf litter does not occur in perennial streams since such material is continuously flushed. In the adjacent overbank of

3175-486: A stream as intermittent, "showing interruptions in time or space". Generally, streams that flow only during and immediately after precipitation are termed ephemeral . There is no clear demarcation between surface runoff and an ephemeral stream, and some ephemeral streams can be classed as intermittent—flow all but disappearing in the normal course of seasons but ample flow (backups) restoring stream presence — such circumstances are documented when stream beds have opened up

3302-424: A stream is a critical factor in determining its character and is entirely determined by its base level of erosion. The base level of erosion is the point at which the stream either enters the ocean, a lake or pond, or enters a stretch in which it has a much lower gradient, and may be specifically applied to any particular stretch of a stream. In geological terms, the stream will erode down through its bed to achieve

3429-574: A stream is controlled by three inputs – surface runoff (from precipitation or meltwater ), daylighted subterranean water , and surfaced groundwater ( spring water ). The surface and subterranean water are highly variable between periods of rainfall. Groundwater, on the other hand, has a relatively constant input and is controlled more by long-term patterns of precipitation. The stream encompasses surface, subsurface and groundwater fluxes that respond to geological, geomorphological, hydrological and biotic controls. Streams are important as conduits in

3556-524: A thin layer called sheet wash, combined with a network of tiny rills, which together form the sheet runoff; when this water is focused in a channel, a stream is born. Some rivers and streams may begin from lakes or ponds. Freshwater's primary sources are precipitation and mountain snowmelt. However, rivers typically originate in the highlands, and are slowly created by the erosion of mountain snowmelt into lakes or rivers. Rivers usually flow from their source topographically, and erode as they pass until they reach

3683-627: A vital role in preserving our drinking water quality and supply, ensuring a steady flow of water to surface waters and helping to restore deep aquifers. The extent of land basin drained by a stream is termed its drainage basin (also known in North America as the watershed and, in British English, as a catchment). A basin may also be composed of smaller basins. For instance, the Continental Divide in North America divides

3810-499: A water wheel is called a mill race . The race bringing water from the mill pond to the water wheel is a headrace ; the one carrying water after it has left the wheel is commonly referred to as a tailrace . Waterwheels were used for various purposes from things such as agriculture to metallurgy in ancient civilizations spanning the Hellenistic Greek world , Rome , China and India . Waterwheels saw continued use in

3937-484: A water wheel. The mechanical engineer Ma Jun (c. 200–265) from Cao Wei once used a water wheel to power and operate a large mechanical puppet theater for the Emperor Ming of Wei ( r. 226–239). The technological breakthrough occurred in the technologically developed Hellenistic period between the 3rd and 1st century BC. A poem by Antipater of Thessalonica praised the water wheel for freeing women from

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4064-414: Is a large natural stream that is much wider and deeper than a creek and not easily fordable, and may be a navigable waterway . The linear channel between the parallel ridges or bars on a shoreline beach or river floodplain, or between a bar and the shore. Also called a swale . A tributary is a contributory stream to a larger stream, or a stream which does not reach a static body of water such as

4191-434: Is a small stream with a height difference of more than 2 metres (6.5 ft), often in association with a small reservoir. Breastshot and undershot wheels can be used on rivers or high volume flows with large reservoirs. A horizontal wheel with a vertical axle. Commonly called a tub wheel , Norse mill or Greek mill , the horizontal wheel is a primitive and inefficient form of the modern turbine. However, if it delivers

4318-452: Is a vertically mounted water wheel with a horizontal axle that is rotated by the water from a low weir striking the wheel in the bottom quarter. Most of the energy gain is from the movement of the water and comparatively little from the head. They are similar in operation and design to stream wheels. The term undershot is sometimes used with related but different meanings: This is the oldest type of vertical water wheel. The word breastshot

4445-586: Is also known by the name Rainworth Water. The Rainworth Water LNR is owned and managed by Nottinghamshire County Council . The river rises in Normanshill Wood, to the north-west of Ravenshead and flows eastwards, passing under the A60 road, and to the south of Portland Training College. There are two lakes created by dams, which were once fish ponds. To the north of the second lake is Fountain Dale moat, which

4572-477: Is an area of wetland at Thieves Wood that would allow run-off from the A60 to deposit silt, and chemical contaminants to be removed before the water enters the main river. It would also create a head of water, which would be released into the river more slowly, levelling out the periods of high flow and low flow. The Environment Agency are responsible for measuring water quality of the river systems in England. Each

4699-597: Is assumed that the scientists of the Museum of Alexandria , at the time the most active Greek research center, may have been involved in its invention. An episode from the Alexandrian War in 48 BC tells of how Caesar's enemies employed geared waterwheels to pour sea water from elevated places on the position of the trapped Romans. Around 300 AD, the noria was finally introduced when the wooden compartments were replaced with inexpensive ceramic pots that were tied to

