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94-574: Ramat Aviv was founded in 1950s following the great influx of immigrants from Eastern Europe. Golda Meir lived in the neighborhood from 1959 to 1978. In January 2011 it was published that remains of a building, believed to be 7,800–8,400 years old, were discovered in an archaeological excavation carried out in 8 Fichman Street in Ramat Aviv, by the Israel Antiquities Authority . The findings attest to permanent habitation on

188-692: A Cossack uprising , known as Khmelnytsky Uprising (1648–1657), under the premise that the Poles had sold them as slaves "into the hands of the accursed Jews." It is estimated that at that time the Jewish population in Ukraine numbered 51,325. An army of Cossacks massacred and took into captivity numerous Jews, Roman Catholics and Ukrainian Greek Catholics in 1648–49. A 1996 estimate reports that 15,000-30,000 Jews were killed or taken captive, and that 300 Jewish communities were destroyed. A 2014 estimate reduces

282-421: A carpenter. Meir wrote in her autobiography that her earliest memories were of her father boarding up the front door in response to rumours of an imminent pogrom . She was named after her great-grandmother, Golde, mother of her maternal grandfather. She had two sisters, Sheyna (born 1889) and Tzipke (later known as Clara; born 1902), as well as five other siblings who died in childhood. Meir's father, Moshe, left

376-623: A growing antisemitism. Total civilian losses in Ukraine during World War II and the German occupation are estimated at seven million. More than one million Soviet Jews, including 225,000 in Belarus , were killed by the Einsatzgruppen and their many Ukrainian supporters . Most of them were killed in Ukraine because most pre-WWII Soviet Jews lived in the Pale of Settlement , of which Ukraine

470-584: A higher number; in the period from 1918 to 1921, "according to incomplete data, at least 100,000 Jews were killed in Ukraine in the pogroms." The Ukrainian People's Republic did issue orders condemning pogroms and attempted to investigate them. But it lacked authority to stop violence. In the last months of its existence it lacked any power to create social stability. Among the prominent Ukrainian statesmen of this period were Moisei Rafes , Pinkhas Krasny, Abram Revutsky, Moishe Zilberfarb, and many others. (see General Secretariat of Ukraine ) The autonomy of Ukraine

564-506: A naturalized US citizen, as her father had naturalized, and at that time children of naturalized citizens under the age of 21 received citizenship by descent. On 24 December 1917, Meir and Meyerson married. However, Meir's precondition for marriage was to settle in Palestine . She had intended to make aliyah (immigration to Israel) straight away, but her plans were disrupted when all transatlantic passenger services were canceled due to

658-560: A portrait of Meir on one side and the image of the crowd greeting her in Moscow on the other. To her close friends, she admitted she had little to do in Moscow and felt isolated from Israeli politics. Despite being a socialist that was born in Ukraine, her Jewish side caused friction with the Soviets that made progress difficult. By the end of her term, she felt she had accomplished little. She reportedly felt guilty for not achieving more for

752-489: A profound effect on Eastern European Jews. His disciples taught and encouraged a new and fervent brand of Judaism , related to Kabbalah , known as Hasidism . The rise of Hasidism influenced Haredi Judaism , with a continuous influence through many Hasidic dynasties . A different movement was started by Jacob Frank in the middle of the 18th century. Frank's teachings were unorthodox (such as purification through transgression and adoption of elements of Christianity ). He

846-481: A result, religion could be taught or studied only in private. On 1 February 1918 the Commissariat for Jewish National Affairs was established as a subsection of the Commissariat for Nationality Affairs. It was mandated to establish the "dictatorship of the proletariat in the Jewish streets" and attract the Jewish masses to the regime while advising local and central institutions on Jewish issues. The Commissariat

940-600: A secular identity for the Jewish community. In 1921 many Jews emigrated to Poland , as they were entitled by a peace treaty in Riga to choose the country they preferred. Several hundred thousand joined the already numerous Jewish minority of the Polish Second Republic . Also, during the interwar period, thousands of Jewish refugees from the Soviet Ukraine migrated to Romania. On 31 January 1924

1034-572: A significant impact on her. There, she witnessed an elderly Arab woman emerging from a destroyed house, clutching to her few remaining belongings. When the two women made eye contact, they burst into tears. Meir went on to call the mass expulsion and flight of Arabs before the 1948 Palestine war "dreadful", and likened it to what befell the Jews in Nazi-occupied Europe. She returned to Tel Aviv, and eventually to Jerusalem two weeks before

