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55-666: Ramona ( 1884 ) is an American novel written by Helen Hunt Jackson . Set in Southern California after the Mexican–American War and annexation of the territory by the United States, Ramona explores the life of a mixed-race Scottish – Native American orphan girl. The story was inspired by the marriage of Hugo Reid and Victoria Reid . Originally serialized weekly in the Christian Union ,

110-682: A Ponca , told how the federal government forcibly removed his tribe from its ancestral homeland in the wake of the creation of the Great Sioux Reservation . After meeting Standing Bear, she conducted research at the Astor Library in New York and was shocked by the story of government mistreatment that she found. She wrote in a letter, "I shall be found with 'Indians' engraved on my brain when I am dead.—A fire has been kindled within me which will never go out." Jackson sent

165-506: A Ponca , told how the federal government forcibly removed his tribe from its ancestral homeland in the wake of the creation of the Great Sioux Reservation . After meeting Standing Bear, she conducted research at the Astor Library in New York and was shocked by the story of government mistreatment that she found. She wrote in a letter, "I shall be found with 'Indians' engraved on my brain when I am dead.—A fire has been kindled within me which will never go out." She collected information from

220-488: A "Ramona monument" at her gravesite. The Ramona Pageant was a play adapted from the novel. It was staged outdoors, beginning in 1923 in Hemet . The pageant has been held there annually since. Most historians believe that the fictional Moreno Ranch is an amalgamation of various locations and was not intended to represent a single place. As Carey McWilliams said in his book Southern California Country (1946): Because of

275-534: A copy of her book to every member of Congress , at her own expense. She hoped to awaken the conscience of the American people, and their representatives, to the flagrant wrongs that had been done to the American Indians, and persuade them "to redeem the name of the United States from the stain of a century of dishonor". The book consists primarily of the tribal histories of seven different tribes. Among

330-500: A good start to make up for all of the harm that the United States government caused. Jackson wrote A Century of Dishonor in an attempt to change government ideas/policy toward Native Americans at a time when effects of the 1871 Indian Appropriations Act (making the entire Native American population wards of the nation) had begun to draw the attention of the public. Jackson attended a meeting in Boston in 1879 at which Standing Bear ,

385-404: A limited printing of 2,000 copies, and has been reprinted numerous times since then. Originally published in 1881, Helen Hunt Jackson chronicles the treatment of American Indians by the United States beginning in colonial times through to her present. The book can be broken down into four major themes: Jackson begins by providing in her "Introductory" a summary of the policies and positions of

440-415: A number of sources that shaped her well-rounded approach to understanding the experience of Native Americans and their relationship with the United States. At the start of the book, she provides an appendix of the reports and accounts that she relied on including records of prices that white men paid for scalps (of Native Americans) and personal testimonials of grievances that Sioux had experienced. The book

495-446: A race which they characterized as "dull, heavy and unimpressionable," and "lazy, cruel, cowardly, and covetous." Carobeth Laird , in her 1975 autobiography, Encounter with an Angry God (p. 176), describes the reaction of her Chemehuevi Indian husband to the novel: "... when I tried to read him Helen Hunt Jackson's Ramona , he grew restless, walked up and down, and finally said that the white woman knew nothing about Indians." Jackson

550-476: A result, many sites across Southern California tried to emphasize their Ramona connections. Jackson died without having specified locations for her novel. Two places claimed to have inspired her work: Rancho Camulos , near Piru , and Rancho Guajome in Vista , as she had visited both before writing her novel. Camulos became the most accepted "Home of Ramona" due to several factors. The description of Moreno Ranch

605-643: Is similar to the historic Rancho Camulos. Influential writers, such as George Wharton James and Charles Fletcher Lummis , avowed that it was so. When the Southern Pacific Railroad opened its main Ventura County line in 1887, it had a stop at Camulos. With the company engaged in a rate war, the trip to Camulos became relatively easy and affordable for visitors. Finally, the Del Valle family of Camulos welcomed tourists: they exploited