4826-616: Is better preserved than many residential moated sites in Britain. To the south of the lake is the Grade II listed Fountain Dale House, dating from the mid-eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. At the outlet of the lake is a Grade II listed well head constructed of ashlar and red brick, called Friar Tuck 's well, after which the river turns to the north-east to reach another artificial lake called Cave Pond. Passing under Blidworth Lane on

4953-473: Is given an overall ecological status, which may be one of five levels: high, good, moderate, poor and bad. There are several components that are used to determine this, including biological status, which looks at the quantity and varieties of invertebrates , angiosperms and fish. Chemical status, which compares the concentrations of various chemicals against known safe concentrations, is rated good or fail. The water quality of Rainworth Water and its tributaries

5080-441: Is known as surface hydrology and is a core element of environmental geography . A brook is a stream smaller than a creek, especially one that is fed by a spring or seep . It is usually small and easily forded . A brook is characterised by its shallowness. A creek ( / k r iː k / ) or crick ( / k r ɪ k / ): In hydrography, gut is a small creek; this is seen in proper names in eastern North America from

5207-404: Is known to have existed in 1251, when there was a hunting lodge on the 52-by-38-yard (48 by 35 m) island, from which tolls were collected by the forester Raffe Clerc. There is a 46-foot (14 m) wide causeway across the north-eastern corner of the moat, which is around 39 feet (12 m) wide, with a substantial bank beyond that. The site has not been disturbed since it was abandoned, and so

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5334-420: Is rotated by the water in a water course striking paddles or blades at the bottom of the wheel. This type of water wheel is the oldest type of horizontal axis wheel. They are also known as free surface wheels because the water is not constrained by millraces or wheel pits. Stream wheels are cheaper and simpler to build and have less of an environmental impact than other types of wheels. They do not constitute

5461-425: Is sometimes termed a "young" or "immature" stream, and the later state a "mature" or "old" stream. Meanders are looping changes of direction of a stream caused by the erosion and deposition of bank materials. These are typically serpentine in form. Typically, over time the meanders gradually migrate downstream. If some resistant material slows or stops the downstream movement of a meander, a stream may erode through

5588-408: Is the overhead timber structure and a branch to the left supplies water to the wheel. The water exits from under the wheel back into the stream. A special type of overshot/backshot wheel is the reversible water wheel. This has two sets of blades or buckets running in opposite directions so that it can turn in either direction depending on which side the water is directed. Reversible wheels were used in

5715-479: Is used in a variety of ways. Some authors restrict the term to wheels where the water enters at about the 10 o’clock position, others 9 o’clock, and others for a range of heights. In this article it is used for wheels where the water entry is significantly above the bottom and significantly below the top, typically the middle half. They are characterized by: Both kinetic (movement) and potential (height and weight) energy are utilised. The small clearance between

5842-456: Is usually called a creek and marked on topographic maps with a solid blue line. There are five generic classifications: "Macroinvertebrate" refers to easily seen invertebrates , larger than 0.5 mm, found in stream and river bottoms. Macroinvertebrates are larval stages of most aquatic insects and their presence is a good indicator that the stream is perennial. Larvae of caddisflies , mayflies , stoneflies , and damselflies require

5969-481: The Ancient Near East before Alexander's conquest can be deduced from its pronounced absence from the otherwise rich oriental iconography on irrigation practices. Unlike other water-lifting devices and pumps of the period though, the invention of the compartmented wheel cannot be traced to any particular Hellenistic engineer and may have been made in the late 4th century BC in a rural context away from

6096-546: The Fall Line of the North American East Coast. Breastshot wheels are the most common type in the United States of America and are said to have powered the industrial revolution. A vertically mounted water wheel that is rotated by water entering buckets just past the top of the wheel is said to be overshot. The term is sometimes, erroneously, applied to backshot wheels, where the water goes down behind

6223-576: The River Ryton and Rainworth Water were failing to meet the water quality demanded by the Water Framework Directive, and were therefore given special consideration. Much of the river channel has been straightened over the years, to ensure that large quantities of water can be removed from the area during wet periods or flooding incidents. Such flows scour the channel, making it difficult for wildlife to establish itself, and during

6350-691: The Tombigbee River basin. Continuing in this vein, a component of the Mississippi River basin is the Ohio River basin, which in turn includes the Kentucky River basin, and so forth. Stream crossings are where streams are crossed by roads , pipelines , railways , or any other thing which might restrict the flow of the stream in ordinary or flood conditions. Any structure over or in a stream which results in limitations on