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1128-486: A state language, along with Ukrainian and Russian. At that time, the Jewish National Union was created and the community was granted autonomous status. Yiddish was used on Ukrainian currency between 1917 and 1920. Before World War II , slightly less than one-third of Ukraine's urban population consisted of Jews. In the westernmost region, Jews were mentioned for the first time in records in 1030. During

1222-487: A state. I want to be there. I don't want to go thousands of miles away. Why do I always have to go away?" Her return to Israel was delayed due to a car crash in which she tore a ligament and fractured a bone. Soviet officials refused to believe she was in hospital and wanted an Israeli envoy as soon as possible. Thus she ignored doctor's orders to rest and returned to Israel on 29 July. Years later, her leg would frequently pain her. Meir served as minister plenipotentiary to

1316-441: A suspected heart attack. Ben-Gurion and the political department heads urged her to guard her health and come to Jerusalem as soon as she could. They asked her to be "the mother of this city", and that her "words to 100,000 residents will be a source of blessing and encouragement". However, she felt it was a secondary and temporary role. Instead, on 6 May, she visited Haifa after its 22 April occupation by Hagannah . This trip had

1410-499: A wave of anti-Jewish violence swept the southern Russian Empire (including Ukraine) between 1881 and 1884, after Jews were blamed for the assassination of Alexander II . In May 1882, Alexander III of Russia introduced temporary regulations called May Laws that remained in effect until 1917. Systematic policies of discrimination, strict quotas on the number of Jews allowed to obtain education and professions caused widespread poverty and mass emigration. In 1886, an edict of Expulsion

1504-602: The Black Hundreds , opposed the Revolution with violent attacks on socialists and pogroms against Jews. A backlash came from the conservative elements of society, notably in spasmodic anti-Jewish attacks – around five hundred were killed in a single day in Odesa. Nicholas II claimed that 90% of revolutionaries were Jews. At the start of the 20th century, anti-Jewish pogroms continued to occur in cities and towns across

1598-603: The Black Hundreds . These militias incited and organized pogroms against Russian Jews. The official slogan of the Black Hundreds was "Bei Zhidov," meaning 'Beat the Jews.' Thus, during the Russian Civil War that followed the 1917 Revolution , the Jews became a crucial site of the conflict between revolutionary Reds and counterrevolutionary Whites, particularly in the contested territory of Ukraine. The Bolsheviks' official opposition to antisemitism—coupled with

1692-661: The Eretz Israel Museum , the Palmach Museum , and Beth Hatefutsoth . Golda Meir Golda Meir ( née   Mabovitch ; 3 May 1898 – 8 December 1978) was an Israeli politician who served as the fourth prime minister of Israel from 1969 to 1974. She was Israel's first and only female head of government and the first in the Middle East. Born into a Ukrainian-Jewish family in Kyiv in what

1786-553: The Israeli Declaration of Independence . She later recalled, "After I signed, I cried. When I studied American history as a schoolgirl and I read about those who signed the U.S. Declaration of Independence , I couldn't imagine these were real people doing something real. And there I was sitting down and signing a declaration of establishment." A day after independence, the second phase of the war began. Meir also suddenly lost her job and administrative responsibilities, as

1880-587: The Khmelnytsky Uprising between 1648 and 1657, an army of Cossacks massacred and took large numbers of Jews, Roman Catholics , and Uniate Christians into captivity. One estimate (1996) reported that 15,000-30,000 Jews were killed or taken captive, and that 300 Jewish communities were completely destroyed. More recent estimates (2014) report mortality of 3,000-6,000 people between the years 1648–1649. During 1821 anti-Jewish riots in Odesa followed

1974-654: The Kievan Rus' (late 9th to mid-13th century). Important Jewish religious and cultural movements, from Hasidism to Zionism , arose there. According to the World Jewish Congress , the Jewish community in Ukraine constitutes Europe's third-largest and the world's fifth-largest. At times it flourished, while at other times it faced persecution and anti-Semitic discrimination . In the Ukrainian People's Republic (1917–1920), Yiddish became

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2068-523: The Labor Zionist youth movement . She spoke at public meetings and embraced Socialist Zionism . She attended the teachers college Milwaukee State Normal School (now University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee ) in 1916, and likely part of 1917. In 1917, she took a position at a Yiddish-speaking Folks Schule in Milwaukee. There, she further embraced Labor Zionism. On 9 July 1917, Golda became

2162-587: The Milwaukee Public Library . Her mother wanted Golda to leave school and marry, but she declined. On 17 February 1913, Meir took a train to live with her married sister, Sheyna Korngold, in Denver , Colorado. There, Meir attended North High School . The Korngolds held intellectual evenings at their home, where Meir was exposed to debates on Zionism , literature, women's suffrage , trade unionism, and more. In her autobiography, she wrote: "To