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660-606: The Gnadenhütten Massacre , and the Massacres of Apaches, as a demonstration of the violence committed against Native Americans. In addition to explaining the atrocities and violence, Jackson also provides a history of the interactions between the Native Americans and the white population prior to the massacres. Jackson concludes that "[i]t makes little difference, however, where one opens the record of

715-639: The Protestant work ethic . This view was not universal, however. Many American settlers and readers in other regions were taken by Jackson's portrayal of the California-Mexican society. Readers accepted the Californio aristocracy as portrayed and the Ramona myth was born. Ramona was immensely popular almost immediately upon its publication in 1884, with more than 15,000 copies sold in

770-580: The women’s movement of the 1970s, it was not until the 1980s that more extensive attention to Jackson and others like her began to appear in academic journals. Initially, some critics, including President Theodore Roosevelt , dismissed her as being a "sentimental historian," which he did in the first appendix to The Winning of the West. However, more than a century later, historian John Milton Cooper countered Roosevelt's dismissal of Jackson's argument by stating that Roosevelt's view of Native American history

825-613: The Americans as villains and the Native Americans as " noble savages ". Many American migrants to California were biased against the Mexicans who lived there. The new settlers from northern and midwestern states disparaged what they considered a decadent culture of leisure and recreation among the elite Latinos, who held huge tracts of land, lived in a region with prevailing mild weather and unusually fertile soil, and relied heavily on Native American laborers. The new settlers favored

880-602: The Sky", dies because an American doctor would not go to their homestead to treat her. They have another daughter, whom they name Ramona, but Alessandro still suffers. One day he rides off with the horse of an American, who follows him and shoots him, although he knew that Alessandro was mentally unbalanced. After being away from the Moreno ranch for two years, the young widow is found by Felipe Moreno. He brings her and her daughter Ramona back to his mother's estate. Felipe has always loved

935-469: The United States . By following that history with a novel, she sought to portray the Indian experience "in a way to move people's hearts." She wanted to arouse public opinion and concern for the betterment of their plight, much as Harriet Beecher Stowe 's novel Uncle Tom's Cabin had done for enslaved African Americans. Her success in this effort was limited. Jackson intended Ramona to appeal directly to

990-490: The United States annexation of California following its victory in the war. They have disputed her claim to her lands, and have divided her huge rancho . Señora Moreno delays the sheep shearing, a major event on the rancho, awaiting the arrival of a group of Native Americans from Temecula , whom she always hires for that work. The head of the Native American sheep shearers is Alessandro, son of Pablo Assís, chief of

1045-446: The United States relative to the Native American population; however, because of the time in which she was writing, she refers to them as Indians. Jackson calls attention to the changes that occurred when the United States took territory from the colonial powers. Most prominently, the United States did not acknowledge or respect Native claims to the land, as recognized by treaties, to the same degree that Spain, Britain, and France had. This

1100-822: The United States violated international law and made itself susceptible to a reputation for cruelty. The seven chapters that follow the introduction each describe the general history of the Delaware , the Cheyenne , the Nez Percé , the Sioux , the Ponca , the Winnebagoes , and the Cherokee , as well as the way their cultures shaped the way the United States took advantage of them. Jackson uses evidence from Official Reports of

1155-643: The United States. They endure misery and hardship, for the Americans who buy their land also demand their houses and their farm tools. Greedy Americans drive them off several homesteads, and they cannot find a permanent community that is not threatened by encroachment of American settlers. They finally move into the San Bernardino Mountains . Alessandro slowly loses his mind, due to the forced relocations. He loves Ramona fiercely, and regrets having taken her away from relative comfort with Moreno. Their daughter, whose Native American name means "Eyes of

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1210-563: The War Department or the Department of Interior to show that the United States did not hide the atrocities they committed, nor did they see them as such. In addition to using evidence that the United States provided of their mistreatment of Native Americans, Jackson also took great care to ensure that she included information on how each of the people viewed themselves and how they felt about the way they were treated. For example, at