6477-713: The coastal plains around a lake or an ocean . They can also occur inland, on alluvial fans , or where a tributary stream bifurcates as it nears its confluence with a larger stream. Common terms for individual river distributaries in English-speaking countries are arm and channel . There are a number of regional names for a stream. A stream's source depends on the surrounding landscape and its function within larger river networks. While perennial and intermittent streams are typically supplied by smaller upstream waters and groundwater, headwater and ephemeral streams often derive most of their water from precipitation in

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6604-544: The copper mines at Rio Tinto in Spain , one system involving 16 such wheels stacked above one another so as to lift water about 80 feet from the mine sump. Part of such a wheel was found at Dolaucothi , a Roman gold mine in south Wales in the 1930s when the mine was briefly re-opened. It was found about 160 feet below the surface, so must have been part of a similar sequence as that discovered at Rio Tinto. It has recently been carbon dated to about 90 AD, and since

6731-414: The mining industry in order to power various means of ore conveyance. By changing the direction of the wheel, barrels or baskets of ore could be lifted up or lowered down a shaft or inclined plane. There was usually a cable drum or a chain basket on the axle of the wheel. It is essential that the wheel have braking equipment to be able to stop the wheel (known as a braking wheel). The oldest known drawing of

6858-692: The post-classical age , like in medieval Europe and the Islamic Golden Age , but also elsewhere. In the mid- to late 18th century John Smeaton 's scientific investigation of the water wheel led to significant increases in efficiency, supplying much-needed power for the Industrial Revolution . Water wheels began being displaced by the smaller, less expensive and more efficient turbine , developed by Benoît Fourneyron , beginning with his first model in 1827. Turbines are capable of handling high heads , or elevations , that exceed

6985-480: The velocity of the stream. A perennial stream is one which flows continuously all year. Some perennial streams may only have continuous flow in segments of its stream bed year round during years of normal rainfall. Blue-line streams are perennial streams and are marked on topographic maps with a solid blue line. The word "perennial" from the 1640s, meaning "evergreen," is established in Latin perennis, keeping

7112-416: The water cycle , instruments in groundwater recharge , and corridors for fish and wildlife migration. The biological habitat in the immediate vicinity of a stream is called a riparian zone . Given the status of the ongoing Holocene extinction , streams play an important corridor role in connecting fragmented habitats and thus in conserving biodiversity . The study of streams and waterways in general

7239-412: The 1980s, and extensive repairs were needed to both the lake and the dam, which were completed in 1991. Below Rufford Lake, Rainworth Water crosses the road to Wellow by a ford . On the southern edge of Ollerton , the A614 road crosses again, and the river is carried through a railway embankment by a skew bridge. Just beyond, the river joins the River Maun close to another bridge carrying the A614 over

7366-406: The 20th century, but they are no longer in common use today. Uses included milling flour in gristmills , grinding wood into pulp for papermaking , hammering wrought iron , machining, ore crushing and pounding fibre for use in the manufacture of cloth . Some water wheels are fed by water from a mill pond, which is formed when a flowing stream is dammed . A channel for the water flowing to or from

7493-456: The Abbey, a large lake has been created by a dam at the northern edge of the park, which supplied a water-powered saw-mill. The main building was erected around 1740, and an undershot waterwheel with its gearing is still in situ. The monks at Rufford Abbey are known to have had a water mill, but Sir George Savile chose the present site for his corn mill, where he built a three-storey building with

7620-837: The East Midlands. Under the National Environment Programme, the Severn Trent Water company in collaboration with the Environment Agency has a scheme to maintain flows through the SSSI by pumping groundwater when those flows fall below a certain level. This was funded under the provisions of their AMP3 Asset Management Period , which ran from 2000 to 2005. Since 2003, the Water Framework Directive has provided

7747-633: The Foulevil Brook, and includes an area to the west of the lane. The streams drain areas where the underlying rock consists of Bunter pebble beds from the Triassic period, and the sandstone results in the water being base poor and hence slightly acidic. The site is noted for some of the best base-poor marshland and open-water plant communities in Nottinghamshire. Both the marsh and the lakes contain species which are not common in most of

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7874-840: The Mid-Atlantic states (for instance, The Gut in Pennsylvania, Ash Gut in Delaware, and other streams) down into the Caribbean (for instance, Guinea Gut , Fish Bay Gut , Cob Gut , Battery Gut and other rivers and streams in the United States Virgin Islands , in Jamaica (Sandy Gut, Bens Gut River, White Gut River), and in many streams and creeks of the Dutch Caribbean ). A river

8001-469: The advantage that the bottom of the wheel is moving in the same direction as the water in the tailrace which makes it more efficient. It also performs better than an overshot wheel in flood conditions when the water level may submerge the bottom of the wheel. It will continue to rotate until the water in the wheel pit rises quite high on the wheel. This makes the technique particularly suitable for streams that experience significant variations in flow and reduces