2256-644: The Moscow Choral Synagogue , she was mobbed by thousands of Russian Jews chanting in Russian "Nasha Golda", meaning "Our Golda". In her autobiography she said "I felt as though I had been caught up in a torrent of love so strong that it had literally taken my breath away and slowed down my heart." This event was commemorated by the Israeli 10,000- shekel banknote issued in November 1984. It bore

2350-539: The SS Pocahontas , from New York to Naples , then from there to Tel Aviv by train. Meir's parents subsequently moved to Palestine in 1926. They were eventually accepted into kibbutz Merhavia in the Jezreel Valley after an initial rejected application. Her duties included picking almonds , planting trees, working in the chicken coops, and running the kitchen. Recognizing her leadership abilities,

2444-529: The Soviet Union from 2 September 1948 to 10 March 1949. She was reportedly impatient with diplomatic niceties and using interpreters. She did not drink or ballroom dance and had little interest in gossip and fashion. According to her interpreter, when asked by a Russian ambassador how she traveled to Moscow, she responded "tell His Excellency the Ambassador that we arrived riding on donkeys". This

2538-474: The Tsentralna Rada 's Fourth Universal of 25 January 1918 which was aimed at breaking ties with Bolshevik Russia and proclaiming a sovereign Ukrainian state, since all Jewish parties were strongly against Ukrainian independence. In Ukraine alone, the number of civilian Jews killed during the period was estimated to be between 35,000 and 50,000. Archives declassified after 1991 provide evidence of

2632-580: The Ukrainian People's Republic (1917–21), pogroms continued. In Ukraine, the number of civilian Jews killed by the Ukrainian Army under Symon Petliura during the period was estimated at between 35,000 and 100,000. Pogroms erupted in January 1919 in the northwest province of Volhynia and spread to many other regions and continued until 1921. The actions of the Soviet government by 1927 led to

2726-572: The provisional government of Israel , and included her instead in the 37-member People's Council. Ben-Gurion protested this, saying "It is inconceivable that there shall be no adequate woman…it is a moral and political necessity, for the Yishuv, the Jewish world and the Arab world." At one point, he even considered offering her his spot on the cabinet. On 13 April, she was hospitalized in Tel Aviv due to

2820-629: The 10th century through the creation of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1569, Poland was one of the most diverse countries in Europe. It became home to one of the world's largest and most vibrant Jewish communities. The Jewish community in the territory of Ukraine-proper during the Commonwealth became one of the largest and most important ethnic minority groups in Ukraine. Ukrainian Cossack Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky led

2914-546: The American Young Sisters Society, a fundraiser to pay for her classmates' textbooks in 1908. As part of the organization's activities, she rented a hall and scheduled a public meeting for the event. Despite frequent tardiness due to having to work in her mother's store, she graduated as valedictorian of her class. In 1912, she began studying at North Division High School and worked part-time. Her employers included Schuster's department store and

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3008-608: The Central Jewish Commissariat dissolved the kehillot (Jewish Communal Councils). The kehillot had provided social services to the Jewish community. From 1919 to 1920, Jewish parties and Zionist organizations were driven underground as the Communist government sought to abolish all potential opposition. The Yevsektsiya Jewish section of the Soviet Communist party was at the forefront of

3102-767: The Commissariat for Nationalities' Affairs was disbanded. On 29 August 1924 an official agency for Jewish resettlement, the Commission for the Settlement of Jewish Toilers on the Land ( KOMZET ), was established. KOMZET studied, managed and funded projects for Jewish resettlement in rural areas. A public organization, the Society for the Agricultural Organization of Working Class Jews in the USSR ( OZET ),

3196-557: The Crimea – national raions occupied the 3rd level of the Soviet system, but were all disbanded by the end of World War II. The cities with the largest populations of Jews in 1926 were Odesa, 154,000 or 36.5% of the total population; Kyiv, 140,500 or 27.3%; Kharkiv, 81,500 or 19.5%; and Dnipropetrovsk , 62,000 or 26.7%. In 1931 Lviv 's Jewish population numbered 98,000 or 31.9%, and in Chernivtsi , 42,600 or 37.9%. On 8 April 1929

3290-681: The Great established the Pale of Settlement that included Congress Poland and Crimea . During 1821 anti-Jewish riots in Odesa after the death of the Greek Orthodox patriarch in Constantinople , 14 Jews were killed. Some sources mark this episode as the first pogrom , while according to others (such as the Jewish Encyclopedia , 1911 ed.) say the first pogrom was an 1859 riot in Odesa. The term became common after