1265-409: The arrival of railroad lines in the region, tourists used trains to visit sites thought to be associated with the novel. In Southern California , shortly after the Mexican–American War , a Scottish-Native American orphan girl, Ramona, is raised by Señora Gonzaga Moreno, the sister of Ramona's deceased foster mother. Ramona is referred to as illegitimate in some summaries of the novel, but chapter 3 of

1320-443: The articles that mention A Century of Dishonor from the late 19th and early 20th centuries are reviews of Ramona in which A Century of Dishonor is mentioned as its predecessor and that Jackson's journey to write A Century of Dishonor led her from the east coast to California where she found inspiration for the novel. Christine Holbo argues that, 'The divide separating A Century of Dishonor’s legalistic human rights activism from

1375-536: The association in marketing their products, labeling their oranges and wine as "The Home of Ramona" brand . In contrast, Guajome did not publicly become associated with Ramona until an 1894 article in Rural Californian made the claim. However, as the house was nearly four miles (6 km) from the nearest Santa Fe Railroad station, getting there was not so easy. Additionally, the Couts family, who owned

1430-478: The beginning of her chapter on the Sioux, she provides a history of their name (it comes from the old French word Nadouessioux meaning enemies) but also includes that they refer to themselves as "Dakota." Having shared the legal and cultural trouble that the aforementioned tribes experienced at the hands of the United States, Jackson goes on to provide detailed descriptions of three massacres: The Conestoga Massacre ,

1485-492: The book has never been out of print. Subtle racism may have contributed to the popularity of the character of Ramona and the novel. Of mixed race, she was described as beautiful, with black hair and blue eyes. Errol Wayne Stevens, of the California Historical Society , notes several contemporary reviews of the novel in which writers dismissed the idea that Ramona could have been part Native American,

1540-424: The book was first reprinted in 1964 by Ross & Haines of Minneapolis, Minnesota via a limited printing of 2,000 copies. However, this was soon followed by a larger printing from Harper & Row in their Torchbook series in 1965, with an introductory essay by Andrew F. Rolle but without the fifteen documents that served as an appendix of supporting evidence in the original work and its first reprinting. Inspired by

1595-486: The disregard of the rights of Native Americans by the United States government and called on the country to adopt a Christian policy toward Native Americans that was both "just and humane." In addition, for decades after it was published, the reporting that Jackson did in A Century of Dishonor was used to justify arguments against government treatment of Native Americans, especially by the Indian Bureau . Many of

1650-544: The emotions stirred by the novel, the region suddenly gained national attention. Mission Revival Style architecture became popular from about 1890 to 1915. Many examples still stand throughout California and other southwest areas. Ramona has been adapted several times for other media. The first was a silent film by the same name, released in 1910. It was directed by D. W. Griffith and starred Mary Pickford . Other versions were made in 1928, 1936 and 1946. 1884 in literature This article contains information about

1705-467: The history of the Indians; every page and every year has its dark stain." She calls on all branches of government, no matter how difficult the process or how long over due, to right their wrongs. Jackson outlines four changes, the cessation of cheating, robbing, and breaking promises, along with the end of refusing to protect Native American property rights under American law, that she believes are at least

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1760-454: The incidents it depicts is the eradication of Praying Town Indians in the colonial period, despite their recent conversion to Christianity , because it was assumed that all Indians were the same. Her book brought to light the injustices enacted upon the Native Americans as it chronicled the ruthlessness of white settlers in their greed for land, wealth, and power. Upon its publication, A Century of Dishonor received some adverse criticism and

1815-400: The kaleidoscopic and even campy aesthetics of Ramona deserves more attention. Undoubtedly, the two projects shared a common concern for the plight of Native Americans in post-Reconstruction America. But their differences suggest, at the very least, a disconnect between means and ends. To the degree to which Ramona can be read as an appeal on behalf of Native American rights, a continuation of