8128-533: The atmosphere either by evaporation from soil and water bodies, or by plant evapotranspiration. By infiltration some of the water sinks into the earth and becomes groundwater, much of which eventually enters streams. Most precipitated water is partially bottled up by evaporation or freezing in snow fields and glaciers. The majority of the water flows as a runoff from the ground; the proportion of this varies depending on several factors, such as climate, temperature, vegetation, types of rock, and relief. This runoff begins as

8255-525: The base level of erosion throughout its course. If this base level is low, then the stream will rapidly cut through underlying strata and have a steep gradient, and if the base level is relatively high, then the stream will form a flood plain and meander. Typically, streams are said to have a particular elevation profile , beginning with steep gradients, no flood plain, and little shifting of channels, eventually evolving into streams with low gradients, wide flood plains, and extensive meanders. The initial stage

8382-597: The base stage of erosion. The scientists have offered a way based on data to define the origin of the lake. A classified sample was the one measured by the Chinese researchers from the University of Chinese Academy of Sciences. As an essential symbol of the river formation environment, the river source needs an objective and straightforward and effective method of judging . A calculation model of river source catchment area based on critical support flow (CSD) proposed, and

8509-442: The bottom of a water-filled, circular shaft. The water from the mill-race which entered tangentially the pit created a swirling water column that made the fully submerged wheel act like true water turbines , the earliest known to date. Apart from its use in milling and water-raising, ancient engineers applied the paddled waterwheel for automatons and in navigation. Vitruvius (X 9.5–7) describes multi-geared paddle wheels working as

8636-413: The capability of practical-sized waterwheels. The main difficulty of water wheels is their dependence on flowing water, which limits where they can be located. Modern hydroelectric dams can be viewed as the descendants of the water wheel, as they too take advantage of the movement of water downhill. Water wheels come in two basic designs: The latter can be subdivided according to where the water hits

8763-400: The combination of the separate Greek inventions of the toothed gear and the waterwheel into one effective mechanical system for harnessing water power. Vitruvius' waterwheel is described as being immersed with its lower end in the watercourse so that its paddles could be driven by the velocity of the running water (X, 5.2). About the same time, the overshot wheel appears for the first time in

8890-502: The combined flow. Most of the course of the river runs through the local government district of Newark and Sherwood , although the source is in Ashfield , and it then forms the boundary between Ashfield and Gedling for a short distance. At Rainworth, it briefly defines the border between Mansfield District and the district of Newark and Sherwood. The catchment is low-lying and largely rural, and although horses are kept on fields near

9017-459: The conditions of the Reservoir (Safety Provisions) Act 1930. The lake is located over an area where deep coal mining has taken place for many years, and the resultant subsidence has caused the relative levels between the dam crest, the bed of the lake and the overflow spillway to alter. This has required significant engineering works to be carried out, which have been complicated by the presence of

9144-738: The energy is gained from the weight of water lowered to the tailrace although a small contribution may be made by the kinetic energy of the water entering the wheel. They are suited to larger heads than the other type of wheel so they are ideally suited to hilly countries. However even the largest water wheel, the Laxey Wheel in the Isle of Man , only utilises a head of around 30 m (100 ft). The world's largest head turbines, Bieudron Hydroelectric Power Station in Switzerland , utilise about 1,869 m (6,132 ft). Overshot wheels require

9271-416: The exhausting labor of milling and grinding. The compartmented water wheel comes in two basic forms, the wheel with compartmented body ( Latin tympanum ) and the wheel with compartmented rim or a rim with separate, attached containers. The wheels could be either turned by men treading on its outside or by animals by means of a sakia gear. While the tympanum had a large discharge capacity, it could lift

9398-652: The flow is reduced to a trickle or less. Typically torrents have Apennine rather than Alpine sources, and in the summer they are fed by little precipitation and no melting snow. In this case the maximum discharge will be during the spring and autumn. An intermittent stream can also be called a winterbourne in Britain, a wadi in the Arabic -speaking world or torrente or rambla (this last one from arabic origin) in Spain and Latin America. In Australia, an intermittent stream

9525-447: The form of rain and snow. Most of this precipitated water re-enters the atmosphere by evaporation from soil and water bodies, or by the evapotranspiration of plants. Some of the water proceeds to sink into the earth by infiltration and becomes groundwater, much of which eventually enters streams. Some precipitated water is temporarily locked up in snow fields and glaciers , to be released later by evaporation or melting. The rest of