3384-671: The Jewish Commissariat. During the Hryhoriv Uprising in May 1919, almost 3000 Jews of Yelisavetgrad (today Kropyvnytskyi ) were murdered and their property stolen. In contrast with the Bolshevik government's official policy of equality among citizens, antisemitism remained deeply entrenched in the political and social ideologies of the tsarist counterrevolutionaries, especially among paramilitary groups such as

3478-529: The Knesset until 1974. Ben-Gurion initially offered Meir the position of "deputy prime minister", which she rejected. She found the title and responsibilities vague, and disliked the idea of needing to coordinate with so many government departments. Instead, she took the role of Labor Minister , which she held from 10 March 1949 to 19 June 1956. Meir enjoyed this role much more than her previous, calling it her "seven beautiful years". In particular, she enjoyed

3572-548: The Political Department became the provisional Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and her leadership role in Jerusalem was taken over by Dov Yosef . On 18 May, she embarked on a second and even more successful fundraising tour in which she raised around $ 50 million. In total, her fundraising efforts raised around $ 90 million, around a third of the cost of the war ($ 275 million). During preparations for this trip, she

3666-843: The Political Department of the Jewish Agency after the British arrested Moshe Sharett and other leaders of the Yishuv as part of Operation Agatha . This was a critical moment in her career: she became the principal negotiator between the Jews in Palestine and the British Mandatory authorities. After his release, Sharett went to the United States to attend talks on the UN Partition Plan , leaving Meir to head

3760-514: The Political Department until the establishment of the state in 1948. In 1947, she traveled to Cyprus to meet Jewish detainees of the Cyprus internment camps , who had been interned by the British after being caught trying to illegally enter Palestine, and persuade them to give priority to families with children to fill the small quota of detainees allowed into Palestine. She was largely successful in this task. On 17 November 1947, shortly before

3854-529: The Russian Empire such as Kishinev , Kyiv , Odesa , and many others. Numerous Jewish self-defense groups were organized to prevent the outbreak of pogroms among which the most successful one was under the leadership of Mishka Yaponchik in Odesa. In 1905, a series of pogroms erupted at the same time as the Revolution against the government of Nicholas II. The chief organizers of the pogroms were

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3948-480: The Russian Jews, as she would have been in their situation if her father had not moved to the United States. She planned to run for the first Knesset elections on 25 January 1949. The month before the elections, she returned to Israel and campaigned for Mapai . Mapai won 35% of the votes and formed a coalition, and Ben-Gurion invited her into the cabinet. She was sworn in on 8 March, and continued to serve in

4042-590: The Soviet government annexed territory from Poland , Romania (both would be incorporated into the Ukrainian SSR after World War II ) and the Baltic states , roughly two million Jews became Soviet citizens. Restrictions on Jews that had existed in those countries were lifted. At the same time, Jewish organizations in the transferred territories were shut down and their leaders were arrested and exiled. Approximately 250,000 Jews escaped or were evacuated from

4136-537: The United States as an emissary for the organization and to get expert medical treatment for her daughter's kidney illness. In 1934, when Meir returned from the United States, she joined the Executive Committee of the Histadrut and moved up the ranks to become the head of its Political Department. This appointment was important training for her future role in Israeli leadership. In July 1938, Meir

4230-572: The United States. Golda along with her mother and sisters landed in Quebec and traveled to Milwaukee by train. Meir's mother ran a grocery store on Milwaukee's north side. By age eight, Meir was often put in charge of watching the store when her mother went to buy supplies. She attended the Fourth Street Grade School (now Golda Meir School ) from 1906 to 1912. A leader early on, she and a close friend, Regina Hamburger, organized

4324-460: The ability to act quickly and with little friction from others. She was also one of the most powerful Israeli politicians at the time. The main source of friction in the role was funding, especially to deal with the millions of immigrants arriving in the new state. In October 1950, Meir announced in Washington a three-year-plan for Israel's development and stated a price tag of $ 15 billion over

4418-468: The anti-religious campaigns of the 1920s that led to the closing of religious institutions, the break-up of religious communities and the further restriction of access to religious education. To that end a series of "community trials" against the Jewish religion were held. The last known such trial, on the subject of circumcision, was held in 1928 in Kharkiv . At the same time, the body worked to establish

4512-643: The approximately 2,000 pogroms carried out in Ukraine were organized by White Army forces. eyewitnesses reported hearing counterrevolutionary militia members expound slogans such as, "We beat the Yids, we beat the Commune", and "This is the answer to the Bolsheviks for the Red Terror ." Recent studies hold that about 30,000 Jews were killed in these pogroms, while another 150,000 died from wounds sustained during