1870-443: The literary events and publications of 1884 . A Century of Dishonor Jackson wrote A Century of Dishonor in an attempt to change government ideas and policy toward Native Americans at a time when effects of the 1871 Indian Appropriations Act (making the entire Native American population wards of the nation) had begun to draw the attention of the public. Jackson attended a meeting in Boston in 1879 at which Standing Bear ,

1925-501: The marriage, as she does not want Ramona to marry a Native American. Realizing that Señora Moreno has never loved her, Ramona elopes with Alessandro. The rest of the novel charts the two lovers' troubles. They have a daughter, and travel around Southern California trying to find a place to settle. In the aftermath of war, Alessandro's tribe is driven off their land, marking a new wave of European-American settlement in California from

1980-437: The novel became immensely popular. It has had more than 300 printings, and has been adapted five times as a film . A play adaptation has been performed annually outdoors since 1923. The novel's influence on the culture and image of Southern California was considerable. Its sentimental portrayal of Mexican elite colonial life contributed to establishing a unique cultural identity for the region. As its publication coincided with

2035-520: The novel says that Ramona's parents were married by a priest in the San Gabriel Mission . Señora Moreno has raised Ramona as part of the family, giving her every luxury. Ramona's foster mother had requested this as her dying wish. Because Ramona has partial Native American heritage, Moreno reserves her love for her only child, Felipe Moreno, whom she adores. Señora Moreno identifies as Mexican of pure Spanish ancestry. She hates Americans since

2090-487: The novel's extraordinary popularity, public perception merged fact and fiction. California historian Walton Bean wrote: The novel contributed to the unique cultural identity of Southern California and the whole of the Southwest . The architecture of the missions had recently gained national exposure and local restoration projects were just beginning. Railroad lines to Southern California were just opening and, combined with

2145-412: The project laid out in A Century of Dishonor, the novel must be read against its romantic interpretation of mission- and Mexican-era California.' Valerie Sherer Mathes, in her book Helen Hunt Jackson and Her Indian Reform Legacy, devotes a single chapter to A Century of Dishonor in which she suggests that while the initial response was lacking in enthusiasm, Jackson’s ‘work had definitely acquainted

2200-573: The property, were not eager to have flocks of tourists on the grounds, possibly due to a falling out between author Jackson and Senora Couts. Estudillo House in Old Town San Diego identified as "Ramona's Marriage Place"; the novel said briefly that Ramona was married in San Diego. Although no record existed of Jackson's having visited there, this house became a popular tourist destination. This status continued for years. Estudillo House

2255-477: The reader's emotions. The novel's political criticism was clear, but most readers were moved by its romantic vision of colonial California under Mexican rule. Jackson had become enamored of the Spanish missions in California , which she romanticized. The story's fictional vision of Franciscan churchmen, señoritas and caballeros permeated the novel and captured the imaginations of readers. Her novel characterized

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2310-416: The senior Ramona and finds her more beautiful than ever. Although Ramona still loves the late Alessandro, she agrees to marry Felipe. (His mother has died, so he is free to marry his choice.) They have several children together. Their favorite is Ramona, daughter of Alessandro. Jackson wrote Ramona three years after A Century of Dishonor , her non-fiction study of the mistreatment of Native Americans in

2365-471: The ten months before Jackson's death in 1885. One year after her death, the North American Review called it "unquestionably the best novel yet produced by an American woman" and named it, along with Uncle Tom's Cabin , as one of two most ethical novels of the 19th century. By sixty years after its publication, 600,000 copies had been sold. There have been more than 300 reissues to date and

2420-570: The text as a predecessor to Ramona rather than as a text that stands alone. Although there was a good deal of adverse criticism even at the time of its publication, A Century of Dishonor , along with Jackson's many magazine articles, letters to editors, and personal contacts, had an effect, and in March 1887 Congress passed a bill partially rectifying the particular situation of the Ponca people whose cause had first attracted her attention. The Dawes Act