9652-455: The freeboard of the dam had become sufficiently small that the water level was reduced until a more permanent solution could be implemented. British Coal asked the engineering consultants Binnie and Partners to study the problem and advise on solutions in October 1989. The level was lowered by raising the wooden overflow gates which were fitted to the top of the outlet weir. With the level of

9779-421: The head, a difference in water level. Stream wheels mounted on floating platforms are often referred to as hip wheels and the mill as a ship mill . They were sometimes mounted immediately downstream from bridges where the flow restriction of the bridge piers increased the speed of the current. Historically they were very inefficient but major advances were made in the eighteenth century. An undershot wheel

9906-406: The lake consists of a layer of black sediment, thought to have come from the nearby colliery, which provides an impervious lining, with sand and gravel below that. The silt was removed, the sand and gravel were then excavated, and the silt reinstated to re-seal the lake. This technique was also used on the channel between the lake and the junction of Gallow Hole Dyke and Rainworth Water. A contract for

10033-532: The lake has significant feeder rivers. The Kagera River, which flows into Lake Victoria near Bukoba's Tanzanian town , is the longest feeder, though sources do not agree on which is the Kagera's longest tributary and therefore the Nile's most remote source itself. To qualify as a stream, a body of water must be either recurring or perennial. Recurring (intermittent) streams have water in the channel for at least part of

10160-401: The lake lowered, much of the southern end of the lake was dry, and water only entered the lake through the flood relief channel, because the original channel had become clogged with silt as a result of subsidence. Continuing subsidence meant that the dam freeboard was reduced to a height below that required by the reservoir safety legislation, and any work carried out could not make flooding above

10287-402: The lake worse, as this had previously resulted in a High Court action. In order to reinstate the required freeboard, two options were considered. The first was to raise the crest of the dam by 1.6 feet (0.5 m), while the second was to lower the height of the main and auxiliary spillways by a similar amount. The second option was preferred, because of the impact on the aesthetics of the area of

10414-613: The late Warring States period (476-221 BC). It says that the waterwheel was invented by Zigong, a disciple of Confucius in the 5th century BC. By at least the 1st century AD, the Chinese of the Eastern Han Dynasty were using water wheels to crush grain in mills and to power the piston- bellows in forging iron ore into cast iron . In the text known as the Xin Lun written by Huan Tan about 20 AD (during

10541-420: The main spillway, and there was serious disruption of the downstream concrete blockwork and grass. This was replaced by textured concrete paving in a contract awarded in early 1993, and the spillway performed well subsequently. Rainworth Water LNR was once part of Rufford Colliery , which created the spoil heaps that form a bowl around the watercourse. The spoil heaps were restored after the colliery closure and

10668-683: The mainly easterly-draining Atlantic Ocean and Arctic Ocean basins from the largely westerly-flowing Pacific Ocean basin. The Atlantic Ocean basin, however, may be further subdivided into the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico drainages. (This delineation is termed the Eastern Continental Divide .) Similarly, the Gulf of Mexico basin may be divided into the Mississippi River basin and several smaller basins, such as

10795-412: The meaning as "everlasting all year round," per "over" plus annus "year." This has been proved since the 1670s by the "living years" in the sense of botany. The metaphorical sense of "enduring, eternal" originates from 1750. They are related to "perennial." See biennial for shifts in vowels. Perennial streams have one or more of these characteristics: Absence of such characteristics supports classifying

10922-475: The metropolis of Alexandria. The earliest depiction of a compartmented wheel is from a tomb painting in Ptolemaic Egypt which dates to the 2nd century BC. It shows a pair of yoked oxen driving the wheel via a sakia gear, which is here for the first time attested, too. The Greek sakia gear system is already shown fully developed to the point that "modern Egyptian devices are virtually identical". It

11049-465: The movement of fish or other ecological elements may be an issue. Water wheel#Undershot wheel A water wheel is a machine for converting the energy of flowing or falling water into useful forms of power, often in a watermill . A water wheel consists of a wheel (usually constructed from wood or metal), with a number of blades or buckets arranged on the outside rim forming the driving car. Water wheels were still in commercial use well into

11176-453: The neck between two legs of a meander to become temporarily straighter, leaving behind an arc-shaped body of water termed an oxbow lake or bayou . A flood may also cause a meander to be cut through in this way. The stream load is defined as the solid matter carried by a stream. Streams can carry sediment, or alluvium. The amount of load it can carry (capacity) as well as the largest object it can carry (competence) are both dependent on

11303-457: The open grasslands. The area was declared a Local Nature Reserve in 2005. Most maintenance work on the reserve is conducted by Nottinghamshire County Council but some is undertaken by the Friends of Tippings Wood. The Rainworth Lakes SSSI covers the main lake and its immediate environs from the point at which Rainworth Water passes under Blidworth Lane. To the west, it extends along the course of