4606-423: The ban on Hebrew language study and the prohibition of promoting emigration to Israel. Just 20 days after her term began, antisemitic crackdowns began in response to an article by Soviet Jewish writer Ilya Ehrenburg . Meir and the other Israeli representatives responded by making a point of visiting Russian Jewish businesses, synagogues, and performances. On 3 October, during Rosh Hashanah celebrations at

4700-401: The complaints of her colleagues in the Finance Ministry, Meir worked to establish social security , maternity benefits, work-related accident insurance, benefits to widows and orphans, and even burial costs. Ukrainian-Jewish The history of the Jews in Ukraine dates back over a thousand years; Jewish communities have existed in the modern territory of Ukraine from the time of

4794-476: The country being caught by surprise during the war of 1973. In addition, her dismissive statements towards the Palestinians were widely scorned. Most historians believe Meir was more successful as Minister of Labour and Housing than as Premier. Golda Mabovitch was born into a Ukrainian-Jewish family in downtown Kyiv in what was then the Russian Empire on May 3, 1898. She was the daughter of Blume Neiditch (died 1951) and Moshe Yitzhak Mabovitch (died 1944),

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4888-402: The country to find work in New York City in 1903. In his absence, the rest of the family moved to the city of Pinsk (within present-day Belarus ) to join her mother's family. In 1905, Moshe moved to Milwaukee , Wisconsin, in search of higher-paying work, and found employment in the workshops of the local railroad yard . The following year, he had saved up enough money to bring his family to

4982-503: The death of the Greek Orthodox Patriarch in Constantinople , in which 14 Jews were recorded killed. Some sources claim this episode as the first pogrom . At the start of the 20th century, anti-Jewish pogroms continued, leading to large-scale emigration. In 1915, the imperial Russian government expelled thousands of Jews from the Empire's border areas. During the Russian Revolution and ensuing Civil War , an estimated 31,071 Jews were killed in pogroms between 1918 and 1920 . During

5076-462: The declaration, reflecting Lenin's view that Jews did not constitute a nation. In 1918, the RSFSR Council of Ministers issued a decree entitled "On the Separation of Church from State and School from Church", depriving religious communities of the status of juridical persons, the right to own property and the right to enter into contracts. The decree nationalized the property of religious communities and banned their assessment of religious tuition. As

5170-404: The disintegration of Jewish secular life as well; Jewish cultural and educational organizations gradually disappeared. </ref> When the Soviet government reintroduced the use of internal passports in 1933, "Jewish" was considered an ethnicity for those purposes. The Soviet famine of 1932–1933 affected the Jewish population, and led to a migration from shtetls to overcrowded cities. As

5264-401: The end of the mandate. On 10 May, Meir had a second meeting with Abdullah I. She travelled to Amman in secret, disguised as an Arab woman. He proposed that Palestine be absorbed into Jordan, with autonomy granted to majority-Jewish areas. Golda rejected the proposal. It then seemed likely that Abdullah I would invade. On 14 May 1948, Meir became one of 24 signatories (including two women) of

5358-460: The entry of the United States into the First World War . She then threw her energies into Poale Zion activities. A short time after their wedding, she embarked on a fund-raising campaign for Poale Zion that took her across the United States. In 1921, after the conclusion of the war, the couple moved to Palestine, then part of the British Mandate , along with Meir's sister Sheyna, Sheyna's daughter, and Meir's childhood friend Regina. They sailed on

5452-588: The extent that my own future convictions were shaped and given form  ... those talk-filled nights in Denver played a considerable role." Around 1913, she began dating her future husband Morris Meyerson, a sign painter and socialist. In 1914, after disagreements with her sister, Golda left North High School, moved out of her sister's home, and found work. After reconciling with her parents, she returned to Milwaukee and resumed studies at North Division High, graduating in 1915. While there, she became an active member of Young Poale Zion , which later became Habonim ,

5546-425: The failings . Her Alignment coalition was denied a majority in the subsequent legislative election ; she resigned the following year and was succeeded as prime minister by Yitzhak Rabin . Meir died in 1978 of lymphoma and was buried on Mount Herzl . A controversial figure in Israel, Meir has been lionized as a founder of the state and described as the "Iron Lady" of Israeli politics , but also widely blamed for

5640-476: The former Russian Empire. In modern Ukraine an estimated 31,071 died in 1918–1920. During the establishment of the Ukrainian People's Republic (UPR, 1917–1921), pogroms continued. In the UPR, Yiddish was an official language, while all government posts and institutions had Jewish members. A Ministry for Jewish Affairs was established (it was the first modern state to do so). Rights of Jewish culture were guaranteed. Jewish parties abstained or voted against