2475-504: The tribe. Alessandro is portrayed as tall, wise, honest, and piously Catholic. Señora Moreno also awaits a priest, Father Salvierderra, from Santa Barbara . He will hear confessions of the workers and celebrate mass with them in her chapel after the shearing, before they return to Temecula. Alessandro quickly falls in love with Ramona and agrees to stay on at the Rancho. In time, Ramona also falls in love with Alessandro. Señora Moreno opposes

2530-409: Was "Eurocentric, racist, male-dominated, and environmentally obtuse from a late-twentieth-century point of view." Over time, her work has been recognized for its important impact on the nation's understanding of the mistreatment of Native Americans by the United States and prompted discussion on the role of women's voices in history both publicly and academically. However, critics continue to reference

2585-568: Was aimed at assimilation of Indian families. It forced the breakup of communal lands and redistribution of allotted acres to individual households. The government defined as "surplus land" any reservation territory remaining, and allowed its sale to non-Native persons. The widespread popularity of the novel resulted in jurisdictions naming schools ( Ramona High School in Riverside ), streets, freeways (the San Bernardino Freeway

2640-456: Was born out of Jackson's efforts and called for the return of Native lands to Native Americans in an act of humanitarian reform. Though it did not come close to fully or successfully addressing all of the grievances that Jackson had expressed. The New York Evangelist , a periodical that existed for most of the 19th century, wrote a review just after the book was published in which they reiterated Jackson's purpose for writing: to draw attention to

2695-466: Was disappointed that she was unable to raise public concerns about the struggles of Indians in California, as readers were attracted to the romantic vision of Californio society. Historian Antoinette May argues in her book The Annotated Ramona (1989), that the popularity of the novel contributed to Congress passing the Dawes Act in 1887. This was the first American law to address Indian land rights but

2750-491: Was dismissed as "sentimental". But it had some effect in shaking the moral senses of America, and in 1881 Congress acted to remedy, in part, the situation of the Ponca people. However, it did not have quite the impact that Jackson wanted, which spurred her to write an emotional appeal to action in Ramona . Long out of print, A Century of Dishonor was first reprinted in 1964 by Ross & Haines of Minneapolis, Minnesota via

2805-502: Was entitled "Casa Estudillo/Ramona's Marriage Place". Other notable Ramona landmarks included "Ramona's Birthplace", a small adobe near Mission San Gabriel Arcángel , and the grave of Ramona Lubo on the Ramona Band of Cahuilla Indians reservation. Writer George Wharton James called Lubo the "real Ramona". Her life bore some resemblance to that of the fictional Ramona. Sixteen years after Lubo's death, in 1938 local people erected

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2860-536: Was in part, she explains, because the treaties written in English purposefully had different expectations than those written for and signed by the Native populations. She contextualizes her distress by examining the attitudes of the legislature, the executive, and the judiciary from the end of the 18th century through much of the 19th century. She concludes by stating that through their unjust treatment of Native Americans,

2915-479: Was originally named the Ramona Freeway) and towns (unincorporated communities called Ramona in both Los Angeles and San Diego County) after the novel's heroine. Southern California became a tourist destination, as many people wanted to see the locations featured in the book. Its publication coincided with the opening of Southern Pacific Railroad 's Southern California rail lines, which fed a tourism boom. As

2970-408: Was originally published in 1881 and Jackson personally sent a copy of her book to every member of Congress , at her own expense. She hoped to awaken the conscience of the American people, and their representatives, to the flagrant wrongs that had been done to the American Indians, and persuade them "to redeem the name of the United States from the stain of a century of dishonor". After a long hiatus,

3025-491: Was unique in marketing solely in terms of Ramona -related tourism. The caretaker sold pieces of the house to tourists, which hastened its deterioration. In 1907, the new owner John D. Spreckels hired architect Hazel Wood Waterman to remodel the house to more closely match descriptions in the novel. When the reconstruction was completed in 1910, the building reopened as a full-fledged Ramona tourist attraction. Estudillo House's application for National Historic Landmark status

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