11430-596: The origin of the Nile River is the confluence of the White Nile and the Blue Nile, but the source of the whole river system is in its upper reaches. If there is no specific designation, "length of the Nile" refers to the "river length of the Nile system", rather than to the length of the Nile river from the point where it is formed by a confluence of tributaries. The Nile's source is often cited as Lake Victoria, but

11557-519: The outflow from which swells the flow of Gallow Hole Dyke before it joins Rainworth Water. The river then reaches the southern boundary of the country park at Rufford Abbey , where Gallow Hall Dyke joins it from the east. Parts of Gallow Hall Dyke and some ponds on the eastern edge of Rufford Lake form the Rufford Country Park Local Nature Reserve. In addition to supporting aquatic and marginal plants, it supports

11684-493: The outside of an open-framed wheel. The Romans used waterwheels extensively in mining projects, with enormous Roman-era waterwheels found in places like modern-day Spain . They were reverse overshot water-wheels designed for dewatering deep underground mines. Several such devices are described by Vitruvius , including the reverse overshot water-wheel and the Archimedean screw . Many were found during modern mining at

11811-424: The outskirts of Rainworth, it enters an L-shaped lake, called "L Lake", the other branch of which is fed by Foulevil Brook. The main lake covers an area of 4.0 acres (1.62 ha) and is a private fishery, stocked with bream, carp, pike, roach and tench. It forms part of the Rainworth Lakes Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI), which covers an area of 36.2 acres (14.6 ha) and has been designated because of

11938-475: The palace of the Pontian king Mithradates VI Eupator , but its exact construction cannot be gleaned from the text (XII, 3, 30 C 556). The first clear description of a geared watermill offers the late 1st century BC Roman architect Vitruvius who tells of the sakia gearing system as being applied to a watermill. Vitruvius's account is particularly valuable in that it shows how the watermill came about, namely by

12065-418: The pestle and mortar, which is so useful, and later on it was cleverly improved in such a way that the whole weight of the body could be used for treading on the tilt-hammer ( tui ), thus increasing the efficiency ten times. Afterwards the power of animals—donkeys, mules, oxen, and horses—was applied by means of machinery, and water-power too used for pounding, so that the benefit was increased a hundredfold. In

12192-482: The planting of thousands of broadleaved trees and other woodland species have stabilised the ground. The Water itself is a wetland habitat consisting of artificial pools , shallows and meanders that appear natural and support dragonflies and damselflies. Marshy areas have developed naturally alongside the watercourse since restoration, as have open grassland and dense scrubland . A colony of dingy skipper butterflies, which are rare within Nottinghamshire, inhabit

12319-469: The relationship between CSA and CSD with a minimum catchment area established. Using the model for comparison in two basins in Tibet (Helongqu and Niyang River White Water), the results show that the critical support flow (Qc) of the housing dragon song is 0.0028 m /s. At the same time, the white water curvature is 0.0085 m /s. Besides, the critical support flow can vary with hydrologic climate conditions, and

12446-415: The required power then the efficiency is of secondary importance. It is usually mounted inside a mill building below the working floor. A jet of water is directed on to the paddles of the water wheel, causing them to turn. This is a simple system usually without gearing so that the vertical axle of the water wheel becomes the drive spindle of the mill. A stream wheel is a vertically mounted water wheel that

12573-402: The risk of flooding, a flood relief channel was constructed in 1986, running from the junction to the lake, and parallel with the natural course. Subsidence continued to affect the lake, and in 1988, the inspecting engineer decided that the lowering of the dam crest, particularly near the mill, required a wall to be built to protect the building from water overtopping the dam. Later that same year,

12700-497: The rushing of the water ( chi shui ) to operate it ... Thus the people got great benefit for little labor. They found the 'water(-powered) bellows' convenient and adopted it widely. Water wheels in China found practical uses such as this, as well as extraordinary use. The Chinese inventor Zhang Heng (78–139) was the first in history to apply motive power in rotating the astronomical instrument of an armillary sphere , by use of

12827-425: The side of the stream or within the floodplain will be a good indicator of persistent water regime. A perennial stream can be identified 48 hours after a storm. Direct storm runoff usually has ceased at this point. If a stream is still flowing and contributing inflow is not observed above the channel, the observed water is likely baseflow. Another perennial stream indication is an abundance of red rust material in

12954-478: The size, complexity, and hence cost of the tailrace. The direction of rotation of a backshot wheel is the same as that of a breastshot wheel but in other respects, it is very similar to the overshot wheel. See below. Some wheels are overshot at the top and backshot at the bottom thereby potentially combining the best features of both types. The photograph shows an example at Finch Foundry in Devon, UK. The head race