5734-491: The home of a large Jewish community during the 19th century, and by 1897 Jews were estimated to account for some 37% of the population. Jews were over-represented in the Russian revolutionary leadership. However, most were hostile to Jewish culture and Jewish political parties, and were loyal to the Communist Party 's atheism and proletarian internationalism , and committed to stamping out any sign of "Jewish cultural particularism". Counter-revolutionary groups, including

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5828-460: The kibbutz chose her as its representative to the Histadrut , the General Federation of Labour. In 1924, the couple left the kibbutz and lived briefly in Tel Aviv before settling in Jerusalem . There, they had two children: a son Menachem in 1924, and a daughter Sarah in 1926. Meir returned to Merhavia for a brief period in 1925. In 1928, Meir was elected secretary of Moetzet HaPoalot (Working Women's Council). She spent two years (1932–34) in

5922-406: The members of the Union of the Russian People (commonly known as the " Black Hundreds "). From 1911 to 1913, the antisemitic tenor of the period was characterized by a number of blood libel cases (accusations of Jews murdering Christians for ritual purposes). One of the most famous was the two-year trial of Menahem Mendel Beilis , who was charged with the murder of a Christian boy. The trial

6016-447: The ministry in 1966 due to ill health. In 1969, Meir assumed the role of prime minister following the death of Levi Eshkol . Early in her tenure, she made multiple diplomatic visits to western leaders to promote her vision of peace in the region. The outbreak of the Yom Kippur War in 1973 caught Israel off guard and inflicted severe early losses on the army. The resulting public anger damaged Meir's reputation and led to an inquiry into

6110-436: The new Law on Religious Associations codified all previous religious legislation. All meetings of religious associations were required to have their agenda approved in advance; lists of members of religious associations had to be provided to the authorities. In 1930 the Yevsektsia was dissolved, leaving no central Soviet-Jewish organization. Although the body had served to undermine Jewish religious life, its dissolution led to

6204-586: The next 15 years. The Israeli government managed to secure a loan from the United States government and American Jews that secured 40% of the budget. The newly created Israel Bonds only provided a small amount, although years later they would contribute billions to the Israeli economy. Meir assisted in building over a hundred ma'abarot ( Hebrew : מַעְבָּרוֹת ), temporary immigrant camps with crude tin-roofed huts and tents for housing. She drew criticism from many new immigrants and contemporary politicians due to this, but responded by pointing to her limited budget and

6298-525: The northern bank of the Yarkon River . Ramat Aviv is bordered by Einstein Street in the north, Chaim Levanon Street to the east and south, and Namir Road in the west. The main streets in the neighborhood are Brodetzki and Reading. These five arterials are served by several bus lines each. In the neighborhood are the Alliance High School and Ramat Aviv Mall . In the northeast of the neighborhood, opposite university campus, are student dorms of Tel Aviv University . Nearby landmarks are Tel Aviv University ,

6392-418: The opposing Arab Higher Committee's annual budget was around $ 2.25 million, similar to Haganah's annual budget before the war. Ben-Gurion wrote that Meir's role as the "Jewish woman who got the money which made the state possible" would go down in history. However, upon returning home, she suffered a political setback. The Jewish Agency and National Council Executives excluded her from the 13-member cabinet of

6486-408: The outbreak of the 1947-1949 Palestine war, Meir met with King Abdullah I of Jordan . Abdullah I was seen as the only Arab leader willing to ally with a future Israeli state, as he also opposed the Mufti of Jerusalem and was rivals with other Arab countries. The meeting was cordial and confirmed that Abdullah was uninterested in invading and quietly willing to cooperate in the future. For most of

6580-456: The prominence of Jews such as Leon Trotsky within the Bolshevik ranks—allowed the Christian nationalist movements of both the White Army and the emergent Ukrainian National Republic to link Ukrainian Jews to the despised communism. These connections, combined with the cultural tradition of antisemitism among Russian peasantry, provided ample justification for the Whites to attack Ukraine's Jewish population. Between 1918 and 1921, almost all of

6674-421: The three Kyivan city gates in the times of Yaroslav the Wise was called Zhydovski (Judaic). In Galicia , Jews were mentioned for the first time in 1030. From the second part of the 14th century, they were subjects of Polish kings and magnates . The Jewish population of Galicia and Bukovina , part of Austria-Hungary , made up 5% of the global Jewish population. From the founding of the Kingdom of Poland in