13081-578: The summer months, there are issues with low flows, as water is abstracted to irrigate the sandy, well-drained arable land which borders the river. The ecological status of the river system in 2013 failed because of the presence of pollutants, notably Triclosan in Rainworth Water and copper in Gallow Hole Dyke. Rainworth Water was also affected by nickel and its compounds, tributyltin compounds, and nonylphenol , while Gallow Hole Dyke

13208-417: The upstream side, and the outlet channel curves round to the front of the mill building before flowing across the road as a ford. Some 130 feet (40 m) of the curved wall was capped with concrete to create a level weir crest to the main spillway. Water running over the wall ran down a gentle slope, formed of interlocking hollow concrete blocks filled with earth and grassed over. This provided protection up to

13335-434: The use of more hollow concrete blocks. The gates on the top of the outlet weir were positioned so that their tops were 6 inches (150 mm) below the spillway crest. In order to maintain wheelchair access across the path over the auxiliary spillway, ramps with a slope of 1 in 10 were constructed at either end of the spillway. The rest of the dam needed its freeboard wall to be raised by a small amount to ensure that it retained

13462-457: The use of such wheels for submerging siege mines as a defensive measure against enemy sapping. Compartmented wheels appear to have been the means of choice for draining dry docks in Alexandria under the reign of Ptolemy IV (221−205 BC). Several Greek papyri of the 3rd to 2nd century BC mention the use of these wheels, but do not give further details. The non-existence of the device in

13589-444: The usurpation of Wang Mang ), it states that the legendary mythological king known as Fu Xi was the one responsible for the pestle and mortar, which evolved into the tilt-hammer and then trip hammer device (see trip hammer ). Although the author speaks of the mythological Fu Xi, a passage of his writing gives hint that the water wheel was in widespread use by the 1st century AD in China ( Wade-Giles spelling): Fu Hsi invented

13716-528: The variety of plant species which grow in the open water and adjacent marsh. The naturalist Joseph Whitaker lived by the lakes at Rainworth Lodge. The river passes through the centre of Rainworth village, under the B6020 and the A617 Rainworth bypass. Rainworth Sewage Treatment Works is located on its north-east bank, as is the Rainworth Water local nature reserve, after which it is culverted to pass under

13843-448: The vertical-axle waterwheel. In the 2nd century AD Barbegal watermill complex a series of sixteen overshot wheels was fed by an artificial aqueduct, a proto-industrial grain factory which has been referred to as "the greatest known concentration of mechanical power in the ancient world". In Roman North Africa , several installations from around 300 AD were found where vertical-axle waterwheels fitted with angled blades were installed at

13970-495: The village of Rainworth, and pigs are kept between Rainworth and Bilsthorpe, most of the land use is arable, including several areas of forest managed by the Forestry Commission . Rufford Lake is contained by a dam at its northern end which is some 660 feet (200 m) long and 13 feet (4 m) high. Because the volume of water it contains exceeds 880 thousand cubic feet (25,000 m), it has been subject to

14097-655: The vital support flow Qc in wet areas (white water) is larger than in semi-arid regions (heap slot). The proposed critical support flow (CSD) concept and model method can be used to determine the hydrographic indicators of river sources in complex geographical areas, and it can also reflect the impact of hydrologic climate change on river recharge in different regions. The source of a river or stream (its point of origin) can consist of lakes, swamps, springs, or glaciers. A typical river has several tributaries; each of these may be made up of several other smaller tributaries, so that together this stream and all its tributaries are called

14224-512: The water flows off the land as runoff, the proportion of which varies according to many factors, such as wind, humidity, vegetation, rock types, and relief. This runoff starts as a thin film called sheet wash, combined with a network of tiny rills, together constituting sheet runoff; when this water is concentrated in a channel, a stream has its birth. Some creeks may start from ponds or lakes. The streams typically derive most of their water from rain and snow precipitation. Most of this water re-enters

14351-416: The water hits the wheel paddles, into overshot, breastshot and undershot wheels. The two main functions of waterwheels were historically water-lifting for irrigation purposes and milling, particularly of grain. In case of horizontal-axle mills, a system of gears is required for power transmission, which vertical-axle mills do not need. The earliest waterwheel working like a lever was described by Zhuangzi in

14478-560: The water only to less than the height of its own radius and required a large torque for rotating. These constructional deficiencies were overcome by the wheel with a compartmented rim which was a less heavy design with a higher lift. The earliest literary reference to a water-driven, compartmented wheel appears in the technical treatise Pneumatica (chap. 61) of the Greek engineer Philo of Byzantium ( c.  280  – c.  220 BC ). In his Parasceuastica (91.43−44), Philo advises

14605-488: The wheel and the masonry requires that a breastshot wheel has a good trash rack ('screen' in British English) to prevent debris from jamming between the wheel and the apron and potentially causing serious damage. Breastshot wheels are less efficient than overshot and backshot wheels but they can handle high flow rates and consequently high power. They are preferred for steady, high-volume flows such as are found on

14732-423: The wheel into backshot (pitch-back ), overshot, breastshot, undershot, and stream-wheels. The term undershot can refer to any wheel where the water passes under the wheel but it usually implies that the water entry is low on the wheel. Overshot and backshot water wheels are typically used where the available height difference is more than a couple of meters. Breastshot wheels are more suited to large flows with

14859-457: The wheel. A typical overshot wheel has the water channeled to the wheel at the top and slightly beyond the axle. The water collects in the buckets on that side of the wheel, making it heavier than the other "empty" side. The weight turns the wheel, and the water flows out into the tail-water when the wheel rotates enough to invert the buckets. The overshot design is very efficient, it can achieve 90%, and does not require rapid flow. Nearly all of

14986-449: The wood from which it was made is much older than the deep mine, it is likely that the deep workings were in operation perhaps 30–50 years after. It is clear from these examples of drainage wheels found in sealed underground galleries in widely separated locations that building water wheels was well within their capabilities, and such verticals water wheels commonly used for industrial purposes. Taking indirect evidence into account from

15113-510: The work of the Greek technician Apollonius of Perge , the British historian of technology M.J.T. Lewis dates the appearance of the vertical-axle watermill to the early 3rd century BC, and the horizontal-axle watermill to around 240 BC, with Byzantium and Alexandria as the assigned places of invention. A watermill is reported by the Greek geographer Strabon ( c.  64 BC  – c.  AD 24 ) to have existed sometime before 71 BC in

15240-619: The work was awarded in late 1990, with work expected to take five months and be completed by Easter 1991. Public access to the park was maintained throughout, and the work was actually completed in May 1991, when a statutory inspection was carried out and refilling of the lake began. However, it had to be drained again later that year to allow British Coal to seal a fissure in the bed of the lake caused by mining subsidence. Refilling began in March 1992. In November 1992, high rainfall meant that water ran over

15367-589: The year 31 AD, the engineer and Prefect of Nanyang , Du Shi (d. 38), applied a complex use of the water wheel and machinery to power the bellows of the blast furnace to create cast iron . Du Shi is mentioned briefly in the Book of Later Han ( Hou Han Shu ) as follows (in Wade-Giles spelling): In the seventh year of the Chien-Wu reign period (31 AD) Tu Shih was posted to be Prefect of Nanyang. He

15494-521: The year and is marked on topographic maps with a line of blue dashes and dots. A wash , desert wash, or arroyo is normally a dry streambed in the deserts of the American Southwest , which flows after sufficient rainfall. In Italy, an intermittent stream is termed a torrent ( Italian : torrente ). In full flood the stream may or may not be "torrential" in the dramatic sense of the word, but there will be one or more seasons in which

15621-402: The year. A stream of the first order is a stream which does not have any other recurring or perennial stream feeding into it. When two first-order streams come together, they form a second-order stream. When two second-order streams come together, they form a third-order stream. Streams of lower order joining a higher order stream do not change the order of the higher stream. The gradient of

15748-425: Was a generous man and his policies were peaceful; he destroyed evil-doers and established the dignity (of his office). Good at planning, he loved the common people and wished to save their labor. He invented a water-power reciprocator ( shui phai ) for the casting of (iron) agricultural implements. Those who smelted and cast already had the push-bellows to blow up their charcoal fires, and now they were instructed to use

15875-516: Was affected by compounds of nickel, cadmium and lead. These issues are exacerbated by low flows, run-off of surface water from roads which cross the catchment, diffuse pollution from agriculture and urban areas, and the discharges from sewage treatment works. The work undertaken on assessing the catchment resulted in proposals for eleven schemes which will produce benefits to the river system. They depend on funding being secured, and include several projects to create wetland habitats. Typical of such schemes

16002-550: Was as follows in 2019. Like most rivers in the UK, the chemical status changed from good to fail in 2019, due to the presence of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE) and mercury compounds, neither of which had previously been included in the assessment. Download coordinates as: [REDACTED] Media related to Rainworth Water at Wikimedia Commons 53°07′41″N 1°06′18″W  /  53.128°N 1.105°W  / 53.128; -1.105 Watercourse The flow of

16129-455: Was still in working order when the estate was sold in 1938. Oates of Worksop bought it as a going concern, and used it until 1949. Much of the estate including the mill was bought by Nottinghamshire County Council in the 1950s, and became Rufford Country Park in 1969. By the mid-1970s, the lake had become silted up, and a programme of dredging and landscaping was carried out by the council. Subsidence, caused by coal mining, created problems in

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