6768-622: The time needed to construct proper housing. In 1953, she assisted in an effort to eliminate the ma'abarot. By 1956, two-thirds were eliminated, and 120,000 families moved to permanent housing. Meir considered herself highly productive during this period. She carried out welfare state policies, orchestrated the integration of immigrants into Israel's workforce, and introduced major housing and road construction projects. From 1949 to 1956, 200,000 apartments and 30,000 houses were built, large industrial and agricultural developments were initiated, and new hospitals, schools, and roads were built. Despite

6862-703: The toll to 3,000-6,000 from 1648 to 1649; of these, 3,000-6,000 Jews were killed by Cossacks in Nemirov in May 1648 and 1,500 in Tulczyn in July 1648. The Cossack Uprising and the Deluge left a deep and lasting impression on Jewish social and spiritual life. This was a time of mysticism and overly formal rabbinism . The teachings of Israel ben Eliezer , known as the Baal Shem Tov , or BeShT , (1698–1760) had

6956-528: The town of Proskurov (now Khmelnitsky ), near the city of Sudilkov , "was the site of the worst atrocity committed against Jews this century before the Nazis." Pogroms continued until 1921. On 15 February 1919, during the Ukrainian-Soviet war, Otaman Ivan Semesenko initiated a pogrom Proskurov in which many Jews were massacred on Shabbat ( parashah Tesaveh ). Semesenko claimed that the pogrom

7050-570: The violence. The pogroms that erupted in January 1919 in the northwest province of Volhynia spread during February and March to the cities, towns, and villages of many other regions of Ukraine. After Sarny it was the turn of Ovruch , northwest of Kyiv. In Tetiev on 25 March, approximately 4,000 Jews were murdered, half in a synagogue set ablaze by Cossack troops under Colonels Kurovsky, Cherkowsy, and Shliatoshenko. Then Vashilkov (6 and 7 April). In Dubovo (17 June) 800 Jews were decapitated in assembly-line fashion. According to David A. Chapin,

7144-513: The war, Meir reluctantly played what she felt was a minor role in Israel's activities. An article published by the Golda Meir institute said "she felt she was being pushed aside to a secondary arena". However, she played a critical role in fundraising. In January 1948, the Jewish Agency needed to raise funds for the continuing war and the coming Israeli state. The treasurer of the Jewish Agency

7238-566: Was also expected to fight the influence of Zionist and Jewish-Socialist Parties. On 27 July 1918 the Council of People's Commissars issued a decree stating that antisemitism is "fatal to the cause of the ... revolution". Pogroms were officially outlawed. On 20 October 1918 the Jewish section of the CPSU ( Yevsektsia ) was established for the Party's Jewish members; its goals were similar to those of

7332-590: Was an important and difficult role. Good relations with the Soviet Union impacted Israel's ability to secure arms from Eastern European countries. In turn, Joseph Stalin and Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov saw its relationship with Israel as a means of furthering the Soviet position in the Middle East. However, Soviet–Israeli relations were complicated by Soviet policies against religious institutions and nationalist movements, made manifest in actions to shut down Jewish religious institutions as well as

7426-469: Was applied to Jews in Kyiv . In 1893–1894, some areas of Crimea were removed from the Pale. When Alexander III died in Crimea on 20 October 1894, according to Simon Dubnow : "as the body of the deceased was carried by railway to St. Petersburg , the same rails were carrying the Jewish exiles from Yalta to the Pale. The reign of Alexander III began with pogroms and concluded with expulsions." Odesa became

7520-547: Was convinced that they would not be able to raise more than $ 7 to $ 8 million from the American Jewish community. Meir raised over $ 30 million. Key to her success was an emotional speech she first delivered in Chicago on 22 January. She toured dozens of cities in the United States and returned to Israel on 18 March. The funds were critical to the success of the war effort and the establishment of Israel; by comparison,

7614-402: Was created in January 1925 to help recruit colonists and support the colonization work of KOMZET. For the first few years the government encouraged Jewish settlements, particularly in Ukraine. Support for the project dwindled throughout the next decade. In 1938 OZET was disbanded, following years of declining activity. The Soviets set up three Jewish national raions in Ukraine as well as two in

7708-602: Was disappointed at the outcome and she remarked to the press, "There is only one thing I hope to see before I die and that is that my people should not need expressions of sympathy anymore." Throughout World War II , Meir served several key roles in the Jewish Agency , which functioned as the arm of the Zionist Organization in British Palestine . In June 1946, Meir became acting head of

7802-459: Was disarmed and dissolved. This event is especially remarkable because it was used to justify Sholem Schwarzbard 's assassination of the Ukrainian leader in 1926. Although Petliura's direct involvement was never proven, Schwartzbard was acquitted in revenge. The series of Jewish pogroms around Ukraine culminated in the Kyiv pogroms of 1919 between June and October of that year. In July 1919,

7896-453: Was elevated to the executive committee of the trade union. Meir held several key roles in the Jewish Agency during and after World War II . She was a signatory of the Israeli Declaration of Independence in 1948. Meir was elected to the Knesset in 1949 and served as Labor Minister until 1956, when she was appointed Foreign Minister by Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion . She retired from

7990-491: Was excommunicated along with his numerous followers. They eventually converted to Catholicism . The traditional measures used to keep the Russian Empire free of Jews were hindered when the main territory of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was annexed during the partitions of Poland . During the second (1793) and the third (1795) partitions, large populations of Jews were absorbed by the Russian Empire, and Catherine

8084-490: Was in retaliation for a previous Bolshevik uprising that he believed was led by Jews. According to the pinqasim record books those murdered in the pogrom included 390 men, 309 women and 76 children. The number of wounded exceeded 500. Two weeks later Order 131 was published in the central newspaper by the head of Directorate of Ukraine . In it Symon Petliura denounced such actions and eventually executed Otaman Semesenko by firing-squad in November 1919. Semesenko's brigade

8178-518: Was issued the first Israeli passport. Over the ten weeks that she was gone, Israel was battered by the war and changed drastically. On 25 June, while still in the United States, Meir was appointed by Sharett, then the Minister of Foreign Affairs, as the minister plenipotentiary to the Soviet Union , which recently recognized Israel. Meir was displeased by the offer. She spoke no Russian and feared being lonely in Moscow. She said "At last we have

8272-575: Was officially abolished. The removal of the restrictions on Jews' geographical mobility and educational opportunities led to a migration to the country's major cities. One week after the 25 October / 7 November 1917 Bolshevik Revolution , the new government proclaimed the "Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples [Nations] of Russia," promising all nationalities the rights of equality, self-determination and secession. Jews were not specifically mentioned in

8366-569: Was only slightly more than half of what it was in 1959. During and after the collapse of communism in the 1990s, the majority of Jews in 1989 left the country and moved abroad (mostly to Israel ). Antisemitism, including violent attacks on Jews, is still a problem in Ukraine. By the 11th century, Byzantine Jews of Constantinople had familial, cultural, and theological ties with the Jews of Kyiv . For instance, some 11th-century Jews from Kievan Rus participated in an anti- Karaite assembly held in either Thessaloniki or Constantinople. One of

8460-716: Was openly greeted by the Ukrainian Jewish Volodymyr Zhabotinsky . Between April and December 1918 the Ukrainian People's Republic was non-existent and overthrown by the Ukrainian State of Pavlo Skoropadsky who ended the experiment in Jewish autonomy. The February 1917 revolution brought a liberal Provisional Government to power in the Russian Empire. On 21 March/3 April, the government removed all "discrimination based upon ethnic religious or social grounds". The Pale

8554-517: Was showcased by the authorities to illustrate the perfidy of the Jewish population. From March to May 1915, in the face of the German army, the government expelled thousands of Jews from the Empire's border areas, mainly the Pale of Settlement. During the 1917 Russian Revolution and the ensuing Russian Civil War , an estimated 70,000 to 250,000 Jewish civilians were killed in atrocities throughout

8648-597: Was the Jewish observer from Palestine at the Évian Conference , called by President Franklin D. Roosevelt of the United States to discuss the question of Jewish refugees ' fleeing Nazi persecution. Delegates from the 32 invited countries repeatedly expressed their sorrow for the plight of the European Jews, but refused to admit the refugees. The only exception was the Dominican Republic , which pledged to accept 100,000 refugees on generous terms. Meir

8742-513: Was the biggest part. The major massacres against Jews occurred mainly in the first phase of the occupation, although they continued until the return of the Red Army . In 1959 Ukraine had 840,000 Jews, a decrease of almost 70% from 1941 totals (within Ukraine's current borders). Ukraine's Jewish population continued to decline significantly during the Cold War . In 1989, Ukraine's Jewish population

8836-549: Was then the Russian Empire , Meir immigrated with her family to the United States in 1906. She graduated from the Milwaukee State Normal School and found work as a teacher. While in Milwaukee, she embraced the Labor Zionist movement. In 1921, Meir and her husband immigrated to Mandatory Palestine , settling in Merhavia , later becoming the kibbutz 's representative to the Histadrut . In 1934, she

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